web “eo, ide N G TO \ %. THSON GS ls Ne aolity ts oe fal saat ev oe, tS Ee ee ANB AS RG POT DOE) Ont srioG- ke Nes SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1908. mE INCRE é Spr lo aN ex Ons 2canes® WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. = Lye a 4 a ee TER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ACCOMPANYING The Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1903. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., May 12, 1904. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 ot the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1903. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Hon. Witt1am P. Frye, President pro tempore of the Senate. III ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January 28, 1903. . 2. Report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1903. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1903, with statistics of exchanges, 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1903. ete. IV : CONTENTS. age. Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to pate (OT CSG ee eee oe te rer ner ee er ete cu age eet em ae Sane alee sans to Se Seen See I Generalicsubjectstotune Ammualehkeportassn] sees eee eee eee IV (Conitentsrotsthewine por ienrs=se met eee is are OAC eens mre ea ie ce Reese Vv ISO tes Ate arenes epee ere ee eae en Oe oe te Seah oe ened Se ese IX MemibersiexrojtCioLombneskistaplishmmentes es seo = ee aces eee ee XIII IRASeVETOUNEY OME Wars Siem neon AMS Ss soe oo oeee see os boson aGes soesee XIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BoarRp OF REGENTS. Streube clita © e tii ore) learner 2 es) 3 ae parce pe tetera ee es Spee ye pee XV. Report OF THE Executive Commirree for the year ending June 30, 1903. (Croianshiiorn @re wore sional diwlly aly WOR shee do esde ce oosses conse tote aseeseese XXI ReceiptsiandiexpenditmresMomihe year aac ee sae ae See ee See XXII Appropriation tor Imtermationaleb xchanees sees sae) se ena eee ease XXUI ID eres) Ch: Cre orernohhiquIrRas OF KANG oe ssa 5 cokoets conse one 5k Saas saeacsseee XXIII AV OLOpmiatlonstoneaumenti cane thmOlOocyer cee ees = sae ae ee eee XXIV Details of expenditunes ol camoce ets se es Cote ee XXIV Mporopriations torte National Museum. 2. 52222225. 222-2.52.-. XXVI Stan sroiexpendiinmmesrolgeaile tamara ee Y= See ee oe arate ae XXKVI Appropriation foreAstrophysical Observatory — 2-2. -2-2-2-2-.-5--25-22-- XLIV Detail srotexpenditunestol sane ne a= ese ae fa a eee XLV Appropriation tor observation of solar eclipses: 2. == 222... 22 es. 25.. XLVI Balan ceroisscim Che eee wae re VDL Pet wigs Le ee tee ee XLVI Appropriation tor the National Zoological Park: —2- 222. 4--25-2-+-s2se-5- XLVI Detailstovexpenditumestor Santen re ee ee ee eee eee XLYI Iecryoninolninhein oS tee SS AO Nees Oe ee Ae a ae deer aan sae ee ane eoes LI Gremer alls aenumnanenl yoo ene a ee Meee i tee ene SS Fn LR ee wee LUI Acts AND RESOLUTIONS OF CoNnaRress relative to Smithsonian Institution, ete - LY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ire SMITHSONIAN: ENSEITUTION 22: 2-00 225s 2-22. tce se see cee shea ee wee ea bel 1 UithrewEis talloli sin emitpeases yan ones See arose aie eR eres ea ene ee 1 IBOvECtOM@RereMISK eee anes eee ere oe Sao eo. = pees See eee ee nies Skee Z Wreanizatlonrol ROPCMiS ites seem toes 2 aoc cc asec eee este eats cs Soe sss 4 NGS EPAblO mee see ae ae ee rte eee ne cla ares tise eee eRe erat ae cles 4 TBABUO GIN oes Sse ae ct ae a ee ta te CE eae Re 5 TENY OREN VSS Ss Se AN 5 ee pee RC a eer er > en 5 RCSEALC sem tema Sone mea ee ge eh Sire en Ge te ee Se ERE OS a Sc 7 Od gain seit dle eee ere ne ee ERE Re ee et Re 7 IN aD LES ktaln] eyecare ee ean yk ene Re le Somer Bho eco 8 SEG OO MOMS aoe adi joe oo a eS OIE DOE a CaSO So eee nee eS as Sec acre 10 DEAE] ON GREW EUG S ONS) a MeN St a tt ar ee a 11 Vali CONTENTS. THE SMITHSONIAN InsrrruTion—Continued. NEA ay, 2. SSE aye SS oe ae ne ee ee ee eee Correspondence? saree eee hee hae ceteris ae aetna ectees Cee eee ee Miscelll amie Ouse sie x eee ee ees eae ree SP cee National Musemm titan eee cating so aree ae Sens ae eee tee ae sere BuneateoreAum eri camsks thm Ol G:yeseses ea ee ee ee Imbernational ¥weliane es =e: <5 Soha ates ce ea rere een ee eee National Zoological! Park: 2. 4.20 20. 2 So. ae a ee Be ee Astrophysical ‘Observatory< Sites s asa eo ee eee ee OS see re meres Appendixes: I. Report on the United States National Museum............-..-.--- II. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology .......----.--------- III. Report on the International Exchange Service .....--.------------- LV: Report/on the; National Zoological Parkes” 22222 ae4- - . 2 = eee V.. Report on the: Astrophysical! Observatory 23-2 22--=-- - =e Wile Re portrot umes lellorastain ase eee eee Bee ee ro SSE LOS VilleuReportroistheybditor ass. so eee ere wee ne a eee Seaekees GENERAL APPENDIX. General Description of the Moon, by Prof. N.S. Shaler. --2. 222252 22s 2 ==— The Pressure Due to Radiation, by E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull....-.-.---- The Sun-spot Period and the Variations of the Mean Annual Temperature of the Earth, by Dr. Ch. Nordmann....-.-.- "Jha Bice ota = ee Methods of Forecasting the Weather, by Prof. J. M. Pernter....-.......---- Progress with Air'Ships;. by Maj: BY Baden-Powell- 2: ==. 22523-- eee eee MerialsNavications by2O) Chanutes= 2256 co8e eee eee oe Graham? Bell’sRetrahbedralKites 225 5-2 ee eee ae ee Radium, by d.Curie.522 ceaecieeace Sock nee oe eee see Radinm by id's J:- Pb omson., sa 2 acs 2 oe eer ise eee eee oe = = eee Experiments in Radio-Activity and the Production of Helium from Radium, by Sir William Ramsay and-Mir. Frederick Soddiy- 5-4 2.22 2.5---2 c= see Me “N'? Raysot Ms Blondlot, by;CiGs Abbots so ssce ny = o> oe Modern, Views.on-Matter, by Sir Oliverduodece 222252 25-62 =e eee Modern Views on Matter: the Realization of a Dream, by Sir William Crookes. The Atomic ‘Theory. by Prof Hy .Wisi@larice =: ese cae eee ee eee Imtra-atomic, Hmerewp bys Gustave Leu Ones == ese ee ee Meek Vectra Hureala ces lavas WW ingly yee ale eee High-speed Electric Interurban Railways, by George H. Gibson.......-.---- The Marienfelde-Zossen High-speed Electric Railway Trials, by Alfred Gra- Gen Watzs se See Ss oe eS eye SS Sie ee er ee The Beginnings of Photography, by Maj. Gen. J. Waterhouse -........------ The Relations of Geology, by Prof. Charles Lapworth. -............---------- Terrestrial Magnetism in its Relation to Geography, by Capt. E. W. Creak - - -- An Exploration to Mount McKinley, by Alfred H. Brooks ...-..--.--------- North Polar Exploration, 1898-1902, by Commander R. E. Peary.----------- First Year’s work of National Antarctic Expedition, by Sir Clements R. Markhami:.=. (022%. 2a22. See ee se eee ee ee eee The Swedish Antarctic Expedition, by Otto Nordenskidld and others... ..--- Hood: Plantsioh Ancient Americas by Os tke Coo kee sae ees ee Desert Plants as a Source of Drinking Water, by Frederick V. Coville-------- A New Theory of the Origin of Species, by A. Dastre ...........---=---.---- CONTENTS. The Byolution of the Human Hoot; by. Anthomys---- ©2222. -_-.-2.-.2-2- The Name Mammal and the Idea Expressed, by Theodore Gill. .--.....-__-- Experimental Studies on the Mental Life of Animals, by N. Vaschide and P. INOSSEMI! SEC SS Sd SUSE E Jo AOR eI CSI Cre IS ras ES SRN ee en a Atm taut atellcn tas Oiyelehemrag OU lines sess eee anos Gee ee Plamimecoes, Nests, sby ErankM.\Chapman=2. 2520925. asssees oe 222 225.2 Upon Maternal Solicitude in Rhynchota and other Nonsocial Insects, by (Cree ieee attr: keel iy tees popes Sk ee ee ic ee ae eos es Sena aicee The Psychical Faculties of Ants and some other Insects, by A. Forel. .------- Miiske@sccntimy Captivity, by-diulnsehiotiescs2< ss! 26s 5.2 a2... .bolo2. 22 Sle: HrozeneVianim OF Maine Sill erlas lis © ORR ween] sa ser = oe Senne Sa ee Spouting and Movements of Whales, by E. C. Racovitza ........-.------.-.--- Problems Arising from Variations in the Development of Skull and Brains, Dygbro iw ohngome s\n Otome Meee ee eee a Soi ee ee eee ee The Antiquity of the Lion in Greece, by Dr. A. B. Meyer........:-.-------- The Excavations at Abusir, Egypt, by Prof. Dr. A. Wiedemann _........---- The Ancient Hittites, by Dr. Leopold Messerschmidt - -...-...-.-..-------- Central American Hieroglyphic Writing, by Cyrus Thomas..............-.-- Traces of Aboriginal Operations in an Iron Mine near Leslie, Mo., by W. H. le olaayess Sie aeeresGe 8 eo ao 7 ee ae re a ee eS ee ae meena Whasaand. Central Tibet by Gass isybikoi..-2 22 22.575 sa set eens A Journey of Geographical and Archzeological Exploration in Chinese Tur- eestcuninm Dive Vi ANS S Ge Unie a eae nein een 7 eareeye tenement 6 Se eet ee From the Somali Coast through Ethiopia to the Sudan, by Oscar Neumann-.-- RMIMe val apancse Dyncapigl) Briakloymerc <8. 95 2 soko. <2 ose ee ote ithe: Korean: Langnage, joy. Homer, B Hulbert, 2-222. 2.2 ee e2ecdlog li ncancss whe thepublic of-Lasama. py chroi-, Willinmeb,- Burr. -.o2). 2.1.2 Soe eee eases ihe Reclamationsai the West, by FH Newell: . 2.2.22. 52-0...2 2.22 2eoe. RODeTE LOnky -BestonkADYyp Ws. Ji-Wubandess 2-24 oeo8z Solel 3 jk ee eek Pheodore: Mommisen. by Knail Reich 22-35-3522... doce lt e ca ss tee cee SECRETARY’S Plate I. Jf IU IVE V. VI. WA Tue Moon (SHALER). Plate I. 10l. JUNI JN We Wale Walle WADUL 16Xe De Lbs On eae AuB Ss. REPORT: HlephaAnteBOMse aMORVATd ees cee eae esi Me a guna enone Kehidna, Tasmanian: devil, and-zebra wolf...............-.---2 Stimmmontulbetonicoelostatia. 2-5 es oe ee eee eee The large coelostat with second mirror, Smithsonian Astrophys- ical Observatory Bolographic energy curves of the solar spectrum of a 60° glass prism. Observations of April 17, 1903 Transparency of the atmosphere from bolographic observations. - Distribution of radiation in the normal solar spectrum outside the.earth’satmespieres Sst es hom ee FL ice (Explanation page faces each plate): Moon’s age, 8 days, 4 hours Moon’s age, Moon’s age, Moon’s age, 2 Moon’s age, 21 days, 16 hours Photograph by Ritchey COMERS; AM Ge Ke plete sae, eats Sak ee ee OI cee Rayesystemuadhoutuly Chore ese eee eee ee ee ee MaresNubiumand-surrounmdimegs:*) 352-5 2o2502.2 22... sc ee nee Mare Tranquilitatis and surroundings ProGress wird ArRsHIPS (BADEN-PoWELL): Plate I. ; If, II. Mine eeelonuGiyganizslnipom ees eee 2 2 am eee. OE Sere ian? Garmotebebaudyaalrsiipes so xen er ao ee oe Welbanicdiyzaurs hijo mins ent ine ys ne alae = eee yee ee ee reer aare IV. (a) Lebaudy airship, view from below; (+) the Lebaudy shed. -- TETRAHEDRAL KiIrEs: Plate I. Fig. 1, Winged tetrahedral cell. Fig. 2, Sixty-four-cell tetrahedral **N”’ Rays (Aszor): Plate I. kite. Fig. 3, Four-celled kite. Fig. 4, The Aerodrome kite. - Imereaseds luminosity. produced bya .INi7 maysesse. sos) ose se HicH Speep Evecrric Rartnways (Grpson): Plate I. Il. II. IV. Vv. Types of modern American cars for heavy electric-railway service - Fig. 1, Locomotive for the Buffalo and Lockport Railway. Fig. 2, Map showing development of electric railways about Cleveland @ ni One ses eee eee eee eae hE ees as Dusseldorf-Krefeld road, with cars which run at 60 km. per hour- Fig. 1, Suspended railway and train at Elberfeld. Fig. 2, Truck of the Gornergrat locomotive. Fig. 38, Stansstad-Engelberg electrie locomotive betore! housing. 2s. 22 2.5... 2.6. ck. os 5-:-- 184 210 316 316 320 320 x LIST OF PLATES. MARIENFELDE-Zoss—EN Evectric RarLbway (GRADENWITZ): Plate I. NE IDOE. Wi. . Fig. 1, The truck; identical on both cars. The-Marientelde-Zossen: track: 35. < 2< ais qoin-s oe eee a= se See Fig. 1, The Siemens and Halske car used in the experiments. Fig. 2, The A. E. G. car used in the high-speed runs. -.-------- Diagrams showing connections of the Siemens and Halske and thera Hs Gricarseres Pec tivelivaateee noe ees ease oe aa a Fig. 2, Normal rail- way carriage used:in traction experiments. 2225-222 s252---...- The Niedersch6nweide-Spindlersfelde track and double aerial SITES] 6S) OVS) (ONO pete oh = ge eee ee Ree Bees pea eh a Oe a TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM (CREAK): Plate I. Map showing secular change in magnetic declination (litho- graphy) acc. 2 facets cee oe ee See ee eee Eo eek ee seer II. Map showing lines of equal magnetic declination (lithograph) - - Mount McKin ey (Brooks) : Pilates ewookinemprateMiount Mic Kamileyes=2 = er ass een ee II. The Mount McKinley region, Alaska, showing the route of the expedition =.= = ee eee IV. Fig. 1, Packing through meadow lowland of tall grass. Fig. 2, Packine-@ horse preparatory. for a /start: =< 2-522 se aseseeee ee V. Fig. 1, Towing horses across the Yentua River. Fig. 2, The heartofthe Mlaskaniran cessor = 2 eee ssa eee eee VI. Fig. 1, Looking toward Rainy Pass. Fig. 2, Camp in the cot- TON WOOdS Lak cakes See see saree See ere ee VII. Mount McKinley as seen through the clouds ---...-...-------- VIIT; "The slopes'of Mount MeKinley -22224-4-55- 2555-450 eee IX. Fig. 1, At the head of the Cantwell River. Fig. 2, Turitella on the Tananas, S925 aes? sn ee seo eee eee eee North Potar EXxPLoratrons (PEARY): Plate I. Sketch map of the explorations (lithograph) --.----..--.---.-- II. Fig. 1, Landing -supples at Cape d’Urville. Fig. 2, Winter Guarterstat; Cape d.Urvilllenes ese eee nee ee ee eee Ill. Fig. 1, Cape Lawrence. Fig. 2, Cape Louis Napoleon......-.-- IV. Fig. 1, Etah, winter quarters. Fig. 2, Lateral river of Benedict Ga aCieK = 2 ct 2 nn sO ee ee eR V. Fig. 1, Musk oxen, Cape Jesup. Fig. 2, Musk oxen, Buch- Anan (Bayn Gece bee ae Gee Se 3/5 eee eC ne SS | ee a ee VI. Fig. 1, Ice jam, Cape Barrow. Fig. 2, Along the ice foot..___-- VII.. Fig. 1, Cape Albert. Fig. 2, Crossing Princess Marie Bay -. -- - - VIII. Fig. 1, Bringing out Greely records. Fig. 2, Fort Conger. ----- IX Across: Hilesm ere Wand eases ase sae ee eee ees eee Narionat Antarctic EXpPEepirion (MARKHAM): Plate I. Sketch map of first year’s work (lithograph) ..:..........-.--- SwepisH Antarctic ExpEepirion (NORDENSKIOLD) : Plate I. Sketch map ofexplorations': yeasts ee eee hee oe ees Desert PLANTS FoR Drinkinc WATER (CovILue): Plate I. ale FLAMINGOES’ Plate I. 10K A Bisnaga sliced abahie:toprsses=.ee nas oes ee a Indian drinking from a Bisnaga Nests (CHAPMAN): Par tiotatcoloniye soe sais a he ee ee Fig. 1, Colony of about 2,000 nests. Fi groves. Fig. 3, Part of a flock eo, 2 g. 2, Nests among man- LIST OF PLATES. XI Musk-Oxen (Scui6rr) : Page. Plate I. Musk ox in Copenhagen. Fig. 1, one-half year old. Fig. 2, 1 yea Older kigsos lo months Oldestes aie. See sees cool tle l ei. 604 II. Musk ox in Copenhagen. Fig. 1, 20 months old. Fig. 2, 2 WiSheseO Glee ee See secon CASES eee eRe Een See teen eee ee 604 III. Fig. 1, Musk ox in Copenhagen, 3 years old. Fig. 2, Yak and Callie Sas ae ae cone Nees = Sn e ee WS eee ee eee ha Loa oe. 606 IV. Fig. 1, Preparing to cut hoofs of the musk ox. Fig. 2, Cutting the hoofs. Fig. 3, Musk ox, New York Zoological Gardens.. 606 MammMorn From SiBeRrA (HERZ): Rlatesleeliceswalileepereso vkalhiivenr= 422 S45 ena eens Sect. 614 IDL Jeo Ot maEKeMTIE IN Oil Clits od S25 soso onSae Soosa dee sn SenSeoe 614 lige Sidevadeweutter: pantialvexcavatlones= se ene See 616 IV. Side view from east after partial excavation. ..---.---..---.---- 616 Nees Kem aewaiihiyOOG srenmimeiiis seme = tees seen setae meen. eek eet 618 NOR McitOhetOOt me aaa ts eee Se RUE ee beh Se ee LS 618 Vile hiessirehichtehind footesshies-2) bettdoretoot=: s2-4 5. 42-o4-- 518 \VilibEeReconsinuctedamammotinninemugemml) = =e os4 sees ons ss se-e-- ee 624 ix Mopontedisicelet onrim MIUSeUM eho = ot ee sae a tats i= cea 2 624 Lion IN GREECE (Meyer): Riate ls Collossalimanrbleslionstromi@nidusi 2 9----5- 20) -sne2= ee eae 668 EXcaVATIons AT ABUSIR (WIEDEMANN): Rlate Wes Obeliskrofsilelvo polisher emt snee ese a oe eye enc ea 678 Dike LimothewsrRapyrusmeole less aoe ee ee ee Lee ee 678 JUNE, Above news yoni (Ol, Wl Goo Soke onc se Seabee sesso soees 680 Ve Aim oth euspe ay Gus. CON tiie a seas ere eaters eee re 680 Wie Bbvanoydovans JER KAAS, Wolo ih* 5 aeeee coe aseoue ose ee aeeeesseosese 680 VS iimotheusskapy rus wel Veseeeaasee: cee ase se oe cece a= Ne cee 680 Valiee imo theusPe apy mussscOlenviser es = eee fe sa es eae eee 680 NWADOL, “UMumayoilavetins Jezyonaclsh wueveanneinisss Ue ee ooooseenogronoessocadeses 680 Tue Hirrires (MEsSERSCHMIDT) : Plate I. Fig. 1, Hittite representation of meal. Fig. 2, Hittite warrior. FOI S CL LEMS 8 Sue seer eee Le Sen ese ee eee 692 II. Fig. 1, Divinity embracing a king or priest; Boghazkeu. Fig. 2, Divinity with headgear decorated with horns. From Jerabis. Fig. 3, Religious scene; Boghazkeu--.-.--.--.--.---- 692 Til. Fig. 1, God of the chase. Fig. 2, King. Fig. 3, Winged Gbivahatiny Walon leverol Ol wan aa ae web ace ne hae one eEecoueeeses 694 IV. Fig. 1, Storm god Teshup. Figs. 2 and 3, Warrior.- Fig. 4, Up pliamibvss Ss= a see ee hare eee ee SL a ee er 694 We IHS Il literal eos, Iie, Wma slo cos = con ohedeeaooseuouccs 696 VI. Fig. 1, Winged sphinx with head of man and lion. Fig. 2, Waingedisphinxawath humeant heads esses e ses] sss 2— 5-2-2 —- 696 CENTRAL AMERICAN HrrRoGuiypHics (THOMAS): avout alenquetalblets=s 926 s8 4. oe eae na. ae hen cetera te ee See 706 ike MemplevomtablesChichenulitzae ase sees ese. = oe eee seein. 706 III. Copy of Plate X XIX, Codex Troano (Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Waitvon)) 5 a Coloredyplate sa ses. a ee oe ee 708 ABORIGINAL IRoN MINE (Hotes): Platewti=Generaliview ofethearon mine =ioosc2 2 25 2h 222 ss onet. ot 724 4 Pies otstone sledeevneadsie as! ete eh a bse e ee 724 liieesaceromtheroreybouivg ==) ssere aes es eee tens oe eee ace ao 726 IV. Workmen on outer margin discover open galleries -.....-.----- 726 MIL LIST OF PLATES. ABORIGINAL IRON Mine (Houtmes)—Continued. Plate Vo) Sectionsshowinevancient callleriess==2-) 22525 s)52 == eee eee VI. Stone mining implements found in mine .---..-----.---------- VII. View of mine wall, with traces of ancient tunnels ---.-.---.---- CENTRAL TrBET (TsyBIKOFF): Rlateelalehasawdewairomueast= sss he ene ene tae ee eee Jie Tehasa ino mam orth See cemse sens aries aint seh ae. ote ee sie oe III. Lhasa; Mount Mar bo ri and palace of Dalai lama-..--.--.-.2--- IV. Lhasa; Potala, palace of Dalai lama from east.-.-.....-..------- V. Lhasa; Potala (a) from west-northwest; (b) from north-north- CSUs Ben RR aE eR ee ee eRe Ie Vil) hasa: Gadan Kansar) palaceot old kings/of Tibet 2222--2----- VII. (a) Monastery Galdagn in Tibet; (>) Monastery Tashi Lhunpo la EID Eb eesti ees Be eel ee OSG Same cian o epee See CHINESE TURKESTAN (STEIN): Plate I. Fig. 1, Photo-theodolite view of Kilik Pass. Fig. 2, Icy ranges OKOIRHOMCONC MM BDU Ae Koln nGy OMe Hee ela ee ee eco Skoe II. Fig. 3, Muztagh ata. Fig. 4, Peak‘‘ Kuenluen No. 5” (‘‘Muztagh’’ ) Ill. Fig. 5, Glaciers at head of Kash River. Fig. 6, Eroded ranges near Vacan-da was -censose no stewe wate eee cs aoe eee IV. Fig. 7, Sculptures in Temple Cella. Fig. 8, Room of ancient dwelling: 2245 oe ee aeet ooo cae soe noe cee eae ee eee V. Fig. 9, Sand-buried ancient house. Fig. 10, Covering tablets of wood -wathuclay, seals {ees a | See VI. Fig. 11, Relievos in Rawak Stupa Court. Fig. 12, Colossal statues IW SAIN |= see soe ae eas ae ee eo ee ee Wide Portion of Chinese wiurkestans (lithograph) ie-s22 oes eee Somat Coast To. SupAN (NEUMANN): Plate I. Fig. 1, Basalt rocks, British Somaliland. Fig. 2, Menelik Falls. - Il. Fig. 1, The Blue Nile near Abuye. Fig. 2, Suksuk River------- Ill. Fig. 1, Giditscho boat on Lake Abaya. Fig. 2, Gardulla land- SCape A. twee tec cose aici cae oe gine nes eee eee Soe IDs Ieee 3 Weyer iin IDK, eikee, 92, Ohoaroy IMIR S ocecosescce scence VY. Fig. 1, Jiren market (Djimma). Fig. 2; Schekho hut--.....-..- VI. Map of journey of Mr. Neumann through Ethiopia (lithograph ) - REPUBLIC OF PANAMA (BurRR): Plate I. Fig. 1, One of the hospital buildings on the hill back of Panama. hig. 2, Wow tide inthe harbonoibanamas== =n s===s=.eeee Il. Fig. 1, Cutting the canal through morasses changes river region. Migs? The:Culebraieut, = 25 sao. see eae oe ae eee ae RECLAMATION OF THE West (NEWELL): Plate I. Fig. 1, An abandoned house on an unirrigated plain. Fig. 2, One of the methods of obtaining a water supply.._.........------ Il. Fig. 1, Floating through Gunnison Canyon. Fig. 2, Top of Tor- rence Malis Gunnison Canyones ees sea eee ee ee Pe Hloatinernd owmeuhe1Coloradoukiy cise e eee ea eee IWemRedi@amyonroisthe:Colorad op iver sane eee eee k. H. Tuurston (Duranp): Plate I. Robert Henry: Thurstonr.- 2s. 2 s2ce oe oe er ee ee eee 1 (oe) ioe) ay Sy ea Re} H tS for) 838 838 840, 840 843 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE ‘ ESTABLISHMENT.” THEODORE RoosgEye.t, President of the United States. (Vacancy), Vice-President of the United States. Metyitte W. Fuuier, Chief Justice of the United States. Joun Hay, Secretary of State. Lestig M. SHaw, Secretary of the Treasury. Exinu Roor, Secretary of War. PHILANDER C. Knox, Attorney-General. Henry C. Payne, Postmaster-General. Wituram H. Moopy, Secretary of the Navy. Eran ALLEN Hitcucocr, Secretary of the Interior. James Wixson, Secretary of Agriculture. GeEOoRGE B. Cortetyou, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 4 REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page. ) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. Samuet P. LANGiey, Secretary. Director of the Institution, and Keeper of the U. S. National Museum. . RicHARD RaATHBUN, Assistant Secretary. XIII REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LX XIII, section 5580), **The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the citv of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, three members of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.” REGENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1908. The Chief Justice of the United States: MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board, Jan- uary 9, 1899. “ The Vice-President of the United States (vacancy ): WILLIAM P. FRYE, President pro tempore of the Senate, acting as Regent. United States Senators: Term expires. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed Mar. 24, 1885, Mar. 28, 1889, Deer tS. 1895 vandeVlars vealOOI) eS 2 eee eee 8 Mar. 3, 1907 ORVILLE H. PLATT (appointed Jan. 18, 1899, Feb. 28, 1903). Mar. 3, 1909 FRANCIS M. COCKRELL (appointed Mar. 7, 1901).........-.- Mar. 3, 1905 Members of the House of Representatives: ROBERT R. HITT (appointed Aug. 11, 1898, Jan. 4, 1894, Dee. 20, 1895, Dec. 22, 1897, Jan. 4, 1900, and Dec. 13, 1901)_-..----- Dee. 23, 1903 ROBERT ADAMS, Jr. (appointed Dec. 20, 1895, Dec. 22, 1897, Jan: 4: al GO0OMaindiaDeesai3: cs: Oi) eee do peer ere Dec. 23; 1903 HUGH A. DINSMORE (appointed Jan. 4, 1900, and Dec. 13, 1901). Dec. 23, 1903 Citizens of a State: JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (appointed Jan. 19, 1887, Jan. DEBS OS eetex ry lived eure Ae AIS SO) ee ean Jan. 24, 1905 ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (appointed Feb. 15, 1888, Marios 94 sander jumer2 a 900) sane area a ss Pd Se June 2, 1906 RICHARD OLNEY, of Massachusetts (appointed Jan. 24, 1900).. Jan. 24, 1906 GEORGE GRAY, of Delaware (appointed Jan. 14, 1901)....---- Jan. 14,.1907 Citizens of Washington City: JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed Jan. 26, 1892, and Jan. 24, NOG B IS oF Rese Sea ae Lee a aes cea a erent ce ee eS =e RE ee Jan. 24, 1904 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL (appointed Jan. 24, 1898).._.-. Jan. 24,1904 Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. J. B. Henperson, Chairman. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Rogsert R. Hirvr. XIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD JANUARY 28, 1903. In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents adopted January 8, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth Wednesday of each year, the board met to-day at 10 o’clock a. m. Present: Chief Justice Fuller (Chancellor), in the chair; the Hon. William P. Frye; the Hon. 8. M. Cullom; the Hon. O. H. Platt; the Hon. F. M. Cockrell; the Hon. Robert Adams, jr.; the Hon. Hugh A. Dinsmore; the Hon. Richard Olney; the Hon. John B. Henderson; Dr. James B. Angell; Dr. A. Graham Bell, and the Secretary, Mr. S. P. Langley. EXCUSES FOR NONATTENDANCE. The Secretary stated that Judge Gray had written that his engage- ments would prevent his attendance; Doctor White was in Europe, and Mr. Hitt was confined to his house by an indisposition. READING OF THE MINUTES. At the suggestion of the Chancellor the Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting in abstract, and there being no objection they were declared approved. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. la al alee a _ O ~ L 5 F - by The Secretary presented his annual report of the operations of the Institution to June 30, 1902. On motion, the report was accepted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Senator Henderson, chairman, presented the report of the com- mittee to June 30, 1902. On motion, the report was adopted. sm 1903 Il xy XVI PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE.PERMANENT COMMITTEE. Senator Henderson, chairman, made the following report in regard to the condition of the various matters under the charge of the com- mittee: There were no new developments during the year with regard to the Avery fund or the Sprague bequest. : THE HODGKINS FUND. Progress has been made in the suit of O’ Donaghue v. Smith. An appeal was taken to the general term from the decision of the trial justice who allowed the verdict in favor of the daughter of Mr. O’ Donaghue, who was an infant at the time of partition. The general term affirmed the action of the justice below, which has caused delay. The Smithsonian counsel, Mr. Hackett, is now ready to proceed with the hearing of the case. During the year the house and lot at Elizabeth, N. J. has been sold to advantage. THE ANDREWS BEQUES?. A preliminary contest is now going on before a referee upon the question whether one-half of Mr. Andrews’s estate should not go to his heirs by reason of an alleged violation of the statutes of 1860, preventing a testator from giving to a charitable cor- poration more than one-half of his estate, after payment of debts. Mr. Hackett is of the opinion that the Institution’s prospects for success continue fair. THE REID BEQUEST. During the year the Institution was supplied with a copy of the will of the late Addison T. Reid, of Brooklyn, N. Y., who died on September 15, 1902. The will provides for the payment of the income upon the property to persons named, and upon their death, for the payment of the principal of the estate, with accumulations, to the Smithsonian, Institution, to found a chair in biology in memory of the testator’s grandfather, Asher Tunis. The will was admitted to probate by the surrogate of King’s County on December 10, 1902. The estate is valued at $10,000. STATEMENT OF FUNDS USED IN EXPERIMENTS IN MECHANICAL FLIGHT. On November 9, 1898, the Board of Ordnance and Fortifications of the War Department made an allotment of $25,000 for carrying on experiments in mechanical flight, and on December 16, 1899, supple- mented this by another allotment of $25,000. These funds lasted until October 15, 1901. Commencing October 16, 1901, and continu- ing until June 15, 1902, the sum of $5,565.75 was used in carrying on this work from the special funds received from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell and the late Dr. J. H. Kidder, for researches to be conducted personally by the Secretary. Since June 16, 1902, expenditures for work in mechanical flight have been made from the Hodgkins fund in accordance with the reso- lution of the Board of Regents of January 26, 1898; and for this pur- pose from June 16 to December 31, 1902, the sum of $6,558.61 has been used for continuing these experiments. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XVII RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. Senator Henderson, as chairman of the executive committee, intro- duced the following customary resolution: Resolved, That the income of the institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to he expended by the Sec- retary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secretary as to items. On motion the resolution was adopted. REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON NEEDS OF UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Senator Platt, as chairmen of the special committee appointed at the last annual meeting, submitted the following report: The committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, appointed in accordance with a resolution of the Board ‘‘to represent to Congress the pressing necessity of additional room for the proper exhibition of specimens belonging to the National Museum,’’ have examined the plans prepared under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in accordance with the provisions of the sundry civil appropriation act approved June 28, 1902. The committee adopted the following motion: ““That under the limitations of the law the committee hereby report to Congress plan B for a new National Museum building as the best obtainable for the amount mentioned; but in the judgment of the committee the larger plan A is believed to be the one which should be adopted, and we, therefore, ask that Congress shall make the appropriation for it instead of for the smaller plan.” But if an appropriation for the construction of a building upon the larger plan can not be made now, the committee respectfully urge upon Congress an appropriation of $1,500,000 to construct that portion of the completed plan shown in Plan B. They further represent to Congress the fact that collections of the greatest value are in immediate danger of destruction, and are now actually undergoing degeneration in the present unsuitable, unsafe, temporary quarters, and that the erection of a new building is absolutely necessary for the preservation of the national collections. Respectfully submitted. O: EY Prarr, S. M. CuLtom, F. M. CoecKReEtt, Re Re Homer Rosr. ADAMS, JR., HuecuH A. Dinsmore, Members of the Special Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. After discussion, on motion of Mr. Adams, it was Resolved, That the report of the committee be adopted, and that they be instructed to proceed to bring the matter to a conclusion by securing an appropriation. The Secretary announced the death on September 23, 1902, of Major John W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, and his appointment on October 11, of Mr. William H. Holmes as Chief of the Bureau, and made a statement as to the present status of the Bureau and its future policy. XVIII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. He spoke of the work of the Zoological Park, of the Bureau of Inter- national Exchanges, and of the Astrophysical Observatory. He also spoke of the National Museum’s needs, and of the efforts being made to secure a new building. He then gave a brief statement of his con- nection with the Carnegie Institution. The Secretary submitted to the Board a proposition to add $25,000 of accumulated interest from the unrestricted funds of the Institution to the permanent fund, and after an explanation, Senator Henderson offered the following resolution: Resolved, That the Secretary is hereby authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States, under the terms of section 5591 of the Revised Statutes, as an addition to the permanent fund of the Institution, the sum of $25,000 from the unexpended balance. On motion the resolution was adopted. By resolution of the Board a special committee of five, consisting of the Chancellor, Senators Cullom and Platt, and Representatives Adams and Dinsmore was appointed to consider the question of specitically defining the powers of the executive committee, to report at a special meeting called for March 12, 1903. A special meeting of the Board of Regents was held on March 12, at 10 o’clock a. m. Present: Mr. Chief Justice Fuller, Chancellor, in the chair; the Hon. William P. Frye, the Hon. O. H. Platt, the Hon. F. M. Cock- rel], the Hon. R. R. Hitt, the Hon. Robert Adams, jr., the Hon. Hugh A. Dinsmore, the Hon. John B. Henderson, the Hon. George Gray, Dr. A. Graham Bell; and the Secretary, Mr. 8, P. Langley. The Secretary read letters from Senator Cullom and Doctor Angell, stating that their engagements prevented their attendance. He had no word from Mr. Olney, who had said, however, at the annual meet- ing that it would probably be impracticable for him to attend on this occasion. Doctor White was absent in Europe. The Chancellor reported informally upon the duties heretofore dis- charged by the executive committee. No definite conclusion had been reached as to the question of defining the powers of that committee, but it was thought desirable that it should hold regular meetings and that the Board of Regents should hold two stated meetings in addition to the annual meeting prescribed by law. It was therefore— Resolved, That, in addition to the prescribed meeting held on the fourth Wednes- day in January, regular meetings of the Board shall be held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in December and on the 6th day of March, unless that date falls on Sunday, when the following Monday shall be substituted. The special committee was continued, with a request to further pursue the examination of the whole subject and to report at the December meeting oO, = PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XIX Senator Platt read the following clause from the sundry civil act, approved March 3, 1903: Building for National Museum: To enable the Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to commence the erection of a suitable fireproof building with granite fronts, for the use of the National Museum, to be erected on the north side of the Mall, between Ninth and Twelfth streets northwest, substantially in accordance with the Plan A, prepared and submitted to Congress by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution under the provisions of the act approved June twenty-eighth, nineteen hundred and two, two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Said building complete, including heating and ventilating apparatus and elevators, shall cost not to exceed three mil- lion five hundred thousand dollars, and a contract or contracts for its completion is hereby authorized to be entered into, subject to appropriations to be made by Con- gress. The construction shall be in charge of Bernard R. Green, Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds, Library of Congress, who shall make the contracts herein authorized and disburse all appropriations made for the work, and shall receive as full compensation for his services hereunder the sum of two thousand dollars annu- ally in addition to his present salary, to be paid out of said appropriations. Senator Platt suggested that the Secretary be authorized to repre- sent the Board of Regents in carrying out the provisions of this clause; and, after a very full discussion of the subject, the following resolution was adopted: resolved, That the Secretary, with the advice and consent of the Chancellor and the Chairman of the Executive Committee, be authorizod to represent the Board of Regents so far as may be necessary in consultation with Bernard R. Green, to whom the construction and contracts for the new Museum building are committed by Con- egress in the act making an appropriation for that purpose. Mr. Bell introduced resolutions providing for appointments under the Institution, which were referred to the special committee already existing. On the motion of Senator Cockrell, it was— Resolved, That the Secretary cause to be prepared a compilation of all laws or parts of laws referring to or in any manner affecting the Smithsonian Institution and the Bureaus under its charge, including all appropriations by Congress for its purposes or use. Referring to previous action of the Board concerning the removal of the remains of James Smithson to this country, Mr. Bell offered to bring them to the United States if the Regents would care for them thereafter, and after remarks the suggestion was accepted that Mr. Bell renew his inquiry at the next meeting. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION For THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your Executive Committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the United States National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro- physical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1903, and balances of former years: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the Fund July 1, 1903. The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the Treasury of the United States, according to act of Congress of August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress, February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson, savings from income and other sources, to the amount of $134,831. To this also have been added a bequest from James Hamilton, of Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York, of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500; a gift from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000 and $8,000, being a portion of the residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, and $1,000, the accumulated interest on the Hamilton bequest, savings from income, $25,000, making in all, as the permanent fund, $937,000. The Institution also holds the additional sum of $42,000, received upon the death of Thomas G. Hodgkins, in registered West Shore Railroad 4 per cent bonds, which were, by order of this committee, under date of May 18, 1894, placed in the hands of the Secretary of the Institution, to be held by him subject to the conditions of said order. XXI XXIL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Statement of receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. RECEIPTS. Cashonnands Inaly als 190 ey ee eee eee oe eee $81, 120. 91 Variance Cue mouavel Uiwdhy WS A eo cece esse ee $27, 360. 00 Interest on tunds January, slJ0Ss sees === eee 27, 360. 00 54, 720. 00 Interest to January 1, 1903, on West Shore bonds.......-.-- 1, 680. 00 ——> $137, 520. 91 Cash tromijsales ofspublications >=. <. 2-2 29. = ses 329. 87 @ash from’ repayments; freight, ete- ssa seer eee eee eee 11, 105. 50 — 11, 435. 37 otalineceiptej-B Se ies Ae RE RE ee tee Me eine ene ree 148, 956. 28 EXPENDITURES. Buildings: Repairs, care, an] improvements. .---...--- $3, 964. 85 Bunniburevand hexbuness ss sesee ee eee eee 1, 068. 05 $5, 032. 90 General expenses: Rostaceiandstelegraph\==s-s5—-ee--eeeee ee 418.98 Statlonenyacc= ses omens ee See eee ere ee 1, 289. 00 Incidental si(imeliicas yeies)= == eeeeee ee 4, 567. 34 Library (books, periodicals, ete. )---~---- So ay Wai ae Salaries Gio + sese. eae aces eee ees 23, 927. 65 Galleryiof art oo25.222 2. Sse See eae 251. 38 Meeting sjo3 Sash 3 so toe eee 294. 00 SSDI OE: Publications and researches: Smithsonian contributions ........--.----- 790. 01 Miscellaneous collections.-........-...----- 976. 29 Reports heas4 eer wae sees eases eee 2, 710: 09 Special publications... = 5. -aB. 22222552025 167.18 Researches aseaee- eee ee eae 3, 488. 50 Ap palatusin eece esa. cases ook ee ee eee 1, 550. 14 Hodgekingitund. 32225 2s eae = oe 14, 247.48 ee 23, 879. 69 Literary and! scientific exchanges. 222 22-225 2-24-22 — 5, 714. 09 UncCreaseroLmumd se Se ee © cea a ee ee ee 25, 000. 00 93, 448. 61 BalamcenmMexipended sme rs Os SO) sie eee ae 55, 507. 67 The cash received from the sale of publications, from repayments, freights, and other sources is to be credited to the items of expendi- ture as follows: SME SOI AM COM Hl CU1O 10 Sep eee 365. 05 Miscellaneous collections == sss se eee eee err eae a aeree IRE POPS anc: 2 sd. tede Re e ee eeeeee 11.08 — $329. 87 Tc Nan Css ee ee ee ES eee SA Ae iS, SU, Be Tncidentals: 23 2: 22.24 322 ee eee 2, 194. 23 $11, 435. 37 “In addition to the above $23,927.65, paid for salaries under general expenses, $10,748.81 were paid for services, viz, $3,034.68 charged to building account, $483 to furniture and fixtures account, $2,718.67 to researches account, $1,886.67 to library account, $1,353.64 to apparatus account, $242.51 to reports account, and $1,029.64 to Hodgkins fund account. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. XXIII The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1903, were therefore $82,013.24, or $11,435.37 less than the gross expenditures, $93,448.61, as above stated. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Secretary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks on the Treasurer of the United States. Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution: Detailed statement of disbursements from appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, and from balances of former years. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1903. RECEIPTS, Appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- ployees and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals’? (sundry Ginleactruime: 28 lO02) ees ene ee os PRR nce aS omen I ee at $26, 000. 00 DISBURSEMENTS. [From July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Salaries or compensation: IFAChneIGUTALO el A MOntNSwaiwacone sss eee 2 oo Se $2, 700. 00 I Gane Gans, UP scavoyvond cs Ate Nees ees eae es = ee 2,199. 96 Melero ONES ai plOU nt see ce= Set ae oases oe ee $e 1, 800. 00 clerked oamonthsatiol2pes- .- 2. S We TS ee ge ee ee 1, 590. 00 clei Kon OMUNS aublOS OS a2... ee eee oe dale ec cece 1, 299296 Cle chee RM OMUL Neel Ol men ese et ee Oe ee ee 960. 00 (eclerkeel2 MOnUNS ai pose see a eee eee Leet ee ea 660. 00 istenoorapher ni -months, ab plOO>: 228 Rie oe es 1, 200. 00 igpackersntitm onthe. at oopese= eee ae ket ee eS See 605. 00 Eworkmanawelemontis catimol: sycte ae eee ete eo ee 660. 00 IS ESSeUPEr AI MONS AG PIWs 2-2. So oe ese SE oe ee 360. 00 IL ramuersrererayegeie. 12 TaaVoualHlovsy, LAG eee Be ee ee eae 360. 00 ligitessen gern a MONS maAbpoO ss once 2 fio hs aetna ee ee aa eee oeloe 300. 00 ieacent-lsmonthicratepolOGs: eee ese eae 4. 4 ees eee SL. 1, 100. 00 HEC et nm Oninn ai pro at oS lee ek Ee ee 900. 00 Paecin GMOS lpi eee s Ses neen oe onc fe oe wees 90. 90 Notal salariesor' compensation. 22.222 2 62 je ee Evan Sek ae 16, 694. 92 General expenses: 1B) SEO SEMaS ak es Seas ene eae ea a Saree Ee $38. 00 1 BY G e1Sy AA eye ct oes Se eit fara eee Hy Moe. 10) LOIRE ES Le Lee cs Ee Syn aos ee oe ae 5, 674. 15 XXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. General ex penses—Continued. ee $7, 482.04 HT Oita eee ee aes ean eee Spee ne ere eee $4. 45 Sina HONE ee BES eer sHice aome Se ee 155. 24 Station eyes soe ae ee eae eee oe ae 428. 00 Rotaledishbursememts ese 7 een eee ee eae ere oe Balancer yi lyel 03 eas ee ee ec ee oe INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1902. Balance dialiyalle O02 sasiper lashmepontessee eee asses ee oe- Salaries or compensation: acent OmmMontassatipolnoGs see same $550. 00 lk erexernhe, GO semonone ale}, Bhp etd 0) Sas eee oo ee aoa So5cme bas 300. 00 ikacentoOnmonths ati dlomss seen eee eae = 90. 00 otaltsalartestorecompensatloneees hee eee eee eee sere General expenses: SOO Keg apes pre ie eas el eee a Se 7.50 IBOxesiesee == Aptis es eae ge a rae py veneer ayer th ae ae 151. 50 FEET iGreen tare rate ee ees els eee a eee 825. 97 SIMIDO VSIA asa at San Sea en nec Come rae aE Hee 13. 66 SUppWesme sean coe ye ee es eo ers ee 16.50 $940. 00 1, 015. 13 Total disbursements -..-- tig. Poe Bie A tt ee ‘Balance Juliy: [el Q03he. pencre antec ce Hee See eee INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901. Balance July 1, 1902, as' per last report--2-5 eee ee eee $24, 177. 86 1, 822. 14 $23. 55 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 38090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, and the purchase of neces- sary books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceeding one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building’’ (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902) DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: 1 director, 23 months 8 days, at $375.......-. $1, 037. 50 1 chief of bureau, 8 months 17 days, at $375.. 3, 205. 65 1 ethnologistin charge, 12 months, at $333.33.. 3, 999. 96 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $200 ..........- 2, 400. 00 1 ethnologist, 11 months, at $166.67........- WL, CBS), Bi 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $166.67......... 2, 000. 04 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $133.33.......-- 1, 599. 96 $50, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXV Salaries or compensation—Continued. 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $125 -........-- $1, 500. 00 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $125 -.......... 1, 500. 00 1 ethnologist, 4 months, at $125 -........--- 500. 00 1 ethnologic assistant, 6 months, at $100... -- 600. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, 12 months, at $75. --- 900. 00 1 illustrator, 12 months, at $166.67...-_...-. 2, 000. 04 lweditorye!AmonthssatiplOOe ses sseee aoe see 1, 200. 00 1 editorial assistant, 22 months, at $75_...--- 212. 50 1 librarian, 6 months 14 days, at $75....---- 483. 87 il Glatliky Avior ns Mets aoe Ces ook eae 375. 00 i Glade -ibinoimines Ses esse apes ase ase aeee 100. 00 leclenkes| aniombtls eater! OOhrs eee 1, 200. 00 clerk amonths sat plO0R tess. s se = 1, 200. 00 itclerkasOmmonths wat plQ02 42 = eee 1, 000. 00 lgelerkess| mm ombliss alder =e ee ny 900. 00 1 messenger, 12 months, at $60.-.....---.-- 720. 00 1 messenger, 12 months, at $50............- 600. 00 ' 1 skilled laborer, 12 months, at $60_...._.-- 720. 00 imlaborer el 2 emonths sabiptorses sense ose =e 540. 00 Notalisalariesvor compensavoneaae ss eee see] $32, 327. 89 - General expenses: IBOwligs: aiavel lommobitve, - pees peacsosesoe aSsnosr 498. 67 Drawinessand wllustrations 2. .2.2252--22.-- 300. 90 LECUREli ts pee tee aon Sek vine. Seto 67.98 ETN epee Ao eres Sear een 45.10 EGU ULC Seen ree Sate ee See Sy eS pe ree ye 96. 50 METMUSCRED bare set teeny ok oe Saecres care eee ois 3, 651. 70 Winseelllamecousmes acres aaa, 5 1s See ne sey ene 162.17 Postage, telegraph, and telephone ..---..--- 102. 50 RVC ratiiey erepe renee es yet SM Fat ce lng ook tA 1, 375. 00 SPCC user vices: 2 meni as ae oe socks 1, 161. 00 SNOU CIM TE pa ee ee ee el 9a700 Siaiomeniygerra sae EN DRE ceca Se Ses 23 320. 01 SISOS dat Stee Sus ohne ees enn rear 345. 94 Traveling and field expenses .........--...- 4,117, 65 14, 182. 12 A OTA CIS UESeIml CMS ine 12 hore ne ee oer eee ee ee 2 $46, 510. 01 Ballance ere Wye a9 Sees ee ee eal aoe ee ae eer oe ee 3, 489. 99 AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1902. BAlanceriilyaleeLoO2ZsassnetslastarepOrteerr ses ee ene | oases eee $2, 976.18 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: BOOS 50ers AiO ars GOES OBIE OE ee ee en $142. 00 lecuietinggs eer Sano es Be ee ose Silo Ile WBS EG Beis 2 ea, See es Chee se 787.50 Mice NAM ecOUse ee ee sae eee ser tek eR SE th ge 21.58 ReleminOn ese ee ae ee Sees were eine She oe Pees erse re Speke 12.50 Re nite ee ee ters Soro het a No eto 8 Sth hs Oe 125. 00 XXXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. General expenses—Continued., Specimens A. aioe a reece cis sae Ve eoe sae eee a cae eee $580. 00 SU DIES See ee eee are ee eae rea ee 26: 94 Mrave lta ditieldvexspences= sorte ay: sete ee ae ene eee 912. 05 otal ais wurSenn eit yeep a ae ae ee ei, eee Rnd Rey eeepc $2, fod. 41. Balance iuliv lh wll QOS oe Se eam eae eae a ee ee ey eras 220° 77 AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901. Balance iulivale 902s ase Gales te Tyo OT eae $1. 93 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, “for continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col- lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Goyern- ment, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, of which sum five thousand five hundred dollars may be used for necessary drawings and illustrations for publications of the National Museum, and all other necessary incidental expenses’’ (sundry civil Pelt, diay 25 ENP) oo seecec De Sasi eee ee eee $180, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Salaniesior ConipensatlOn=es sees eee ee $162, 208. 04 SpecialiserviCeswe ses ers.s 2 facie seo ae 1, 100. 45 MotaliServices s...s2 cs kee ee Eee $163, 308. 49 Miscellaneous: Drawings and illustrations -.......------ $1, 772. 99 SUP WW ES etom cat cee isis ee eee 2, 971. 09 St@hOneL Vases ee see. eae eee 839. 19 Mirae leer paces eee cee eee 346. 89 Breit se Mer eee ee 2 eee 1, 164. 15 Motalinniscellaneous) 24 ase 7, 094. 31 Total expenditures 2... .2.2.2.00 4 J Seec eee eee 170, 402. 80 Balance July 1, 1908, to meet outstanding liabilities .........-.. 9) 097. 20 Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Scientific staff: 1 assistant secretary, 12 months, at $258.33_.........-.- $3, 099. 96 1 head curator, 3 months 14 days, at $291.66 ........_-- 1, 006. 7 1 head curator (acting), 7 months 16 days, at $291.66.... 2,197.17 1 head curator, 10 months 57 days, at $291.66 -.....---- 3, 461. 34 ighead curator el 2emonthessalb p29) lo 6 ae eee ee 3, 499. 92 icurator(actine);dlGidayswatep200 a a ees 106. 67 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Scientifie staff—Continued. Cuna bomber Olin ayaln hs OU) Besa a ns ee etre neers oe = 1 curator, 4 months 14 days, at $200. ..-..-.-.-.-----=-- iL CUAKOw, (TOMI TG, Et NOOR Se heen sense = caeesocmesse eenrator Ieannonihs anna 0 sea ses ae = See nee IciratLonsel emotions wat.o20 02] se sae eee ns oe IMCURATOM po eMOMtN Sats p2OUl oes ee cele eee eee ae assistanizcuraton. | 2imontihnewaty ple) ose e nee cee lmassistanticurator U2 months at ploOeens. sem seee eee imassistant curator, l6idays. at ol3d.30 == e-2e -sese= a> = 1 assistant curator, 12 months, at $150...........-- ae? 1 assistant curator, 11 months 14 days, at $133.33....._- IPASSIStaMircunaAtoOIre 2m OM biaS.sa byl oO ese eer eae == 1 assistant-curator, 12 months, at $116.66 ......-..--.-- IFAssistanh Curators he monbhss at pilsoems sas -eese = se oe- 1 assistant curator, 11 months 27 days, at $116.66 __...-- 1 assistant curator, 12 months, at $116.66 .............- ieassistant curatomule mont ner atoll oOls= see es oo ae oe leacsistamt Curator le monbmns:atipillo Os eee S22 se eee leassistanie Curacon Amon hicwatpliaasoomneesee see = 1 second assistant curator, 12 months, at $100._..._._-- 1 aid, 6 months, at $83.33; 6 months, at $100... -.-- ee merce w lean atlases dlaiyissyaltecp: (0) Bee = seer eee iL-gaicl, UZ} savers pgttepee big ee Sor ens oo ae sae eg aseeam@eaas A eardeellpm onthstat piolsoscs sees se a. Ae ee Seeaie pitas Aaneonm ths aAbipOl 22 tek Avs. MBean ee eee Th zavlol, By wenvormd ars} IY CO bhush lem nese > aocc 5 onesoea seas se iaidlOnmonihsiA4S2sday sat poo. cole eee aes = sae se al eal dealermombhs seat pO 02sec ses eee nr serene ne Nea cewelenn Omiblorsaty po Ul ec cosines sc a os eines ree eee ade MmonthstotVdays yal PSo-59 — = ase Nee a eee il aul, We inovomlasl, aie tO eee eae aoe oneal oes eA eateunTOmthis-satrpe Oem sce vas Se eee oe Ar Le sy ibanel, WimormMed ns, ate tC BAe Vee eee ee eee eee IWCUStOGIanaeZaMonta Sabra! see eee Soe eee ee Preparators: Ephorosraphers 2 months vabtibl jose. sseseees sas -5- ismocelersa montis abil O0Per cee. see ee ae | GeiollOeNS i, UY maemo, MEO 58 oj 25sseesns seaseedoue Iedirakismanvels daysiuatihosscneesecoce ose. aoe eee ae 1 preparator, 4 months 20 days, at $40 -.....-.--.-.---- lepreparalorm lA months. abi polss se S224 esses nee = il joeyogueier, Me ae mOS, Cle ctWeooecaeoooasdeeens coaene il jonceyoeiieziwone, IA vaavormni nspemiie NORE oa oeo cage eeee so eooeee 1 preparator, 8 months 33 days, at $70.....-...----.----- 1 preparator, 10 months, at $85; 495 hours, at $0.50. -_-.- 1 preparator, 10 months 513 days, at $45..........-..--- 1 preparator, 6 months 24 days, at $50; 14 days, at 560... Ie pLeparaor es MM ONUM athe OM ee een ge ees re I PLepALaAOrs me nMMOMLAS | Ab pierre eee see See se oe SOLE PALALOL,el-nIMOnNthS wal @odeeees ee eee cee = oe 1 preparator, 5 months 15 days, at $40 .......-....------ I preparator, 11 months 27 days, at $90 ....-...-..-.-... $2, 400. 893. 3: 600. 2, 400. 2, 400. 750. 1, 800. 1, 800. falls 800. 1, 528. 300. Ieee) 1, 500. 1, 384. ooo: 1, 800. 1, 800. rode: 1, 200. Te OSoR 1, 146. 999: 900. ( 240. 462. 3 965. 1, 200. (eile e200) 600. 600. 300. 2,100. XXVIT $52, 695. 25 XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Preparators—Continued : 1 botanical assistant, 2 months, at $40_.................- $80. 00 1 botanical assistant, 2 months 29 days, at $75.......... 220. 16 echiet taxidermist lZamonths ath see ee see ee eee 1, 500. 00 ittaxidermist, 2 omonths sat eo0= 42505 so sae eee 720. 00 iitaxid ermist wl amOmbil saci OO see eee ee 1, 200. 00 $17, 107. 84 Clerical staff: 1 administrative assistant, 12 months, at $291.66_.....-- 3, 499. 92 Alewbiwoye, 11 ionvorninsieninnnksy/ 3555 555eqeccescesoososksoe 2, 004. 00 1 chief of division, 12 months, at $200.......... .-....-- 2, 400. 00 icresistrar sl 2imonths- athe lores ee aes ee 2, 004. 00 1 disbursing clerk, 12 months, at $116.67..............- 1, 400. 04 1 assistant librarian, 12 months, at $133.338........-.-..- 1 Pita }she as) cinancerclerkesliZnmonths vat 2o =e eee 1,500. 00 1 property clerk (acting), 12 months, at $60...........- 720. 00 itstenoorapher, tsmonths, atchl00ssse ssa e eee ae ee 1, 100. 00 1 stenographer, 4 months 15 days, at $50.=............. 225. 00 lestenographer lZmmonthssat so 0 sesso eee aes 1, 080. 00 Istenosrapher, sl2 monthscal pl (O-22 sao eee oe 2, 100. 00 1 stenographer and typewriter, 12 days, at $60 ......... 24. 00 1 stenographer and typewriter, 7 days, at $50 ........... 29 1 stenographer and typewriter, 6 months 45 days, at $60. 450. 42 1 stenographer and typewriter, 12 months, at $83.33 .__- 999. 96 1 stenographer and typewriter, 3 months 45 days, at $60; ZO day Sav ho8 ak eer cee eens ee ee ee 308. 90 1 stenographer and typewriter, 16 days, at $60.........- 32. 00 1 stenographer and typewriter, 12 months, at $50......- 600. 00 1 stenographer and typewriter, 43 days, at $65.........- 91. 84 1 stenographer and typewriter, 1 month 20 days, at $125. 205. 65 1 stenographer and typewriter, 5 months 17 days, at $60- 332. 90 1 stenographer and typewriter, 2 months 9 days, at $65... 149. 50 1 stenographer and typewriter, 5 months 13 days, at $75. 406. 45 1 typewriter, 4 months 14 days, at $45; 2 months 42 days, BGA OM eee ee Bee ee eee eee 339. 83 istypewrxiter, 12 months, at S6aee2 -. 22-252 ee eee eee 780. 00 istypewriter, 4 months 2 days, at/e45, 2.2252 seen ee 183. 00 1 typewriter, 12 months, at $85 _..... Seisiis ee a eee 1, 020. 00 igivpewriver,. l2imonths: at $7 0-e=s2 see ae ee 840. 00 iclenk 2imonths at SlO0k. =a: s2-— s oe ee 1, 200. 00 i-clenk. 1)? nonthis; sat Ponce. eo ee pe ee ee ee 420. 00 delerk, do.days, at $6026 2225... 8554-5 5- ee 30. 00 itclerks 12 months; “ati PG0ss o fo. sen eee 720. 00 elerk, 12months at oiones 5555 42 eeeeeeeeee 900. 00 ihclerk,2:days ab Goons oscsts ess 2 oe eee 5 (H7/ 1 clerk, 4 months, at $40; 3 months, at $45............- 295. 00 lkelerk: 1 Zamonths ate ose. eee eee 900. 00 ivclerk, U2smonths: jats (oa a2 ae en, er eeeey eee 900. 00 UUNfe) Kergligel as covevauil mish ti et Men SMR ee 1, 500. 00 ieclerk,. d2imonths vat pO = eee yee ee 1, 200. 00 icelerk, 12imonthscanG 0a cee a ee 720. 00 clerk, 4*monthsitat pS8.03 seo sae aoe | ae 330. 32 Ieelerk,:9 months; ati e702 ee sear 675. 00 ielerk, 12 months atieG0ss.oseee 2 ee 720. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Clerical staff—Continued: WelerksWiemonths:Zodaysuatb40essse- = ee aes $473. 33 Mclenkee Zam omul seis renee os eae eine eee oe Se 900. 00 iclerke wep ombhs air pOU Rese seer sere aan ce ieee rer oe 720. 00 itclenk Ss monshs seaaysabiprtUe asses ess ss- 2525250 5- 168. 43 Ieclerkesl opm onths eat poss a= an ae et ee ee 600. 00 Welerkess months lGidayss ab po0ls- sce oases 2 Senses se - 175. 81 clerk en OnbhSssatepOU sa ane ees Se cerciacs onc see teen 600. 00 1 clerk, 9 months, at $40; 3 months, at $50..........__- 510. 00 IL @lo@ak, 12 TNO tint Wi) nee coos ooooes sease see Eeeraeee 900. 00 eles; Us saivora Hors EHO ee ee aS eee a ae 720. 00 NeGlenkasl ona ouths vate pililoecce = aka s ster a eee ee 1, 380. 00 leclerkeel2 monthswatiniOrmeees sees eee See 900. 00 IGlenk GO pMOnGHS watipleoe wesc ose eee see 750. 00 ikclerkalZamMOnchs. abihoosap te eects ee oc .c cs oe oe 660. 00 iclerkey4rmonths Gs daysratipr0 =) oo sees eee oe 183. 57 leclerkeel0imonths29)\ days atialOO)s sss s2ae- 225s oes 1, 0938. 55 clerk elZemonuiematnpo Os ae ee sae eee ace eee 600. 00 lscataloguerse Cay Sati pes = eee yee oes arse 4. 00 iseataloguen ro Oras atid Ole tem see ane sere ere oe 39. 39 eatalouere2 2a daysnciiinG os. sane ees aoa) ee 45. 00 1 cataloguer, 3 months 27 days, at $50 .-.-............- 198. 21 1 bibliographical assistant, 3 months 18 days, at $83.33-.- 303. 56 Buildings and labor: 1 general foreman, 12 months, at $122.50.............-- 1, 470. 00 iGforemana le nmonthswatrhoO! 9... seeee reese sae see 600. 00 1 lieutenant of watch, 12 months, at $70 ..........__.-- 840. 00 1 watchman, 9'months'75 days, at $55. ........-.......- 629. 79 1 watchman, 1 months 29 days, at $60)._.............- 718. 00 I \yeteelmyaneenay, 174 reevovoun os Cor ies aessooeecs occ soeaa = 720. 00 IL ywelmaneya;, UPA tavernas}, pe k ese eea senor es ees 6 ee 720. 00 iiwatchimean sl 2emomths pain POWs. 225 see ee ee 720. 00 1 watchman, 9 months 72 days, at $55 .............-..- 626. 06 leywrate him ane Mo mtins mati moo- meee cies aes cae sees 660. 00 iewatchman- 2 months, atiGoo. 2.62.2 522-252 s sf. a5 660. 00 iiwakchmianeel Zam onGhsscttpol see aeee n= eee nee 720. 00 il yyenclarmenoy, UY somone vey ERE CNR | 6 coon osocescas ee 720. 00 1 watchman, 11 months 24 days, at $60 .........2...--: 665. 00 I yyeclarenain, UP) Taverne, eras 2 ps oes cg osesscccee 720. 00 ii watchmianslZamonths atv opo see see eee eee 660. 00 1 watchman) 5 months 54 days, at $55 -.............-..- 370. 81 1 watchman, 10 months 48 days, at $55 ................ 636. 35 ivatchinianr slam Oonths sath Seeeee eee esses eeeee 660. 00 iSwatchmans Ganonths at 609.2252. 2es2 5. see 55-5 oe 360. 00 (watchman el2smontinss at poe == seme eee eee 660. 00 bsyeieounenay, INGEN Mbt) Seo Soeccsone aes aSeesenose ese 2.00 lewatchman wll emonmbhs eat poses see oe asses eee ae 605. 00 ikwatchuianteale day. ahipatesone = asks e ee een: J 5ae 2.00 f watchman, & months, 3.days, at $55..........-2.....--- 280. 32 le Wate bin oeeletOnb MSs ib p40 see ee eee nee 480. 00 livate bina anlar Onbha Ss ain oD ee see eereeaee eerie ae 660. 00 1 watchman, 11 months, 18 days, at $55............-... 638. 00 lwatehmans L2rmMonthns rat. pope es ss ane ae 660. 00 XXIX 348, 850. 50 XXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Buildings and labor—Confinued. i watchman, 5 months 30:days, at $00... |. 222-22 eo. $328. 23 1 watchman, 11 months 183 days, at $60 ...........--.- 697. 00 I yeuclauanena,, We enovNANS, AN MG) = conc kcscssosegnssonSee 780. 00 ekaullledslaborenim pao mtlieiaiti p20 eee ee ee ee 480. 00 1 skilled laborer, 8 months 36 CEMCECnE Ui ccoasepacds- 552. 00 lesknlledslaborens2o Gays yaa OD see ses eee eee 5}, 245) 1 skilled laborer, 10 months 16 days, at $40 ...-.-.-.--- 420. 65 lesknlledslabonrer elo Onuhs raion ome eee 660. 00 it cfreilkeol Meloyeywere, I into eels eSeuecccochesceeseue 62. 50 1 skilled laborer, 10 months, at $40; 2 months, at $50. - 500. 00 1 skilled lajborenek2 months satebo Ose see ee eee 600. 00 IL \rOueisine ial, Bilaroknys, Ayn cles Saas cceeaocgosesessanaee 469. 50 JMaborers2i 9. days saul oO seeeese sea se eee eae eee 328. 88 IL Vey oxornere, OAS) Cnet All PI) os coanaSeccosSceuaseasnasoc 43.50 lelaborenr) J2hmonths alta pan sss ese ee es eee - 540.00 IMlAbOrer we daysatiple 20) soe e see eee eee aera 2. 50 Ilaborerys20s days, ati oilt.o 02ers eee sees) rae rele ar 480. 75 I knowygere, WPA vavomnolsy Chive ee okeeees soe caosogee son oe 480. 00 iMaborer ss nmonths!25 days) ablo40e see se see ee 152. 26 IMaborersolls> cays yal pleo0 hee sse eee e eee aaa 470.25 laborers 20Siday ss atin lato m seme eae ee See eee 364. O1 laborer. 2ocdays, atiSilkc0e 22. eee ose eee 37.50 iaborerysil32- days atoll. 00.225 a2 — see eee ee 470. 25 1 laborer loidays, at pl: S0f2 22 == se. ae Eee eee 22.50 lela orersallOGrdaryiss ait piles 0) epee eee ae 159. 00 MlaborertAl. day. is a5 2s. 5-S0 es. bee een eee 2.00 Maborern 2 months) ati pone See 540. 00 iaboreryoordaye watcpl ioe sate eee eee 57. 75 I laborer yeil9sdays, at) plcd0): ==. sees see eee eee 479. 63 lL Jaborer#25\ days, at $150" -.3- 222 eee 37.50 i Jaborer; 25) dans: ab: pl. Osea a rere ee 37.50 IMalborery3203 days) vat bile) aaa aera ee ere 480. 75 ll laborer, 3225 .days\-at pljosenssea eee eee eee 564. 38 I laborers 344-days; at S100 Res ae ee ee ee 516. 00 I laborers 227) days,-at ols 5 0 =e eee eee ee 340. 50 MaborerwlZimonths ai poo see 420. 00 laborer Zo days; atioll.00 beams eee eee 37.50 Iaborery 29" days. ati plist eee ram 3 ye ee 29. 00 laborers 12 mnomb hs a braeaeeee eee een 300. 00 IMaborer; 143d aivs alti gli 0 eens oem are eee 214. 50 iMaborer, Gi days, at: plea 0s 2 ue =e ee 9. 00 ll laborer; 6 days) at: pli 50 eee =e eye eee 9. 00 l laborer: I day; at $20 asas0 .o2en ee ceet ace eee eee 2. 00 laborers Tsim onith soars 0 see 550. 00 I laborer; 8222 days, lat; plso0 eae see eee 484.13 1 laborer, 313. daysiat S1b50) 35 ees ee es eee 469. 50 i laborer; 3ilhs darysiwa bibles 0a eee ee AVR PAS: IMaborer, 8305, day Ssatr ls 0 eee ee 503. 25 | laborer, “1, day; at:$22 25 eee oe eee ee ee 2.00 1 laborer, 1 day,-at'$222 45.22 eee ee eee ee ee 2. 00 iMaborerivdayeratin2ae esses Sh start LG Oe eek Ral eR 2. 00 laborer, liday, at $2. Ssscee eee ee ee eee 2.00 isaborers 12 months ates 0 see see ee - 480. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Buildings and labor—Continued. 1 laborer, 12 months, at 540 1 laborer, 313 days, at $1.50 1 laborer, 3 months, at 520 1 laborer, 3 months, at 540 1 laborer, 318 days, at 31.50 1 Jaborer, 23 days, at $1.50 1 laborer, 2 months 35 days, at $40 1 laborer, 158 days, at $1.50 1 laborer, 12 months, at 540 1 laborer, 23 days, at $1. 1 attendant, 163 5) anne ree eee eee here t iplaboner2ardavs, vat) plea 0c eee sees ee ee oe 1 laborer, 26 days, at 51.75 1 laborer, 12 days, at $1 1 laborer, 31935 days, at $1.50 1 laborer, 1 day, 1 laborer, 313 days, at 31.50 1 messenger, 12 months, at $20 1 messenger, 21 days, at $20; 9 days, at $30 1 messenger, 6 months 353 days, at $20 1 messenger, 11 months 21 days, at $30 ljmessencer.2lidayssatip20e.- 9. oss eee ease sa ee 1 messenger, 12 months, at $20 1 messenger, 11 months 18 days, at $20 lomecsencer liamoniberati poo]. seen eee e Soe ae lemessencerwlodaysual po0 kes. ot seems e es =e 1 mail carrier, 9 months, at $40 GLANS ralty piles Seer cs wee ete eee es 1 attendant, 12 months, at 540 1 attendant, 156 days, at $1 1 attendant, 341} days, at 1.50 1 cleaner, 12 months, at 530 lecleaner pl 2smominee atipoosese- mise saaaa= aes cs noe cleaners monthelZidavsnatib20 sna. 5 ssecacce es aa e 1 cleaner, 11 months 29 days, at $30 ieleaners i? months) abipo0's 2-22 eecc es cee c ee ° 1 cleaner, 12 months, at $30 1 cleaner, 11 months 29 days, at $30 incleanermilimonthsuli7 days: au hao o- assncese= sos) ee 3480. 00 469. 50 60. 00 120. 00 477. 00 vo ow Ww Se LS rm) oe (Se) Ot Je) 9. 00 404. 83 Motalisalaniess*§ 8-8 e 84 -at- eee ee By yee GE a NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1902. RECEIPTS. Balance as per report July 1, 1902 . Jai were eee eee eee eee ee ee eee eee EXPENDITURES. (July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Salaries; onmcompensations--s5-.. .cs22. sees eee ee ee oe or eevee ss eee 159. 16 Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. AP propmaionspy Congress) Marclhia.01 OO) meee eerie esa ine siscmiee eee $180, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] Salanesior compensanones===——ees see aaa $161, 897. 99 Specialiservices: see. aes oie sete see 2, 255. 36 Motal services £2.22 s.c2 =< See ee ee eee $164, 153. 35 Miscellaneous: Drawings and illustrations ............-. 2,787. 83 Suppliestecase scot eee eae 6, 533. 99 Niditomenyesess sete Su. Pe oe eee 2, 663. 02 BR gee) lee a Ss Sse sc Re mi ae ee ah as oe 7 Ul All Rreichite eae ern ns aco a ee ee 1, 681. 44 Totalamiscellanéouss:.s=... ssc. eae eee 15, 687. 49 Total expenditures. <:.- < so 2620) ee eee eee eee 179, 840. 84 Balance: July 1.1903. 32... ce Se ee ee 159. 16 NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Balance as per report July 1, 1902/5032 2 eee eee nee $74. 49 EXPENDITURES. Special services... 2. 2..2<06- 54 Se ee $8. 00 Miscellaneous: Freight 25 o2cActts noes ta ee $39. 36 Supplies < s.2..ce2cc.a bi sas eee eee 2.25 Totalmiscellancousseqe. 4] e eee 41.61 Total expenditure: 5.42.22 eee eee eee ee eee 49. 61 Balance.) \o<.2.5:cc ss Soe ee Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXII Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. Approprianon by Congress:June 6, 1900 2.25... 2. Sees sseesbet Sl esecee $180, 000. 0C EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1903.] Salaniesior conmpensationins-252-=----— ---er $159, 174. 45 SPECIMINSCRVICES i aac Se ee eee ise She ec oe 5, 198. 14 Rotalisenvicesa- eaee once est on ee tae wae cee tetas $164, 372. 59 Miscellaneous: Drawings and illustrations .......-.-.--- 2, 436. 30 SU LCS eee eee a eater me eee eae 6, 089. 10 SUMONGIAY S3c cape hdaastoneaperecbeeease ol g9 * CORSE lead xe a2 52 nln a Ts SNe YP 3, 490. 19 1 ERRCeO Yea ON UE ete Se tes nv a 1, 834. 95 Motalemiscellancousteemsee ee ee eer. sa ee 15, 602. 53 MO LAME spe CLUES =e one ee ee ere ee ee eee 179; 975. 12 Balance carried to surplus fund as above. .--....----.---------< 24. 88 NATIONAL MUSEUM—FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, “for cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi- bition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees’”’ (sun- Gueye Giyallavere dbwneAAss, ES TOPA)) ee ae ee are Ae ee eee ene eee. $22, 500. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. ] SHEIILEWeIEESIE os See oe Rs aa a a $12, 342. 35 SE CIUINSERVICEN: seems a= ase cise acer ee ae 14. 60 FLO tale Servi Ces Saas eee sp ee eae a es $12, 356. 95 Miscellaneous: @asesseSlOrag Cea aaa sa Soe ye See 2, 266. 00 CASES excl Only eye ee 881. 00 Wrawers= trayss Cte oa. aia cee a5 eae Se 2 844. 52 Hramesiang! woodwork ssee40 = 55525" 743. 91 (GETS Ss espe re 452. 04 Eland iathGgree eo MN Pe = See ae 433. 66 AIG YOY =| Rec eee RE Ee eget Ae et ype (CG tae eee ee a oes a Sel Silo EVILS a es Re ES ete Ler A 590. 79 paints OSs ClCe ss a/c soc ns2 ace Sse ae 259. 62 Ofticesfurnitune tse ets 2 se oe 1, 478. 38 eathersrulober, corksoesse ao2-55 4s 2ee 265, 33 XXXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Miscellaneous—Continued. Drala nn OS ie ae ey iy? REC ee eee eae $4. 00 I abC te ss ate oe ae at Ae eed ey eee 58. 80 4 Mi Nf 2) Gee ee ee pre ae ere ee Pes aE 114. 15 Rotal«miscellanecoush 425. ae ee ee eee $8, 446. 81 Rotalcexpenditures:s: 9-52 sea5 = see ee ee $20, 803. 76 Balance July 1, 1903, to meet outstanding liabilities. .........--- 1, 696. 24 Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. ] (ESuperintendent ro months athp2o 0p eee eee ee ee a $750. 00 Wsupenvisoriom constiuctions | 2mmonths atepl 40 ssee eee ee eee 1, 680. 00 iseclerks;G months att peonson sce. osee eee ee hae ae eae a ee * 499.98 iishopmoreman eli2z sm Onths at) noo ran eens e eee e seers eee eee 1, 020. 00 iMeanpenter. Ss days abes2- Aa: | Jose) eee ee aes Sek eet ee 939. 00 incarpenter,’ 195d .days,at $3.2 255. sose2 56> ene cee esse ee 586. 50 lcarpenter; Vo2. days. at $3.2 ...25. 62-2555. 2455 4-ane eee eee 456. 00 icarpenter, 14 davis ab G8e - ee Ae oes eae aae SES ese Soe eae 12. 35 IPE CEI hei oles See eS eS oe re OA eee eee 1. 25 Motalenmiscellamecouse- meat cee sto ess oe fae ee Sea $2, 131. 08 Balancerdiullivgel tl 90S sera mee tenes oi sc ce ic neice ore 5. O07 Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. ppLropranonn ova Congress Manchion LOO Sa seee eee =e ey eee ee EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1903.] SaAlaniestonicomipensa tones === esses] eee $11, 742.49 Se CIMESCTNI CCS sae sacta kas Se sae s elk Ee aie 24. 40 Mo talaservd COS wear tos scars nS aaa ete Soe Miscellaneous: (CHISEL NS) 00) N02 ee ee ee eee pe See o200500 Wases exhibitions tee See ei ete eee 70. 00 Wranwiersntrayen ClG.en Seon ase fa nos ee oak 1, 088. 08 Frames and woodwork... -......-...-..-<.- 796. 64 (CHS Sis 7S a eg 1, 193. 21 vanecliywanewa scree set aes eS ane Le 2 861. 03 NGOS ees Beene keen ee ee Se eee 45. 38 COM, COMMU COs csacaseecd boos eaeses 106. 05 Ghiitrallo CTaerar sere he ene ee er 1, 445. 21 IPEWHiMNT RSLS KOMI) AOS SENS een ee ae eee 308. 48 Oficebhtrmininen ee oe ee oe eee 1, 419. 85 eather aru pers COnKka ses se = ee a 305. 66 LONER VARA) se ye ee te ee et 103. 00 [EIKO Orin Oe ee ee Pe are 201. 90 IRE) OS 2 Wee eee SE ee es eee eee Pee A 52. 25 PED EG Uae ee eam Sree Sete yk EG 1. 30 Rotalsmuscelilan coustsssress oe. aster es cons a Seen otallexpenditures = 227s asce cee «cee aee ee See SAT Ge AMC pat ed HS ts eee et Se SRS BS ees S11, 766. 89 8, 228. 04 $20, 000. 00 19, 994. 93 5: 07 XVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NATIONAL MUSEUM—FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1901. RECEIPTS. Balance as per report July 1, 1902.....-..... gone o cisiseee ee see eee Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, ‘for expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and telephonic service for the National Museum (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902)...-. EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. ] Salaries onicompensailoneees scree eens seer $8, 224. 02 SICaO CINE A AICS GRR A oe Case so cnceobeooodosaane 34. 16 Motalsservices = sacs 5 eee ee = Cee ese = $8, 258. 18 Miscellaneous: @oaltand wood!) 3232-3. eee eee ener $3, 908. 11 Gasca re sie OS se eee eee ee cee pce 932570 RentaliotcallbOxesheys= === eee eee eee 90. 00 Mlectrical supplies esseaes- 2 aes eeeeeeeee 190. 21 Blectricity a sass. tastes see eer ee eee 1, 255. 05 Heating supplies) 522-28 ee way es eee 864. 74 Releorams. cence ese ore eee ee eee 08. 43 Mele phones) Hee ie= home see oo eeta eo = eee 499. 95 Totalmmiscellaneoustesassc oe i Cone eee 7, 779.19 Motaliexpenditures! 52a. ge see creyceioe Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress March 3, 1901, including electrical installa- BSL Tames OC) Peete eee ee wren we Oa nee eee See tt, en no ae Oe Salaries Or compensation. -.--- .------+------- $8, 419. 13 Speclalesenviceswer sete sane eae cee | Sones 52.75 PRO LARS Tavs GES teres oe ak ee ee ee ae eae $8, 471. 88 Miscellaneous: Coallandewood! tar. 2 sees coe e eek ese 4, 492. 02 (Gene) ga bese Bee ee ee ee aoe 1, 357. 00 Rentalgots calllllboxes emcee na see soe eeeee 120. 00 Hlectricalisuppliesss: 2s -cass seca 5c ea -ee 969. 90 IEE Gal City pepe ee ae yee ee eee 975. 41 lean eysup plies essai ee eeee yee = 912. 63 MPeleoramse ssa arene tvs oak eiscice acne 44. 37 NSU O NONE SE ae eee eRe eee epee. 674. 77 Notalsmiscellaneous;meoular S222-5--5525---252-5 5% 9, 528. 10 Rotaliresulanexpenditures=—- assess seeeses sss ee IU( SISIS), teks) ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION. RECEIPTS. JN SFORGTOMENTIOMN S86 5e— Seba p BESO SEE oLOLee $5, 000. 00 XXXVII $1, 560. 43 1, 558. 83 1. 60 $23, 000. 00 XXXVIITI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. EXPENDITURES. Salaries or compensation.-..-.--- $2, 090. 48 Miscellaneous: Supplies ¢ +222 ssu-2 5-25 o=— 2, 754. 87 LOO Sess aeet Risk eee 4.18 Wroochwaids sos-aseseaesccce 148. 89 — s Total electrical installation.........--- $4,998.42 $4, 998. 42 2 $22,998. 40 Balance of electric installation -__-.--- 1.58 ~— Balance ot appropriatlon==s---- >see oe eee ee eee ea eee 1. 60 NATIONAL MUSEUM—HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1901. RECEIPTS. Balancevasipern report diulliyg e190 2k eye eee ee eet ate eee ote 50. 23 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—POSTAGE, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘“‘for postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum”’ (sundrytennlact June 28501902) ee ae ee ee eee $500. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] PRostave stam ps;and toreisn postal cardsSe = = seer a4) eee eee eee 500. 00 NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRINTING AND BINDING, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘ for . the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and for the Bulletinsand Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not be less than 3,000 copies, and binding, in half turkey or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets pre- sented to and acquired by the National Museum library’’ (sundry civilhacts Jume:28. 1902 \) Sees cee ee pe ee a $17, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Bulletins ofthe Min se ina ee eae $7, 791. 58 Proceeding siof tie inise tina sees ee 7, 467. OL Label seas ecu eich eee oe 479. 08 Blanksiand circularsi¢ 464005 ee eee eee ee 270. 35 Congressional Records ee eee ee eee 16. 00 Congressionalidecuments!2s-- 22 ee eae 58. 25 Record books)-246 jes ee a eee ee ops eee ee 106, 24 Binding’... 22.12.22. 6. ee nr 805. 90 Total expenditures! 222 3222255 ee ee 16, 994. 41 Balance Duly: 15 TQOBe Le ae eee eee ee ere eee 5. 59 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXIX NATIONAL MUSEUM—RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National Miisenmea( SUndnyactwmlhact wmme 28. O02) 2s ey eee esse $4, 400. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. ] hotalkexqpen ditunestas ster ase gee See eo a eine Soe a acne ae bees 4, 399. 92 Ballamcer uve 0 3 sem areata ee eee rete Sack ae eS Says ee ae . 08 NATIONAL MUSEUM—RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1902. Balancers mMetsreponiliyall elQ02 mes ne = = ae ee eee $0. 08 EVI eRIatee Ret anne OU sere recor Se ens ees ee RS See I hs oe 08 NATIONAL MUSEUM—RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1901. RECEIPTS. BeMee Ac Der TEPOLl Uys la tO Aas so = Ss sce eee we Se eS oa ee $0. 08 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Troasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—BUILDING REPAIRS, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, including all necessary labor and material’’ (sundry civil act, June 28,1902).... $15, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Salaries or compensatlom: -2-4--s5-.--- 22255 $10, 167. 89 SOCOE! SEAVICSs) See Re a ee ee ae nee 299. 80 SRO LAIBSCTVACES yar eels) fe nee ees $10, 467. 69 Miscellaneous: Gti) Carey aot ee ere ee ers ee ee Selene 447.90 Cement, plaster, gravel, lime, sand, mortar .. 206. 01 BIE ROWE MROOS SW One Re Sen need uae ee See 264. 13 Raimtssolssolwes brushes... e esse 5-. = 505. 70 NVOUUIWORKee Saue nee. xe pee ee 85. 98 Skeylightsrandiventilatorsy-—2 9-2-2 ase eee = 428. 00 (GER Be Je See Saas 6 aS ee 2 een en 84. 85 (CHOWN, Conan. Ce 9s Ae he ae eee 1.50 JPA sc Sa ace ae See aoe ae eee Sere eee 40.50 IW reli Syren tee ere) ore ee isi Ne aoe 35. 00 SlaGin ero Olea aa meee fee yn Se eee 750. 00 SUC Ul) COUN Sears pete es a ee ee ee ee ea 47.77 IByiclaworke see e- SAS Ae eee See ee 106. 00 otalmrscellancougmcas sees eee yee eee 3, 003. 3 Roraivexmenqubwnest= sesso ane ea cee eet os eek 3, 471. 08 DEAN ESe My MOUS ces te eee = a eke ee ce eee. Se 1, 528. 97 XL 1 superintendent, 1 foreman, 12 months, at $85 1 clerk, 6 months, at $100 1 carpenter, 314 days, at $3 1 carpenter, 2763 1 carpenter, 90 days, at $3 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] 4 months, at $250 Gayshati po ae sete ene seer asthe s.5 56 a6 she a lecanpenters| Gidays abidal eect aoe eee ees Sates a sis Sea ones lecarpenter lla dayc ati porsscee cl see sete oe eee Sere el Se iiwi cies ase ar 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, | skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 messenger, 9 months 12 days, at $20 1 messenger, 1 month 15 days, at $20 Balance as per report July 1, 1902 Salaries or compensation Special services - Total services Spr ont hss lad abycire trail 0 pee errr 463 days, at $2.80; 69 days, at $3 SC-GE EL BincwacOs Gls GENS, Abts ocosscsecoonacessccs OG ay Sat BS vee ic aye oh ence cea eee a ree ae) GEL Chica 2a GRO, Mintibicsoooceccosassousecoe Ode GAYS, Ab Dose oa eee SR Sep ee ee ee liGxdays ati p2-s09 28) dayswatooss see ee eee 34 days, 14 days, at $3; 9 days, at $3.50 22 days,7at $2.80 2. Sacctse. ence oe 2 ee eee 19 days at $3... Socoe ea sae eee eee 20 days, at $70 per month 16 days, at-$2.80 14 days, at $2.80 L2rdays va pcsOU aes eer e once a 113 days, at $2.80 Sis daysi-ati Pl (Oi Sasa ee as eee ee eee 282/GAYS ab Ol s( 0's ee ae See Cee eee eee 324% days, at $1.50 51} days, at $1.75 34 days, 27 days, 1 laborer, 27 days, 1 laborer, 13 days, 1 painter’s helper, 74 days, at $1.75 at $1.50 at $1.75 at $1.50 NATIONAL MUSEUM—BUILDING REPAIRS, 1902. RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] $1, 000. 00 1, 020. 00 600. 00 942. 00 829. 270. 48. a 746. 660. 337. 277. 201, 184. 160. 128. 113. 95.2 73: 61, 57. 46. . 74 . 68 10, 167. 89 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLI Miscellaneous: IL [OUaT Sie Se hee ae ae ee eee $84. 27 Brick, cement, plaster, gravel, lime, sand ...... 58. 35 ardware-andetoolss-ss-e— 5 esse teense so 257. 21 Ralmts aol sstUnusheSes == ee en cae oe sees secees 14.50 Wo Odio errr ae Bee ce cane aie mete 258. 74 LEED CSE PSS eta ce ered i 7.50 Sate eae ae ee oe oe sie cis 770. 40 Total miscellaneous expenditure. .-....--.=.----==--- $1, 450. 97 New boilers. SecialsenviCedis aa 35 ese te ys sis ss et $65. 00 MO TAlISERVACES Is eee mots omic Se ees cece 65. 00 Miscellaneous: ; Brick, stone, cement, lime, gravel, sand. 4. 00 Ne wes welCn ase ee A com rn 286. 00 ardiwaneran dato Ol Gress pr ane cyesee oa 19. 00 LEC eee ee ee 1.80 NRE eS ie eae See Oe coe ae ee re 3.05 Motalmniscellanecouss=ssesee see see 393. 85 Total expenditure, new boilers ........---------- 418. 85 Motalkexpen GG UmeSs i ioe ere ers eye eee ee re es aS $1, 911. 07 Balancer ull yale OOS are er Sees = mae eee ee oe mares io Se 27.23 NATIONAL MUSEUM—BUILDING REPAIRS, 1901. , RECEIPTS. iBalanceradsperre pore wulive le O02 sees see coe = asa = coos sae e $0. 04 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas- ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—GALLERIES, 1902. RECEIPTS. Balancemsiper reportronuliye e022 eam as. 8 Se see enemies eose koe $37. 92 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] TAGHETIO GH Ses © RU Eee an pa One ge oe 2 $19. 25 (COMET = 22 SEA ele eect ne ge et ce a ty oer eng Ee 17. 50 Motalkexmen GUGURES ey = ames = iar ee os ene, eg kc 36. 75 Balancer Ulva O03 se ee ees Ms ees ee ee eae eee eS IL, Wey Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.]} RECEIPTS. EMH PLOpMAanone Mya Goncresss Vlarcht dy lOO ll se eeeeeee one re = see eee eee ee $5, 000. 00 XLT REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] Salanlesior Compensatl Ones === eens =e eee $2, 404. 02 Specialiservicesie* Shennan eee ere eee ae 3. 50 Aoi} hee tein ee Eee eek ee ome $2, 407. 52 Miscellaneous: ElardwanestOOlsetCase eee eee eee eee 269. 61 Cement, gravel, sand, stone-..-....----- 378. 42 Cloth cottons iret sa nem ee ao ok ae re 24, 28 IBUSIOS Se Sere ees rere ares Eee 2.50 umber eae San see eee eee 133. 24 Steel beams, iron posts, ete.-.---.-.----- 1, 440. 51 Wioodworkre<2 - ens aaa eee sae ee 52. 75 PAPer is os post essai sae esees sere eee 15. 00 Kireproolpantitionss=-sees- ae seeeeeeee 275. 00 Mota maiscellancousese ese aoe eee ee ee eee 2,591. 31 Totaliexpenditunes= ==. = eee esp eee ee ee ee ee eee Balance July: 190822 55-022 csS oes ee eae NATIONAL MUSEUM—BOOKS, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the National Museum” (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902)-_-....--=.--2..2. EX PENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Totalexpenditures:= 82 tests on 22 ot ses eee ee eee By ed ener Balancers iulliyeal ALO Ose eee lee oe eater pene eee eee NATIONAL MUSEUM—BOOKS, 1902. 3 The Ay $2, 000. 00 1, 393. 38 606. 62 RECEIPTS. Balanceiasmpen report: duliygi 990 2 eee ete ee $1, 142. 97 EXPENDITURES. ; {July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Total-expenditures -..2- 9. 2526 Soe 8 oe oe ee 944. 70 Balance, July 1;,1903.. = <- .6osce ee eee ee ee 198. 27 Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. Appropriation by, Congress Vilar lil Ore $2, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.) Total expenditures ....2. 2.52 2S ae ee ee 1, 801. 73 Balance Jul yale 1903 ase ee er 198. 27 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NATIONAL MUSEUM—BOOKS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Hala Cevaca per he pontine Ulva lem OU eas a ne SS ae aye Ses Seat ne anew Siac EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] XLII $92. 14 86. 74 5. 40 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas- ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. AQ proprmation bv Cconoress une Oy 1 Q00R=22 22 ee 2 ane an- ae eno ea EXPENDITURES. HO raliReROn MitUnes =. se taees we sens see eso oe etter ace le fe Balancercarnedsto surplus funds asaibovere —sess-- eee see ee eee NATIONAL MUSEUM—PURCHASE OF SPECIMENS, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for purchase.of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the National Museum’”’ (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902)......--..------ EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Jal enarees id ira WOU Se See oe ees see ey enn eee NATIONAL MUSEUM—PURCHASE OF SPECIMENS, 1902. RECEIPTS. Balamecerasiper reportedly lh MO022 see soo one ae oe oa nee ee el EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Total statement of receipts and expenditures. [July 1, 1901, to June 30, 1903.] RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress March 3, 1901_.............-------------- EXPENDITURES. TAGTRE (Ss cra S08 WIT CaS CS At cS a ee eee i Sey ON avers: AGE STR NEO fae ee et ee $2, 000. 00 1, 994. 60 5. 40 $10, 000. 00 4, 000, 69 2,416. 04 $10, 000. .00 9, 944. 74 5d. 26 XLIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NATIONAL MUSEUM—PURCHASE OF SPECIMENS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Balancelassper report Jimlys lh 1902/2 a ee ee eee $72. 17 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. NATIONAL MUSEUM—CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATIONAL HERBARIUM, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘ for printing and publishing the contributions from the United States National Herbarium, the editions of which shall not be less than 3,000 copies, including the preparation of necessary illustrations, proof reading, bibliographical work, and special editorial work, $7,000: Provided, That one-half of said copies shall be placed on sale at an advance of 10 per cent over their cost’? (sundry civil act, June 28 VOO2N ode ci Sea Gi re ae See ee Te ares oer Se rete rears aetna EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1901, to June 80, 1903.] Editorial assistant, 12 months, at $1383.33 ........-...--.---- $1, 599. 96 AUHDGIH, 7 Worormdars) Uh Obs) REE) a6 Seo besoeaacccaesccaoss 933. 33 Prntwng 1 200'capies’ot volume 25.2 5252 --- eee eee eee 471.30 Paints, brushes, and drawing material...................-- 22. 90 Total expenditures: 52s $2 soa eee Balancegully ay) 19032.i-2-eccut fst we a ie teas ees NATIONAL MUSEUM—PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL BUILDING, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘ for the preparation, under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithson- ian Institution, of preliminary plans for an additional fireproof, steel- frame, brick, and terra-cotta building, to cost not exceeding $1,500,000 for the United States National Museum, to be erected, when appro- priated for, on the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth streets west, said plans when completed to be transmitted by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to Congress’’ (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902) EXPENDITURES. {July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903.] Rorspreparation of plansis 2. esse a ee ee ee eee Balance vsiuallty: 1 OOS ee as care ee te ee ee $7, 000. 00 3, 027. 49 3, 972. ol $5, 000. 00 4, 956. 80 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘ for maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and publishing results of researches, not exceeding 1,500 copies, repairs and altera- tions of buildings, and miscellaneous expenses, $15,000” (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902) $15, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLV DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: i aid, 34 months, at $175; 84 months, at $200.. $2, 312. 50 ieassistant, 2s: mionths, at 6902222222222... 22 225. 00 1 junior assistant, 33 months, at $110; 83 MONtMIS Ab pla ees eee eee ees eae ot 1, 447.50 1 junior assistant, 13 months, at $75 ..._...-- 112. 50 1 photographer assistant, 2 months, at $70-..-- 140. 00 ledrattsmany.9 Ol days at poses see] ae 2 =e 450. 00 Ieclenkeriom onthe ete see sses eeeeins shoes 125. 00 1 stenographer, 113 months and 4 days, at M0 2 See een ie ee ee ee 1, 162. 90 1 library cataloguer, } month and 16 days, at (MIO) 2: Je cu San ogcOeS SE ces eae aee Seer Coo aee 40. 64 1 instrument maker, 33 months, at $80; 83 MOCIMNN, AU O Go Seee console eeS aE eueesee 1, 045. 00 il dameionein, We araeaywasy Rie eiel) poo oe eooecesoee 720. 00 tineman 2 months) at G60) 9-2. .ses2os2as5 5. 120. 00 1 laborer, 6 months, at $20; 6 months, at $25... 270. 00 lmcleaner lov dayswatipileessecce ose ees oe 157. 00 imcleanery (a .Gays, ab glee se 5-ease eae 7.50 Total salaries or compensation.-----.-.---.---.--- $8, 335. 54 General expenses: JNO ETRNG) S eee sea oan See e eens $2, 093. 88 IROO)s eniavel ovmavchnayers a Ree See eA eee 157. 09 LBSEAKe FtSh sh 2 eet a Sea ee enlist 128. 90 Boil din are pall ey ree eae eng aes 40. 65 (CASI OS er erse re Nee es ga Fe ee ws 67. 40 BE CHICIt yee ees ene See rt 314. 55 JEN OU POU AUR OE ee te A PS es ee ee ear es eet 9. 50 Retort cua lis vemlliimn oyayee ere ee ee oe 92 [DADO OEE ane CSAS ce eae eee eee 130. 40 Jez TKS LO. Soe ree eee ee ee 20. 81 San Gerecenlemiam Ontanwe ss =e ears e eo see 386. 47 'SIRSCON Ts ADIOS Vy Oe seaports Sere ee ae IL OA. 2% SAU 0) QIUV ES eam eS orth eee ee ees ee 532.75 SOMO RIMES Sees GaSe eae eee eee ica ieee 218. 00 PRET Co TAT Sey 5 te eee Ne ee eee ees te ne 2.96 — 5, 248. 75 DG tolechish unEsenltentsre sae ee eee ee ee eee eine soe eee ee $13, 584. 29 iDallamcerdulivgll LOO Stee epee ae reer e rs, 8 ere ares OR eee 1, 415. 71 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1902. Balance’ July i) 1902, as per last report. .~ -~ s52:..2=-.--2.2----2.522%. $2, 253. 69 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: Je\POY OE TE CDS) Pies Sean et GON ae = ae eS a $97. 67 0.0 kes feu Calo lan Gin Op Se ere ra eas, 2 ayn ees ee ele ta ORO HLA IS UL Gn Dee PAE Sy wayne Paso oe er es eee tae Apa Pe ke (il OR nlatGer ee ae ae ee ee eo eee SE Soe ee ee ee 5. 25 Cementycandtandubricksse. 4 =... 245822 oe co 12. 70 XLVI REPORT OF THE EXEOUTIVE COMMITTEE. General expenses—Continued. Hlectricity sos ties ae eee oes SE earn mar eee SE 369. 68 inert bir. oe. os ber a ho Sit ce oe ee 14. 50 Pim Per 2 ss 2 oe ee ee ee ie eee ene eee 92. 68 Paints): ee Se ee ee ae er Sera 100. 66 Special ‘services © 222k Sasec sas os meee oe sees eee ee 17.50 Supplies's...002 7.8.2 e Sees t Soe eee eee mae 119. 38 Total disbursements) 22 22 eee ee ee eee $930. 47 Balance July 19084482 2526-2 See cee: Se ee eee ee eee Ray 2 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901. BalanceJuly 1, 1902 "asper last report so-24-2-e2 =e eee eee ee $0. 92 » Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department, to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSE OF MAY 28, 1900. Balance July 902 astper laste ponte. see ee ae a ee ee $755. 74 Balance July 1;.1903 0.2) esses 2 Sina ch ect eet eee 755. 74 NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1903. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, “for continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sew- erage, drainage, and for grading, planting, and otherwise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclosures; care, sub- sistence, purchase, and transportation of animals, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees; the purchase of necessary books and periodicals; the printing and publishing of operations, not exceeding 1,500 copies, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, $90,000”’ (sundry civil act, June 28, 1902)...-........- $90, 000. 00 DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: 1 superintendent, 12 months, at $225..--- $2, 700. 00 1 property clerk, 12 months, at $150.---- 1, 800. 00 Melerk, 12:months at pllOSs5 2s 1, 320. 00 elenk- el 2smontilhs ee ty biol) eae eee 1, 320. 00 1 stenographer, 12 months, at $83.33~..-- 999, 96 1 landscape gardener, 12 months, at DEOiDO re Sai Bap see eee ee 999. 96 1 photographer’s assistant, 6 months, at Bees eh en orl ee A ey a ee 420. 00 1 head keeper, 12 months, at $112.50. .--- 1, 350. 00 1 keeper, 12 months, at $60 ...........-- 720. 00 1 keeper, 12 months, at $60.......------ 720. 00 1 keeper, 11 months and 233 days, at $60. 706, 32 1 laborer, 4 months, at $50; 1 keeper, 8 months at POO sees oe aa 680. 00 1 keeper, 12 months, at $60.........--..- 720. 00 1 sergeant of watch, 12 months, at $65. - 780. 00 1 watchman, 12 months, at $60...-..----- 720. 00 1 watchman, 12 months, at $55...-....-.- 660. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLVII Salaries or compensation—Continued. 1 assistant foreman, 12 months, at $65 __- $780. 00 1 machinist, 12 months, at $83.33... -.---- 999. 96 l assistant blacksmith, 113 months and WeGay sat: SO) Se tee ot ae tee she ie 704. 00 1 workman, 113 months and 143 days, at CGD Bie ed Se ASE ab ras Le ere a oe 718. 06 1 workman, 114 months, at $60_.-.-...-- 690. 00 1 laborer, 114 months, at $60.-........-.- 690. 00 1 laborer, 12 months, at $60....-.....--- 720. 00 slaponers 2 maronmtlise atipoo!=.es=sseee= : 660. 00 1 laborer, 13 months and 2 days, at $20-- 31. 29 Motalisalaricsoricompensationes== eee ee eeec ee ee $22, 609. 55 Miscellaneous: IAN Daa LUSPeetas ee eee eS = ose ee ee 165. 88 Bull dingsee seer ake eas ae meec eos 1, 000. 00 Bill cinosnnabe nial aeen eee a eee ae 687. 49 Drawih ose eto nee ee esa nese eee 75. 00 Beneing, cage material, ‘ete: _--<.=--2--: 4, 647. 69 HOO CRs Monte ate oh) Sose ner seraamaetine sates ie 12, 761. 75 Freight and transportation of animals. --- 2, 115. 22 ue lia seas Stash ee eee t ceeenise eae 834. 07 JR UN OU RE ee Rene eek ened oe 36. 40 DMA ee ae ee ee A eee Be Re IOS 7ao Machinery etoolss ete Saeesee- == s22- =eeee 738. 51 Miscellaneous supplies. ..--...----.----- 796. 36 Paintiswollsolass etch sas sesso =e essere 357. 45 Postage, telegraph, and telephones ------ 50. 50 Rurchaseohamimals\eer asses = 2 soso ee ee 1, 906. 81 Road material-and grading....---..----. 741. 67 Special services .:..-- Shoes ie Lick tee Sas 21.00 Stationery WOOKS" eC masse esse es ele 245.10 Sunveying plans) eles sass2s-s5-52-- see 1, 102. 50 Traveling and field expenses -.-.-.------ 68. 50 Pireesplantdmeter as ssas sear e eas coke 115: 11 Waters pliyasetCres ss eessea- === = eas 396. OL Motaleuniscellaneousnessas-a2- see ee oc oe nco ee 29, 920. 53 Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in con- structing buildings and inclosures, laying water pipes, building roads, gutters, and walks, planting trees, and otherwise improving the grounds: 1 stone mason, 7} days, at $3.50.......-- $25. 38 ieearpenter,28% days, at ¢3..-. 22.2 o25 22 85. 50 Weanpenter,. 285, days: abipavs.----2s--o52- 85. 50 INGArpenitery oo OAS wabemorss s4- oes ae 105. 00 carpenter nlamdayswatipolcesee ses ae sees 39. 00° I carpenter, 46 days, at $3 ...........--- 138. 00 carpenter dimadaysy at pore == = sere 51. 00 1 carpenter, 36 days, at $3 ---.-. Se etna 108: 00 Mearpentersds days, at: $3ieoncs oa. o—e- 39. 00 i carpenter, 51} days, at $3 -.-...-.....- 153. 75 iearpenter-.62% days, at $3)..255.2-.2.22- 187. 50 sm 1903 IV XLVIIL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in con- structing buildings and inclosures, ete. —Continued. 1 carpenter, 3135 days, at $3..-...:-.-.--- $940. 50 jeer, AN CEN ES Gln cosccocoece soo 62.50 1 cement finisher, 7? days, at $2.80 ...--- 21.70 IMaborery Z9INdays sat p2. 00s ee = see 727. 50 IpiaborervoGo) days: atip2) mee eee eee 730. 00 ilaborers3s02idays; atie2 ease ese eee 604. 00 iMaborerso0idaysmatip2ieea= ess seeee nee 700. 00 Imaborenw2(9audays atebopeee ees ee 559. 00 islaborer. sb days auple/o=seeeeeeee eee 638. 75 i laborer, 2905 days, at $1.75......--..--- 508. 37 labonrerwotmdancuau plas = —= eee ee 607. 25 Imlaborernpliii2sdayswatipleiosee seer eee 301. 86 ihiaborers s6o1days, au ole (Oses see eee 638. 75 1 laborer, 348 days, at $1.75..--.....---- 609. 00 I laborer;, 284 days; atl 7os-2--2-----=- 497.01 imaboner 2932 days watt leioe =e ease ee 514. 06 iNaborerss27Aidays atibla(Oss2> 556-2 =e — 572. 69 iMaborerss6lt days -atibhliose- sss) ss -- 632. 17 Iplaborenwi/idays. vat wl0> oo see= seme 265. 49 iplaborer.202 days wat plan 0 sess e see ae 302. 99 i laborer, 1362 days) atipleo0 B= ssss === 204. 37 I Florent; Gay: GENEL Ata cMi)e =o cascasce 530. 62 iMaborersmeidaysmatioleo 0 sea see eee eer 106. 87 1 laborer, 345 days, at $1.50_---....-.-.-- 517. 50 1 laborer, 288 days, at $1.50, and 91 days, EWN AD Pre aA Seay Mets orks eee atten 591. 25 1 laborer, 2584 days, at $1.50......--.--- 387. 75 1 laborer, 2955 days, at $1.50. -.......--- 443. 25 1 laborer, 1943 days, at $1.50. ---...----- 291.75 I Maborerso635 days at pleoQeee sess e a= 545. 25 I aborer, 620 days, atpleo0fee= so] sees 2-" 93. 38 1 laborer, 334 days, at $1.50.....-..----- 501. 01 i Vaborer Gre days. atipleo Oks sss e sees 101. 62 i laborer; 2752 days, at $l-50-- 2-2-2 ----- 413. 62 iMaborernsl4s sedans anil) ae ee PPB AIL I laborer, 298% days, at $1.50....----.--- 447. 38 1 laborer, 3423 days, at $1.50........---- 513. 78 1 laborer, 444 days, at $1.50...........-- 66. 37 iMaborerlS2idaysyateileo0sseeaee eee PHla% tl 1 laborer, 128% days, at $1.50...--..----- 192. 75 iMlaborer.wilexc anys arbi piles) (see eee 107. 62 i laborer) 25idays; at pleo0ss =]. 2-25 376. 50 1 laborer, 1634 days, at $1.50...-..--..-- 245, 27 1 laborer, 3072 days, at $1.50..........-- 461. 62 1 laborer, 1163 days, at:$1.50........-..- 174. 74 1 laborer, 274 days, at $1.50, and 91 days, at SL. (ooo ae tees ee eee ee eer 570. 25. 1 laborer; 3093 days, atepl-505225-e. oe 464. 25 I laborer; 197 days, atSE-50-- =o. 2-6 e- 295. 50 1 laborer, 2574 days, at/$1.50. 222-2 --2-- 385. 87 1 laborer, 126? days; at $1.50. .........-. 190. 12 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in con- structing buildings and inclosures, ete. —Continued. 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer. 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, { laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, 1 laborer, at $1.75 1 laborer, 1 laborer, BUY Glenasy ain Wee 0)s as oo eos oo kos ISSidaysea plo 0k =e eee =e eee LAday sat pilsoOS =e 2-2 Bode: ORAM BiboMlNe cceascosce STC ava aledil-s0 MS a eee ete are 29 davsiaingleoOsss4=55 5225 47 Gays. ab PlesQe. >... 22-2. AP days atehleo ee eee eae SF CMW, Mpc. see eeesscee Bi OVE, Mh OL), Gos eoeeasede BO GENE, Me il. oe sescooosee ieadanysencitanilis. 0) eee eee sir Gays, Mtoe osécossoecce Denys secuty pilin) 0 sreve ete ere a Ib Gl aay Sey ait piles) () see ae AGA S eatrols oO Mc ose kee an: NOldays ratio a0: Sa esse oe “ail GEMS, Glibe NO ceaacsecaasec Aye CAN, Bie Gil o5555565esee Does GENE, Bin 0. ssscnssaces 103 days, at $1.5 Dine CAS Als oleae 25s ee5s5ce- 45% days, at $1.5 64 dayematapileo 0s sys 5) eee AGE WE aig MILs sassseccesce AN days, ate so02 << ose oe 50) days) ainel.50. S25 222 -eee. See CENA, Gis Moss Seas desessoe 22 GAYS, aAtGlsHOs 2.2. 222 oce LO days; ati pled0ss= one ose HOedays at Gleo0l sae 8... Oidays atl HOS. cacy) ko 4s Ser Gee, Mic wls nea eeosse5 sae Pedy SEIS ENE Mee 5eeem oo mee= (aie GENE, Alb tH Ws eoeeeooceace IURs\ Glenys. he nloaW5e——ssoness5e Uidays: at pl G0ss s252 sees eae 044 days, at plo0s Ses casee = Hos aycmatt dle 0s es Cher Glenys, Bib le cceccanoscce Soe Cay Sera tyepile)\) eae ee ae GZEd ay Se aicgle 50a ee eee: SAVS Abel sO0s= 2 scee2 252-52 WAS days) atiplep0e ss 4545 55. Gieedays rat Sl:50.- 2 2<22 see. 3365 days, at $1.50...2.......- Zi Idays ray plwOOsn-=2—- oe 2 } 2013 days, at $1.50, and 76 days, OHO aC aycm alti pile ape eee Spe CENMEL Bip ILS ooo ese Sse $302. 99 282. 00 Ws ——s j=! CO ot bo mI GO (0/2) fer) Or or (ee) Sor) NS Ot bo ST Ot Ol Go © or0) eS) “I tb Oo D> SOO § ~I OD 41.6 XLIX L REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in con- structing buildings and inclosures, ete.—Continued. 1 laborer, 240 days, at $1.25, and 121 days, abi Plt OU sa ses See ae sae 3481.50 1 laborer, 3663 days, at $1 -.----- eae 366. 50 ilaborersS0) days atlas er a 80. 00 iMaborerso2idayswatioleae =e eee eee 52. 00 i laborer 4o33) days; atipilessessss = ses5ee 453. 50 1 helper, 3124 days, at 75 cents. ......--- 234. 18 I helpers 365 days; atwo cents=---22s2--= 273. 75 1 helper, 203 days, at 50 cents_-.....---- 10.12 1 helper, 35} days, at 75 cents....---.---- 26. 44 1 water boy, 172} days, at 75 cents... ---- 129.18 1 water boy, 14 days, at 75 cents.-------- 10.50 1 water boy, 1 day, at 50 cents.......-...- 50 1 water boy, 148} days, at 50 cents ..---- 74. 12 1 attendant, 694 days, at 75 cents....-..-.- 52. 13 1 attendant, 223 days, at 75 cents....--.- 167. 25 attendant. ldayz,at forcentses-> se sas 75 1 attendant, 7 days, at 75 cents..-.-.-....-- 5, 25 1 stonebreaker, 4 cubic yards, at 60 cents. 2. 40 1 stonebreaker, 12 cubic yards, at 60 cents- 7. 20 1 stonebreaker, 83 cubic yards, at 60 cents- 49. 80 1 wagon and team, 2} days, at $3.50 ----- 7. 88 1 wagon and team, 793 days, at $3.50 ---- 278. 25 1 wagon and team, 102% days, at $3.50. ._- 309. 63 1 wagon and team, 353} days, at $3.50__*- 1, 236. 37 1 horse and cart, 224% days, at $1.75 .._.- 393. 31 1 horse and cart, ? day, at $1.75 -.....-.- 1.31 1 horse and cart, ? day, at $1.75 .......-- ei 1 horse and cart, 2312 days, at $1.75...... 405. 56 1 horse and cart, 4 days, at $1.75......... 7. 00 1 horse, 322 days, at 50-cents........-.-- 161. 01 Totalswares of mechanics. (etce ==. 254-552 eee $32, 714. 88 Total-dishursements:o- 42552525 ee ses se ae ee Balameey duly 1 LQ OS ies Se eee = ie eS ere te eee ee ee er NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1902. Balance July 1, 1902, as per last reponse =a scar eee eee DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: Apparattis’-.é3=2. soe see ne eee $1, 160. 00 ‘Building materials -- 532 see =e ee eee a See 23. 25 Fence /and' cage: materials sei 2 cm teers os ee 229.79 Food: 2.5225 52,5.4)- 552 ee ee ee 1, 022. 47 Freight. 2c.223 2c gs See ee eee 879. 78 Bulelis soar Gee et eee ee 11299 Furnitures): 32564 eqs heen ae ae eee 18. 05 Mumiber..22 eles a a ee ee 220. 36 $85, 244. 96 4,755. 04 $5, 485. 23 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. General expenses—Continued. Niachin ray stools Metcreae reas Sacer cee ee eee ee $44. 53 Miscellancousismppliesmen ses sn = ssn ee ee eas 112. 48 JPET outs hs | ONUESIS (65 Ke ce eR a ae eee we 61. 91 Postage, telegrams, and telephones ...........-...---- (2. 67 Rnrehase ofan steams ee eee ye eee ee 310) 1} Roadematertatvancdomadin geste nee) eee 1, 166. 49 Stall On Clay WOOO KS me Lee wares eras es eae ee a 65. 20 Surveying: planenetGa= =o Ss 25. ok ok = ean tte 256. 25 irae lsandetiel deexpensesiem se 22 ae n-ne a ee ees 41. 80 reese planta ete: . s2- ais ed 5 ee aN AS Vel Oe aera 35. 00 Waters plyas CLC sa rater reir Meet e Sato oe ees Se 24. 88 Total disbursements ........-- BS pe eee ec Sie ar wity Reet ne alam cere iuvgllee LOU a exe pts materia See citys ote es ce en erates NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1901. Balance diilhyal lOO easuperllashire ponte = ee ae eo nea ee ee LI $17. 28 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department, to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1903. ELEPHANT HOUSE, NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1903, Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, ‘‘for the construction of an elephant house, with bathing pools and other accessories, including labor and materials and all necessary incidental expenses, ten thousand dollars, one-half of which sums for the National Zoological Park shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Colum- bia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States’? (sundry GiVMleACt eMC ES SOD.) eats maw cece ene ee er ee ee ee tn se a CIOL ULSI Copsey RST oe pO ee SEs ete SE Be ea) Sa oe $18. 15 Die h abavegs | OMA Ci COh eee en he Sy em eee ere 435. 00 Construction of building and accessories ..........-..----- 8, 971. 83 CAD Ore OUISIGeTO le COmibT A Ct sep aaes a ers eee ey er 510. 62 otaledisbimrsema enters Aeon eee ae Bi ea Eee eh Ra, Balam cena ly slr eO 032 See mtete Aces al othe 2 ae Mr ee eee AR reat RECAPITULATION. $10, 000. 00 9, 935. 60 64. 40 The total amount of funds administered by the Institution during the year ending June 30, 1903, appears from the foregoing statements and account books to have been as follows: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. From balance of last year, July. 1, 1902 ...............-.- $81, 120. 91 From interest on Smithsonian fund for the year._...-._-- 54, 720. 00 Brom interest on West Shore bonds -._-.-.-2-2.---.-.-.- 1, 680. 00 Rromealesiob publications: #222 isi. As. s a hesee ee 329. 87 Kronvrepaymemnts, freisht; ett 22.26 -css-0 josesen eens: 11, 105. 50 $148, 95¢ 5. 28 LItI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTED BY CONGRESS TO THE CARE OF THE INSTITUTION. International exchanges—Smithsonian Institution: Hrommballame eyo tel 0 00 (ese messes eet Hromebalameexoiel(Q (0) 2 eee agape eee sees reer BRromeappropriationdorsl 902-372. ees n = eae eee American ethnology—Smithsonian Institution: From balancevotdl900=19 01s ae eee Hromeubalancerotalo 02 =e = eee Rromvappropriatons tor 902—3 ses =s==se ane ree Preservation of collections—National Museum: From balance of 1900-1900 2222-2222. 22. eee ironman, loallenovexs Oi IGOIMY. eke secced=csoe5- From appropriation sor 1002—3.26- ee —-s-ei-eccie Furniture and fixtures—National Museum: BrompbalancezolelQ0 0-19 Ole eae ee ee Riromyoallancevoia(9 02 eee Brom appropriation for 1902-32-22 = 22-2. 2-52. Heating and lighting—National Museum: Krom) balance of L900=)90 esas ea eae eee ese Veaopaay opubsnavereoue WSN ee » From appropriation for,1902-3 --.--.-.- Seas Postage—National Museum: 9 From appropriation for 1902-3 -..-..2--2.: .-.- Printing and binding—National Museum: > From appropriation tor 1902-3. <--- 2 S22s-2- Rent of workshops—National Museum: Hromubalance orl G00—19 lea aaa ee eee eae From balance of 1901-2 .-....---.-- Bsa aoctete From appropriation for 1902-3) 22-2 = 2222-=2222= Building repairs—National Museum: 1 reovon’ lov evorere: Cove INSOO USO = eee See eee HromlsWallame ero tel Oil 2 eee ese aS From appropriation for 1902-3 ..-....---:--.-- Galleries—National Museum: [igovont lokenovess Ot NGWI SY oe secu se ee eas soee Books—National Museum: From balance of 1900=190 teas aaa eee Kromibalanceroil 902 eee EFromiappropriakion torl902—3yeee=ese = aaa aa Purchase of specimens—National Museum: ronmlpalanceot 900 Skee =a eee ee eee rom) balancer otal S Oi 2) ee > Promappropriation tord902—3)ese=aeee= == Contributions to National Herbarium—National Museum: Kromiuappropriationstomil902—3) 2s) ss san eee Plans for additional building—National Museum: Kromapprophiation tordl903 eas === =e $23.55 1, 956. O1 26, 000. 00 1.93 2, 976. 18 50, 000. 00 74, 49 5, 709. 78 180, 000. 00 1.89 2,136. 15 22, 500. 00 0. 23 1, 560. 43 18, 000. 00 $0. 08 08 4, 400. 00 04 1, 938. 30 15, 000. 00 892. 14 1, 142. 97 2,000. 00 2 2, 471. 10, 000. 24, 638. 19, 560. 500. 17, 000. 4, 400. 16, 938. ; 37. 3, 235. 12, 543. 7, 000. 5, O00. 9.56 5 lt Sa 04 66 00 00 16 11 47 00 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. LIL Smithsonian Institution: Astrophysical Observatory Rromebalancexotel!00=19 0 tees eee eee ee ee $$0. 92 Ikon loMlmGeror MWY — ss 4 koe doces soos eeescos sue 2, 253. 69 Romy Appropriatl onwiOrelo02—3 ess sen eee ee 15, 000. 00 $17, 254. 61 Observation of eclipse of May 28, 1900: Krome balance iullivye eelG02 8 2 2 2)..oeees asec as See eee oe es ais 755. 74 National Zoological Park: [Preorony lopnkeuayerss Ort INOS oe oe soso pose eso escsde $17. 28 iromualancero tal O 2 eeees sty vores aa ee rere pee 5, 485. 23 HromMeappRopmatonetorsd.902—3ieeeee = eee sees 90, 000. 00 95, 502. 51 SUMMARY. Sli sovoukaial JGNSNADNAMON ooo oc ooo ken dose oseosoeees cancoe 148, 956. 28 TEVBESCG ONAN Sh a ah ea ee a Ce eee 27, 979. 56 HBSS ety) Lclon ys prsene ye ee set ea mere rs rw eee tare 52, 978. 11 RrecenvaloncOmeolech Ones sss see eee eee eee 185, 784. 27 HumEMibunKeran Gulbxttinesses ee oe soe Sem 2) Se ee ee eee 24, 6388. 04 Eveatin ova cdelie hip ox sepa oe eee ee eee ae 19, 560. 66 IR OStAG ON eee pee eee oe nee ee Nines 500. 00 Brimntimevamncilio ty ditt sees eet yamine ces eee See ae 17, 000. 00 RenicOtswonksh Opes sen sureties oases aoe eee ae 4, 400. 16 BS cll din cane pans a= aoe se Secs ae ee ase ae See octets 16, 938. 34 (Ga NET taNiST Se ey eas RS ee eee Se Ane Sere et ie See ee 392 TBXOXON ES) Sap ee eS ene ei sen ep re er Sy a II URGWASerolispecinens == aso oe een eee erases 12, 543. 47 Contributions touNational Selerbariumse sees e eee 7, 000. 00 IPibewavst iioye exo koltiroyoenl JovanllhwnYee oo oe pec eno se ona sea soass= 5, 000. 00 ANS ROC ay SCY | (OQOSSAVENIOIAY senso anda] Cosco asondooos ssence 17, 254. 61 Obsenyationvob eclipse, {ara ee cemee ee eee ae 755. 74 INetiOmall beans kya ae oe er ee eh ee 95, 502. 51 640, 064. 78 The committee has examined the vouchers for payment from the Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1903, each of which bears the approval of the Secretary or, in his absence, of the Acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the institution. The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been examined and found correct. Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian fund available for use in the year ending June 80, 1904. Balancer duiliys [ail 0 sereecvers ce sects as Scere ase eet revs Sore a oes ais oe sere $55, 507. 67 Interest due and receivable July 1, 1903:.--...--...---.--- $27, 964. 17 Interest due and receivable January 1, 1904..........-.--- 28, 110. 00 Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1903---.- 840. 00 Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due January 1, 1904-- 840. 00 —— 957, 754.17 Total available for year ending June 30, 1904. ....-..-.--------- 113, 261. 84 Respectfully submitted. J. B. HENDERSON, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Ropert R. Hirr, Erecutine Committee. Wasuineton, D. C., January 25, 1904. ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ETC. Continued from previous Reports. Pp [Fifty-seventh Congress, first session. ] SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. SMITHSONIAN Deposit [Liprary oF Coneress|.—For custodian, one thousand five hundred dollars; one assistant, one thousand two hundred dollars; one messenger, seven hundred and twenty dollars; one messenger boy, three hundred and sixty dollars; in all, three thou- sand seven hundred and eighty dollars. (Approved April 28, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 130.) EXCHANGE OF PuBLIC Documents [Liprary of Coneress].—For expenses of exchanging public documents for the publications of for- eign governments, one thousand eight hundred dollars. (Approved April 28, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 131.) INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. INTERNATIONAL EXcHAanGEs.—For expenses of the system of inter- national exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, and the purchase of neces- sary books and periodicals, twenty-six thousand dollars. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 439.) ; Navat Osservatory.—For repairs to buildings, fixtures, and fences, furniture, gas, chemicals and stationery, freight (including transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange), foreign postage and expressage, plants, fertilizers, and all contingent expenses, two thousand five hundred dollars. (Approved April 28, 1902; Statutes, X XXII, 155.) GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY.~For the purchase of necessary books for the library, including directories and professional and scientific period- icals needed for statistical purposes, and not exceeding four thousand dollars for the payment for the transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, six thousand dollars: Provided, That the purchase of professional and scientific books and period- LV LVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. icals needed for statistical purposes hereafter by the scientific divi- sions of the United States Geological Survey is hereby authorized to be made and paid for out of appropriations made for the said Survey. (Approvec June 28, 1902; Statutes, XXXII, 455.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of neces- sary books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceeding one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XXXII, 439.) For North American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, three dollars and thirty cents. (Approved July 1, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 585.) ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. For maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and publishing results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscellaneous expenses, fifteen thousand dollars. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XXXII, 439.) NATIONAL MUSEUM. For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi- bition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty- two thousand five hundred dollars. For expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele- phonie service for the National Museum, eighteen thousand dollars. For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col- lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Goyern- ment, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, of which sum five thousand five hundred dollars may be used for necessary drawings and illustrations for publications of the National Museum; and all other necessary incidental expenses. For purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the National Museum, two thousand dollars. For repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ- ing all necessary labor and material, fifteen thousand dollars. ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LVII For rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National Museum, four thousand four hundred dollars. For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum, five hundred dollars. For printing and publishing the contributions from the United States National Herbarium, the editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, including the preparation of necessary illustrations, proof reading, bibliographical work, and special editorial work, seven thousand dollars: Prov/ded, That one-half of said copies shall be placed on sale at an advance of ten per centum over their cost. For the preparation, under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, of preliminary plans for an additional fire- proof steel-frame brick-and-terra-cotta building, to cost not exceed- ing one million five hundred thousand dollars, for the United States National Museum, to be erected when appropriated for, on the Mall, between Ninth and Twelfth streets west, said plans when completed to be transmitted by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to Congress, five thousand dollars. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XXXII, 439-440.) For preservation of collections, National Museum, eighty-one dol- lars and twenty-one cents. (Approved February 14, 1902; Statutes, XXXII, 28.) For the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and for the ** Bulletins” and *‘ Proceedings” of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding, in half turkey, or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National Museum Library, seventeen thousand dollars. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 480.) NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and other- wise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclosures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees; the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, the printing and pub- lishing of operations, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, ninety thousand dollars. For the construction of an elephant house, with bathing pools and other accessories, including labor and materials and all necessary incidental expenses, ten thousand dollars; one-half of which sums for LVIIL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. the National Zoological Park shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States. (Approved June 28, 1902; Statutes, XX XIT, 440.) For National Zoological Park, thirty-seven cents. (Approved July 1, 1902; Statutes, XX XII, 585.) TIFTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. REPRINTED FROM 1902 REPORT. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. SmirHsoNIAN Deposrr [Liprary oF Conaress|.—For custodian, one thousand five hundred dollars; one assistant, one thousand two hundred dollars; one messenger, seven hundred and twenty dollars; one messenger boy, three hundred and sixty dollars; in all, three thousand seven hundred and eighty dollars. (Approved February 25, 1903; Statutes, XX XII, 864.) _ExcHANGE OF Pusiic Documents [LiBprary OF ConGREss].—For expenses of exchanging public documents for the publications of for- eign governments, one thousand eight hundred dollars. (Approved February 25, 1903; Statutes, XXXII, 865.) ‘NATIONAL MUSEUM. For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi- bition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty- two thousand five hundred dollars. For expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele- phonic service for the National Museum, eighteen thousand dollars. For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col- leetions from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern- ment, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, of which sum five thousand five hundred dollars may be used for neces- sary drawings and illustrations for publications of the National Museum, and all other necessary incidental expenses. For purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the National Museum, two thousand dollars. For repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ- ing all necessary labor and material, fifteen thousand dollars. For rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National Museum, four thousand four hundred dollars. For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National , Museum, five hundred dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, NNO tO; O25) ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LIX Buriprne ror Nationat Museum: To enable the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution to commence the erection of a suitable fire- proof building with granite fronts, for the use of the National Museum, to be erected on the north side of the Mall, between Ninth and Twelfth streets northwest, substantially in accordance with the Plan A, prepared and submitted to Congress by the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution under the provisions of the act approved June twenty-eighth, nineteen hundred and two, two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Said building complete, including heating and ven- tilating apparatus and elevators, shall cost not to exceed three million five hundred thousand dollars, and a contract or contracts for its com- pletion is hereby authorized to be entered into subject to appropria- ations to be made by Congress. The construction shall be in charge of Bernard R. Green, superintendent of Buildings and Grounds, Library of Congress, who shall make the contracts herein authorized and dis- burse all appropriations made for the work, and shall receive as full compensation for his services hereunder the sum of two thousand dol- lars annually in addition to his present salary, to be paid out of said appropriations. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, X XXII, 1102.) For the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and for the ** Bulletins” and ‘‘ Proceedings” of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding, in half turkey, or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National Museum Library, seventeen thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XX XII, 1146.) For preservation of collections, National Museum, sixty cents. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XXXII, 1075.) INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, and the purchase of necessary books and _ periodicals, twenty-six thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes ROX KI MELGH.) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.—For the purchase of necessary books for the library, including directories and professional and scientific period- icals needed for statistical purposes, not to exceed two thousand dollars, and the payment for the transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, four thousand dollars: in all, six thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XXXII, 1118.) LX ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. Nava OpservAtory.—For repairs to buildings, fixtures, and fences, furniture, gas, chemicals, and stationery, freight (including transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange), foreign postage, and expressage, plants, fertilizers, and all contingent expenses, two thousand five hundred dollars. (Approved February 25, 1903; Statutes, X X XII, 889.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of neces- sary books and periodicals, forty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceeding one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XX XII, 1101.) NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and other- wise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclosures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals; including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, the printing and publish- ing of operations, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, ninety-five thousand dollars; one-half of which sum shall be paid from the reve- nues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XXXII, 1102.) For Adams Mill road, Columbia road to Zoo, grade and improve, seven thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XXXII, 963.) That in order to more fully carry out the intent of the provision in the appropriation act approved July first, nineteen hundred and two, providing for the expenses of the government of the District of Colum- bia, authorizing the readjustment of the lines of the streets on the east side of the Zoological Park, the Commissioners of the District of Columbia be, and they are hereby, authorized to use as a highway so much of the Zoological Park as lies within a proposed street on the east side of said Zoological Park between Kenyon street and Klingle road, the bounds of said street being located as follows: The east build- ing line to be distant fifteen feet from the present improved thirty- foot roadway and the west line to be distant forty-five feet from the present improved thirty-foot roadway. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XX XII, 963.) ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXI ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. For maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, making neces- sary observations in high altitudes, printing and publishing results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, repairs and alterations of buildings and miscellaneous expenses, fifteen thou- sand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1903; Statutes, XX XII, 1101.) ILLUSTRATIONS IN GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS. That no part of the appropriations herein made for printing and binding shall be used for any illustration, engraving, or photograph, in any document or report ordered printed by Congress unless the order to print expressly authorizes the same, nor in any document or report of any Executive Department or other Government establish- ment until the head of the Executive Department or Government establishment shall certify in the letter transmitting such report that the illustration is necessary and relates entirely to the transaction of public business. (Sundry civil act, approved March 38, 1903; Stat- utes, XX XII, 1147.) Retiehs@ hee OF ee eras Bawa © ol lon Bea ae SpE CR yee AGR as (OLE eho b Sev MES ON PAINe TON Sm no) La OmNS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present herewith my report, show- ing the operations of the Institution during the year ending June 30, 1903, including the work placed under its direction by Congress in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, and the Astrophysical Observatory. Following the precedent of several years, there is given, in the body of this report, a general account of the affairs of the Institution and its bureaus, while the appendix presents more detailed statements by the persons in direct charge of the different branches of the work. Independently of this, the operations of the National Museum are fully treated in a separate volume of the Smithsonian Report, and the Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology constitutes a volume prepared under the supervision of the Chief of that Bureau. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT. By act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the Smithsonian Institution was created an Establishment. Its statutory members are the President, the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, and the heads of the Executive Departments. The preroga- tive of the Establishment is ‘the supervision of the affairs of the Institution and the advice and the instruction of the Board of Regents.” A vacancy continues to exist in the Establishment caused by the succession to the Presidency of Vice-President Roosevelt. By the organization of the Department of Commerce and Labor its Secretary has become a member of the Establishment. sm 1903 i bo REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. As organized on June 30, 1903, the Establishment consisted of the following ex officio members: THEODORE Rooskvent, President of the United States. (Vacancy), Vice-President of the United States. Mervintte W. Fuuurr, Chief Justice of the United States. Joun Hay, Secretary of State. Lesitiz M. Suaw, Secretary of the Treasury. Exrau Roor, Secretary of War. PHILANDER C. Knox, Attorney-General. Henry C. Payne, Postmaster- General. Wiitt1am H. Moopy, Secretary of the Navy. Ernan AtLen Hircncocn, Secretary of the Interior. James Wiuson, Secretary of Agriculture. GrorGE B. Cortetyou, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board of Regents consists of the Vice-President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three members of the Senate, three members of the House of Representatives, and six citizens, ‘‘two of whom shall be residents of the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents adopted January 8, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth Wednesday of each year, the Board met on January 28, 1903, at 10 o'clock a. m. The following is an abstract of its proceedings, which will be found in detail in the annual report of the Board to Congress: The Secretary presented his annual report of the operations of the Institution and its several dependencies for. the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902, and the Board adopted the annual report of the execu- tive committee to the same date, showing in detail the financial condi- tion of the Institution. The usual resolution relative to income and expenditure was adopted. Senator Henderson, chairman of the permanent committee, reported upon the expenditures incurred by the Secretary under the authority of the Board of Regents in continuing his experiments on mechanical flight. Statements were made in regard to the proposed bequest of Addison T. Reid; also concerning the will of Wallace C. Andrews and the status of the residuary legacy under the Hodgkins will. Senator Platt; chairman of the special committee, appointed in . accordance with a resolution of the Board— ‘*to represent to Congress the pressing necessity of additional room for the proper exhibition of specimens belonging to the National Museum ”— REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 reported that the committee had examined the plans prepared under the direction of the Secretary, as provided in the sundry civil act of June 28, 1902, and recommended that if an appropriation for the entire new building could not be made now the committee would respectfully urge upon Congress an appropriation of $1,500,000 to construct a portion of the completed plan. The committee further urged that Congress be advised of the fact that collections of the greatest value are in immediate danger of destruction, and are now actually undergoing degeneration in the present unsuitable, unsafe, temporary quarters, ane that the erection of a new building is aoe lutely necessary. for the preservation of the national collections. The members of the committee, in addition to the chairman, were Senators Cullom and Cockrell and Representatives Hitt, Adams, and Dinsmore. The report of the committee was adopted and they were instructed to bring the matter to a conclusion by securing an appropriation. The Secretary announced to the Board the death, on September 23, 1902, of Maj. J. W. Powell, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and the appointment on October 11 of Mr. William H. Holmes, and made a statement as to the status of the Bureau and its future policy. On motion of Senator Henderson, the Secretary was— ‘*authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States, under the terms of section 5591 of the Revised Statutes, as an addition to the permanent fund of the Institution, the sum of $25,000 from the unexpended balance.” By resolution of the Board a special committee of five, consisting of the Chancellor, Senators Cullom and Platt, and Representatives Adams and Dinsmore, was appointed to consider the question of specifically defining the powers of the executive committee, to report at a special meeting called for March 12, 1903. The special meeting was held on March 12, when the Chancellor reported informally upon the duties heretofore discharged by the executive committee. No definite conclusion had been reached as to the question of defining the powers of that committee, but it was thought desirable that it should hold regular meetings and that the Board of Regents should hold two stated meetings in addition to the annual meeting prescribed by law. It was therefore resolved — “That, in addition to the prescribed meeting held on the fourth Wednesday in January, regular meetings of the Board shall be held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in December and on the 6th day of March, unless that date falls on Sunday, when the following Mon- day shall be substituted.” The special committee was continued, with a request to further pursue the examination of the whole subject and to report at the December meeting. Senator Platt read a clause from the sundry civil act approved March 4. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 8, 1903, authorizing the Regents to commence the erection of a new building for the National Museum, to cost not to exceed $3,500,000, and to make contracts for its completion subject to appropriations by Congress. Two hundred and fifty thousand dollars was appropriated to begin the work, the construction to be in charge of Bernard R. Green, Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds, Library of Congress. The resolution adopted by the Board will be found on page 17, under the heading ‘** National Museum.” Mr. Bell introduced resolutions providing for appointments under the Institution, which were referred to the special committee already existing. Upon motion of Senator Cockrell, the Secretary was authorized to cause to be prepared a compilation of all laws or parts of laws referring to or in any manner affecting the Smithsonian Institution and the bureaus under its charge, including all appropriations by Congress for its purpose or use. Referring to previous action of the Board concerning the removal of the remains of James Smithson to this country, Mr. Bell offered to bring them to the United States if the Regents would care for them thereafter, and after remarks the suggestion was accepted that Mr. Bell renew his inquiry at-the next meeting. ORGANIZATION OF BOARD OF REGENTS. As organized at the end of the fiscal year, the Board of Regents con- sisted of the following members: The Hon. M. W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, Chan- cellor; the Hon. W. P. Frye, President pro tempore of the United States Senate; Senator 8. M. Cullom; Senator O. H. Platt; Senator Francis M. Cockrell; Representative R. R. Hitt; Representative Rob- ert Adams, jr.; Representative Hugh A. Dinsmore; Dr. James B. Angell; Dr. Andrew D. White; the Hon. J. B. Henderson; Prof. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. Richard Olney, and the Hon. George Gray. ADMINISTRATION. The general supervision of the business of the several dependencies placed by Congress under the direction of the Institution has year by year required my increased attention, although as far as practicable the carrying out of details has been left to those in immediate charge of the work of the bureaus. In view of the great development in the science of ethnology during recent years it seemed desirable that the work of the Bureau of Amer- ican Ethnology should be reorganized, and in order that I might have full knowledge of the needs of that Bureau a committee was appointed to secure detailed information from those engaged in that branch of the Institution’s activities, and to make recommendations based upon the results of their observations. The committee began this work toward the close of the fiscal year, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 BUILDINGS. Certain much-needed repairs to the main roof of the Smithsonian building are in progress, and in this connection it seems important to again call attention to the necessity of a reconstruction of the ceiling and other renovations of the large Anthropological Hall, whose noble dimensions deserve a worthier treatment, and of improving the access to it. . In the paragraphs devoted to the Museum and to the Zoological Park mention is made of building improvements during the year. FINANCES. The permanent funds of the Institution are as follows: Benucshobpmibhsond Wes a ios.2 sess cae ce tcl esce hcl e2 le Soe e 2522 $515, 169. 00 Hesiduanrylesacyvof smitheon, 186 ie- 242. 22. os ests eens te we ~s 26, 210. 63 Depositpirom:. sayings ofincome, 18672. s222 6 2-2 oo. ee eel 108, 620. 37 Bequest of James Eamulton’ 1875-222.) 322 2--Si ete: 1, 000. 00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895........_..._- 1, 090. 00 — 2, 000. 00 DeQucsmoOmomeonsll abel, 1880 s22 2 .as ee soe eee Se ee oe 500. 00 Deposit from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881....:........-...----.---- 51, 500. 00 Cimmonenomas Glodeking: 189 esi. eens foe eee jo cece toe 200, 000. 00 Portion of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894...........-.- 8, 000. 00 Deposit iromlsavings ot, imcome; 1903 5. .22a0 52.22.5285 225.54-.0255222 25, 000. 00 Total permanent fund ...-.---.- SEE hie See | Rie Ra 937, 000. 00 Under the provisions of the act organizing the Institution and the act of Congress approved March 12, 1894, the above fund is deposited in the Treasury of the United States and bears interest at 6 per cent per annum. In addition to the permanent fund, the regents hold certain approved railroad bonds, which form part of the fund estab- lished by Mr. Hodgkins for investigations into the properties of atmospheric air. The unexpended balance at the beginning of the fiscal year, July 1, 1902, as stated in my last report, was $81,120.91. The total receipts by the Institution during the year were $67,835.37. Of this sum, $56,400 was derived from interest and the remaining $11,435.37 was received from miscellaneous sources. The disbursements during the year amounted to $93,448.61, the details of which are given in the report of the executive committee. This amount includes the sum of $25,000 which, in accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents adopted at the last annual meeting, was drawn from the current funds and deposited in the Treasury of the United States to the credit of the permanent fund. The balance remaining to the credit of the Secretary on June 30, 1903, for the expenses of the Institution was $55,507.67. A considerable part of 6 REPORT OF THE SEOGRETARY. this balance 1s held against certain contingent obligations which may be expected to mature as a result of various scientific investigations and publications in progress. The Institution was charged by Congress, during the fiscal year 1903, with the disbursement of the following appropriations: International vExchanges=.=-=2-2cetesn saemeaee bemet ese sce ae eee $26, 000. 00 American Mithnology S250 ssacecewas sae see eee oe See wince toe eee 50, 000. 00 Astroplysical Observatory. 42323 2-2 eee eee see ns ee eee 15, 000. 00 United States National Museum: [eR AODRS HVIVGL TIDUS = oe eds ons escseoeeessuse $22, 500. 00 Heatino,andWliohting 22 25sec says eee 18, 000. 00 iPresenvatlonmcollechionsmsc een eee ae ee 180, 000. 00 iRurchascolspecimens = -peeeeseeeSeseee eee eee eee 10, 000. 00 iRostagese=saeeeee eR ee tee Peed Sy ea Fue seen Cae 500. 00 IB OOS eee ree ce Rite ces a cs ea es pe a NES Seep eee 2, 000. 00 Rentvotsworkshops 2222s) ee -= soe ee ese eee ee ener 4, 400. 00 Repairs) toy buildines 2202s = eee eee See eae 15, 000. 00 Plans for additional Museum building -----.-----..----- 5, 000. 00 Publishing contributions from Museuin herbarium... --- 7, 000. 00 Printings. 223 ecco oc dooce tee cies ceeeee eee eee 17, 000. 00 —— 281, 400. 00 NationalyZoological Parke e-e-ne eae ee ee eee eee 90, 000. 00 National Zoological Park, elephant house -.-...-...---- 10, 000. 00 ———— 100, 000. 00 Total os o2.22 lech 2 nscae Sere eee ees Sats ee eee ee ee 472, 400. 00 Estimates were forwarded as usual to the Secretary of the Treasury for carrying on the Government’s interests under the charge of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904. The following table shows the estimates and the sums respectively appropriated: Appropria- | Estimates. | One! imniternation ale xCha mpeg sees ses \lee ssc week cise cheaeee tere eoraseineee $29, 800 $26, 000 American) EthnOlO yan e ascee ana === ame Pte ae ats ord SIC neers rate | 60, 000 40, 000 AStrop hy siCalODservatOryisaceus sciae aa ee eee ee cate se eee 15, 000 15, 000 National Museum: Hurniturevanditixturesss eos - smc cn ce sete see eee eee eee eee $22, 500 22, 500 Heating and igh tingy-casseee cece ace oe ene eee eee Ee eee 18, 000 18, 000 PreservalioniolcollechOnsese-- eee eee e eaeeee eee eee eee ee 210, 000 180, 000 Purchase! OL SpeCiMeNS® ¢.clsasta acces See ee Nene ee eee eee 10, 000 10, 000 BOOKS 22S sseate cs trasenya ee nace ae oasis eee eee eee Senator 2,000 2, 000 POStAR Canim Saiz Soha tas icine seule nies ¢ OS Se ee oO ee CCC E EEE 500 500 Rentor workshopsi.th-.o3.4 5 hee oo eee eee ee eee eee 4, 400 4, 400 Repairsitoibuildinges) =... 2. sae-e cee coe eee eee eee eee eee 15, 000 15, 000 Publishing contributions, Museum herbarium............2.------ URC at en «Ras Sa Printings 3. 2ece73 Se eses coe cece ce ee ee eee eee 17, 000 17, 000 —— 306, 400 |———— 269, 400 New building forNational Museummesse cece een eee bene eee ee eee 250, 000 IME Kako a MNZACroNoy-aKOeW! Jethro WA Gao acecocokaasukeduracoaoeSonuasawseoce 110, 000 95, 000 Wiamim aah Ouse ease ee eee eee ORS ae EC cOn Se enSectetaansoe 25, 000 AQUARIUM, Meso cect eticte ah eka ee ee ee eee 25, 000 ——— 160, 000 otal. see2 2 sss aok see es ces See lO ee ee ene 571, 200 695, 400 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. “I RESEARCH. It was a part of the original plan of the Institution that its Secretary should not give his time wholly to administrative duties, but should directly aid in its scientific investigations. @ Research work in various fields of science has been continued by the Institution and its dependencies. I have made some progress toward the solution of the problem of mechanical flight, and have been carrying on, with the consent of the Regents, some experiments for the War Department, at its expense, and am adding other experiments, partly at the expense of the Insti- tution. In the Astrophysical Observatory I have continued work believed to be important, and inaugurated some experiments of novel interest, which are referred to later. Through the Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology the Institution has been enabled to carry on various biological and ethno- logical researches, which will be found fully described elsewhere in this report and need not be repeated here. HODGKINS FUND. Reports giving the final results of some important investigations which have been prosecuted by the aid of the Hodgkins fund and others, giving the details of the progress of researches still incomplete, have been received. Several of these memoirs have already been issued by the Institution, and others are in course of publication. The second memoir by Dr. Carl Barus, referred to in my last report as supplementary to the investigation on ionized air, has been pub- lished as one of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, under the title *‘ The Structure of the Nucleus.” Questions necessarily left outstanding in the first memoir are answered in the second, the two volumes forming together a valuable contribution to the literature of the subject. The thermometric researches of Prof. M. W. Travers, of University College, London, have been reported on in a memoir entitled *‘On the Attainment of Very Low Temperatures,” which’ is now in course of publication. It is the design of Professor Travers to prosecute his investigation still further, and the question of another grant for the purpose has been submitted for consideration. The research on vacuum spectroscopy, by Dr. Victor Schumann, of Leipzig, has been reported on in detail in a memoir soon to be issued as one of the Contributions to Knowledge. The special apparatus, @ Resolved, That the Secretary continue his researches in physical science, and pre- sent such facts and principles as may be developed for publication in the Smithsonian contributions. (Adopted at meeting of the Board of Regents January 26, 1847.) re) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. which has been both designed and constructed by Doctor Schumann for conducting this advanced and difficult research, is described in his report. The interest among specialists in this investigation has been so general that the Institution has permitted Doctor Schumann to pub- lish without delay significant discoveries made in the course of his experiments, on the condition of announcing them at the same time to the Institution and mentioning the relation of his work to the Hodg- kins fund. In February, 1908, Prof. E. W. Scripture, of Yale University, whose special researches relative to speech or phonetics have called attention to his work, received a Hodgkins grant for the construction of a ‘*vowel machine,” which, when perfected, he hopes will be equivalent to devising a perfect yox humana stop for the organ, which may replace the one now in use. In accordance with the rule of the insti- tution the application for this grant was referred for an opinion to the highest accessible authority before approval. A grant in form of a subscription for a specified number of copies of the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity has been again approved, it being apparent that the publication is of service to the specialists and educational establishments that have been placed on the list to receive it through the Institution. Any general allotment of the income from the Hodgkins fund is precluded by the terms of the bequest, but it may be again repeated that every request for such assistance receives attention, and an application by an investigator who is able to comply with the con- ditions established in accordance with the will of the donor is sure of serious consideration. NAPLES TABLE. The contract for the Smithsonian Table in the Naples Zoological Station, which was extended from June 30, 1902, through December of that year, has been again renewed for one year from January 1, 1902. The applications for the Smithsonian seat have been so numerous and so urgent that the Institution felt called on to engage another table fora part of the year. This, however, Doctor Dohrn could not arrange for, but with his. usual kindness he promised in any event to accom- modate all the Smithsonian appointees. He has not only done this, but in several instances has exceeded the requests of the Institution. During the period from March 1 till July 1, 1903, the table had con- stantly two occupants. It should be added that whenever the dates of applications interfered with each other the approval of the Secretary was accorded, with the understanding that the tenure of the seat should be subject to such modification as might be suggested by the Director of the Station. Dr. C. W. Prentiss, of Harvard University, whose application for an extension of his occupaney was noted in my last report, remained REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. +) at the Station on the invitation of Doctor Dohrn, pending a decision as to the renewal of the Smithsonian lease. His occupancy was after- wards extended until August 1, making a session of five consecutive months. Preliminary mention of his research has been received from Doctor Prentiss, in which he speaks of the exceptional opportunities afforded at Naples for obtaining valuable living material for his researches. During the summer of 1902 Dr. T. H. Morgan, of Bryn Mawr College, filled another short appointment at the table, and has since transmitted to the Institution copies of two published memoirs detail- ing the results of his work. Dr. C. M. Child, of the University of Chicago, occupied the Smith- sonian seat from July 1 till December 31, 1902. His report, which indicates briefly the results of his work without extended discussion, 1s to be published in the first quarterly issue of the Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections, together with the other papers which have been submitted, in accordance with the request of the Institution, for this purpose by those who have recently occupied the Smithsonian seat. Dr. C. S. Minot, of Harvard University, who filled an appointment from October 15 till December 15, 1902, reports that his time at Naples was devoted to procuring series of embryos of Zorpedo ocellata, Mus- telus levis, Petromyzon, and Amphiorus, and also young specimens of Pristiurus and Seyllium. Doctor Minot also refers to the ample resources of the Station, which enabled him te obtain fine series in varefully selected stages of development. These specimens have been arranged in serial sections and placed in the Harvard embryological collection, where they will be open to all competent investigators and will serve for many years for studies in comparative embryology. Prof. F. M. MacFarland, of Leland Stanford Junior University, occupied the Table for five months from November 1, 1902. This was Professor MacFarland’s second term of occupancy, he having been appointed to the seat for three months in the spring and summer of 1896. Dr. C. B. Davenport, of the University of Chicago, held the seat for parts of November and December, 1902. In a report promptly sub- mitted at the termination of his occupancy, Doctor Davenport says that during his short period at Naples he made an investigation into the development of the color pattern and specific markings of the shell of Pecten jacobaeus, P. varius, and P. pusio, having also gathered materials for a quantitative variation study of the shells of this species. | Prof. C. W. Hargitt, of Syracuse University, the approval of whose application was necessarily postponed awaiting a decision as to the renewal of the lease, received the appointment for March, April, and May of the current year, during which time he completed a research 10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. on the early development of Kudendrium. A brief summary of the work of Doctor Hargitt has been received and will appear in the first quarterly issue of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. A more detailed report is to be published later in the Zoologisches Jahrbuch. Dr. C. H. Bardeen, associate professor of anatomy in Johns Hopkins University, occupied the Smithsonian seat during the months of April, May, and June, 1903, for the purpose of making experimental inves- tigations in embryological development. Tn view of the exceptional opportunity for special research afforded at the Naples Station, which is frequently mentioned appreciatively in the reports submitted by the appointees of the Institution, the Sec- retary is glad to have found it practicable to renew again the lease of the Smithsonian Table, which he hopes on the expiration of the present contract to be in a position to extend for another term of years. The submission by a Smithsonian appointee of a brief summary of the work done at Naples is an appreciated courtesy, but it may be again stated that should an investigator desire to publish the results of his work on his own responsibility, a copy of his memoir has always been deemed sufficient for the purpose of the Institution, which is chiefly to make suitable reference in the annual report to the often noteworthy work of those occupying the Smithsonian seat. It may be said that while the summary of the scientific history of an applicant, which it is customary to submit with a request for an appointment, is often unnecessary as a means of acquainting the Insti- tution with the work of an investigator, such a sketch is of service in completing the files of the Institution relative to each appointee, and an abstract of the data thus submitted is transmitted to Doctor Dohrn, with each notice of an approved application, for the files of the zoo- logical station. Dr. T. H. Morgan, of Bryn Mawr, who has several times filled vacan- cies caused by the absence of members of the advisory committee, courteously consented again to supply the place of Prof. E. B. Wilson, during his absence in Europe from February till September, 1903. With this exception the personnel of the committee has been unchanged during the year. It gives me pleasure to record again my apprecia- tion of the aid rendered me by the committee in all questions relating to appointments to the Smithsonian table. EXPLORATIONS. The Institution has continued to carry on various biological and ethnological explorations through the medium of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and has also cooperated with the Executive Departments in these directions. The details of most of these explorations are given in the paragraphs devoted to the sev- eral bureaus. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Vl PUBLICATIONS. The Institution issued during the year a total of 45,506 volumes or separates of the series of Contributions, Miscellaneous Collections, Reports, and publications not included in the regular series.“ The document division received for action a total of 8,522 letters and cards of acknowledgment. In the publications of the Institution the double aim of its founder is represented, in that it should exist for (1) the ‘*increase” and (2) the ‘* diffusion” of knowledge. The recording of results of original researches, the ** increase” of knowledge, is chiefly through the series of Contributions to Knowledge, a quarto work begun in 1848, and in which more than 140 valuable memoirs, collected in 32 volumes, have so far been published. There has been added to this series during the year a memoir of 190 pages by Dr. Carl Barus on the Structure of the Nucleus, a continuation of his experiments with ionized air, which were described in a memoir pub- lished during the previous year. In the present investigation the author answers certain practical questions suggested by his last memoir in relation to phosphorus when used as a source of nuclei; i. e., of extremely small particles tending to precipitate water from moist air when this is suddenly cooled. It is, however, the chief aim of the memoir to throw light on the phe- nomena connected with the presence of nuclei in air by aid of the coro- nas or color rings seen in such air when its moisture is condensed and deposited on the nuclei and a distant source of light is looked at through the turbid medium. As these coronas occur in great variety and size they lend themselves to measurement when other means fail. A systematic study is therefore made at the outset of the number of particles corresponding to all well-defined members of the sequence of coronas obtained under known conditions of supersaturated air. The numbers run from less than 100 to upward of 50,000 per cubic centi- meter. The results are then applied in an endeavor to find the velocity of the nucleus by nonelectrical methods, both of a direct and an indirect kind, utilizing the fact that if nuclei leave the medium the coronas obtained under like conditions must change correspondingly. Through- out the latter part of the investigation the nuclei are purposely pro- duced in the simplest manner possible, by shaking solutions in air; but in the course of the investigation the author reaches conclusions which seem to show that the solutional nucleus is of much broader meteorological significance in its bearing on atmospheric condensation and electricity than has heretofore been anticipated. It appears that «Contributions to Knowledge, 1,983; Miscellaneous Collections, 11,667; Reports, 26,237; publications not in regular series, 5,619. 7 ? t ? ? 12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. in an unbounded region of the atmosphere saturated with water this nucleus must be a persistent structure. This he finds is strikingly apparent even when the air is saturated with very volatile liquids other than water. In conclusion, the author points out that the size of the nucleus must vary with the medium in which it is suspended, and that water nuclei in particular will depend for their dimensions on the meteorological status of the atmosphere. Finally, the importance of correlating this variation of nuclear diameter with the electrical activity of the water nucleus is insisted on, with a view to its possible application to atmos- pheric electricity. A memoir by Dr. Victor Schumann on the absorption and emis- sion of air and its ingredients for light of wave lengths from 250 py to 100 wyewas put in type during the year, but the presswork was not completed. This memoir, which forms the concluding part of Volume X XIX of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, gives an account of researches, aided by grants from the Hodgkins fund, on the emission and absorption of the gases of atmospheric air in the ultraviolet spectrum. Within the last fifteen years our knowledge of radiation has been greatly increased, and now embraces wide ranges of the spectrum heretofore unknown. Without assigning any place to the numerous kinds of ‘‘ rays” whose discovery has been associated in the public mind first with the work of Réntgen and later with that of the Curies, Lam speaking here rather of the extensions of the spectrum in wave lengths which are actually measurable and known. Thus beyond the red the spectrum has now been studied in practical conti- nuity to a wave length of nearly 100 microns; and at a great remove beyond this is another known region embracing the so-called Hertzian or electric waves now employed in wireless telegraphy. Beyond the violet progress has been, relatively speaking, less rapid, unless, indeed, it shall prove that the Réntgen and other radiations fall in this region. But a great step in advance has been made by the unwearied investi- gations of the author of the present work, Doctor Schumann. The difficulties hindering research in the ultraviolet are great and consist chiefly in the opacity of the usual optical media to the short wave-length rays. Quartz, for a long time considered best in this part of the spectrum, is found to be too opaque, and has been largely superseded in Doctor Schumann’s investigations by fluorspar for prisms and plates. Air, even in layers of a few millimeters’ thick- ness, is almost wholly opaque, and other gases absorb strongly. It has, therefore, been necessary to employ a spectroscope from which the air is exhausted: to the highest practicable degree; and this and other necessary apparatus Doctor Schumann has designed and con- structed with his own hands, though aided by grants from the Hodg- kins fund of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 The memoir contains an account of the special apparatus and method of using it, and continues with a description of the emission and absorption spectra of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monox- ide and dioxide and aqueous vapor for wave lengths, reaching in the case of hydrogen to about 0.10 micron. Illustrations of the apparatus and spectra accompany the text, and it is thought the whole will be a valuable contribution to knowledge, though but preliminary to the researches Doctor Schumann alone is continuing in this spectral region. The Institution has accepted, for publication in the Contributions to Knowledge, a memoir by Dr. Frederick W. True, entitled ‘* The whalebone whales of the western North Atlantic, compared with those occurring in European waters, with some observations on the species of the North Pacific.” This memoir will make a volume of about 200 pages of text, accompanied by about 50 full-page plates illustrating the anatomy and habits of the various species described. For many years I have had a hope of preparing for publication a work consisting essentially of photographic views of the moon so complete and, it was expected (with the advance of photography), so minute, that the features of our satellite might be studied by the geologist and the selenographer nearly as well as by the astronomer at the telescope. This hope has been disappointed, for photography, which has made such eminent advances in the reproduction of nebule and other celes- tial features, has stood comparatively still in lunar work. We indeed have far better views than were obtained by Rutherford, but the very best even of the admirable ones recently procured by Professor Ritchey at the Yerkes Observatory have proved so far behind what the eye can directly discern with the telescope that the expectation that such a work could be advantageously published has been, after a great deal of labor and preparation for many years, most reluctantly abandoned. During the past year, however, a memoir has been sub- mitted to the Institution by Prof. N. S. Shaler, of Cambridge, entitled ‘* A Comparison of the Features of the Earth and the Moon.” It will be published with some of the best illustrations gathered for the for- mer purpose, and about 25 of these illustratiens of the moon’s surface, including many of the photographs taken by Professor Ritchey, will form a prominent feature. The work will probably appear in the early part of the ensuing year. In 1864 the Institution published in the series of Contributions to Knowledge a memoir by Prof. Henry Draper on the Construction of a Silvered Glass Telescope. The book has long been out of print, and as there seemed to be a present demand fora new edition arrange- ments have been made for its reissue, accompanied by an article by a competent hand bringing the subject to date. To the series of Miscellaneous Collections two short papers were 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. added during the year, and several papers were accepted and progress made toward their publication. Among the accepted papers may be mentioned an Index to the Literature of Thorium, 1817-1902, by Dr. Cavalier H. Joiiet; a Second Supplement to Select Bibliography of Chemistry, by Dr. H. C. Bolton, bringing the subject down to close of the year 1902; Researches on the Attainment of Very Low Tem- peratures, by Prof. Morris W. Travers, of University College, Lon- don, and a paper by Dr. Amadeus W. Grabau, on the phylogeny or tribal history of Fusus and its allies, being a very complete description of the various fossil and recent genera and species classed by conchol- ogists under the name Fusus. Among: the proposed publications may be mentioned an elaborate work by the late Dr. G. Brown Goode on ‘** What has been done in America for Science.” Doctor Goode left the manuscript nearly com- pleted, and arrangements have been made to bring it to date and to put it in condition for printing. The revised edition of the Smithsonian Physical Tables, issued in 1897, having become exhausted, and the demand continuing, a second edition was printed in January, 1905. Arrangements have been made fora quarterly issue of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections in order to afford a medium for the prompt publication of brief accounts of the results of researches by the Insti- tution and its bureaus, especially those of a preliminary nature, together with such notices concerning the Institution and its activities as may be of general public interest. Each issue will consist of about 140 pages of text and will be amply illustrated. The quarterly issue will supplement, not replace, the regular series of the Miscellaneous Collections. Mention has heretofore been made of the character of papers pub- lished in the General Appendix of the Regents’ Report to Congress. This report, to wnich I have given much personal care, is the only Smithsonian publication issued in large numbers, and yet the popular demand for it is far in excess of the edition of 12,000 copies authorized by law. The volume for 1901 was received from the Public Printer early in the autumn of 1902 and in a very few weeks every available copy was distributed. It is desirable that a larger edition should be authorized. The manuscript for the 1902 report was sent to the Public Printer in May, 1903, and most of it was in type before June 30. Besides the above publications of the Institution itself a large num- ber of works on anthropological, biological, and geological subjects, issued by the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, are referred to in detail in appendices to this report. There was also sent to press a report by the Astrophysical Observatory on the solar eclipse expedition of 1900. The Secretary of the Institution received REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 and submitted to Congress, in accordance with their acts of incorpo- ration, the annual reports of the American Historical Association and of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution. LIBRARY. The accessions to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress during the year were 1,848 volumes, 21,282 parts of volumes, 3,804 pamphlets, and 379 charts, or a total of 27,313, being an increase of 675 over the previous year, and extending the accession numbers of the Smithsonian deposit to 452,465. The libraries of the Secretary, Office and of the Astrophysical Observatory show an increase of 409 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, and 1,625 parts of volumes, making the total Smithsonian library accessions of the year 29,347. The serial publications entered on the card catalogue number 24,630. Gen. John Watts De Peyster has added to his large collection of books and pamphlets relating to Napoleon Bonaparte, and has also pre- sented a collection of works on gypsies, a collection of dictionaries and encyclopedias, many of which are very rare, besides several portraits, pictures, and paintings. The National Museum library now contains 19,161 bound volumes and 32,063 unbound papers. The accessions during the year were 3,161 books, 3,260 pamphlets, and 303 parts of volumes, which include two important gifts—the E. A. Schwarz collection of books on Ameri- can Coleoptera and the W. H. Dall collection of books on recent and fossil mollusks. The librarian refers to these gifts in some detail in his report in the Appendix. The Institution has continued to aid in the maintenance of the Inter- national Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and a total of 14,480 ref- erences were furnished to the central bureau during the year. Five volumes of the Catalogue were received and distributed. CORRESPONDENCE. The correspondence of the Secretary’s office embraces not only com- munications referring to the work of the Institution proper, but also to the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro- physical Observatory. Subjects of inquiry by correspondents are perhaps more varied and embrace a wider range of topics than obtains in other departments of the Government, yet all are promptly answered. MISCELLANEOUS. Hamilton fund.—I have given consideration to the difficult subject of the useful disposition of the small Hamilton fund, the income of 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. which it is hoped to apply to a biennial lecture, but no arrangements have yet been perfected for its delivery. Gifts.— Among the gifts received by the Institution during the year may be mentioned a large oil painting, ‘*The March of Time,” pre- sented by the artist, Mr. Henry Sandham, representing many of the principal generals of the civil war. Louisiana Purchase Exposition.—Congress having made an appro- priation for a Government building and exhibit at the exposition to be held in St. Louis in 1904, the Secretary has appointed Doctor True to represent the Institution and its bureaus in the preparation and installation of its exhibits. Congress of Americanists.—Mr. F. W. Hodge was. delegated to represent the Institution at the thirteenth session of the International Congress of Americanists, held at New York, October 20-25, 1902. The session was successful in every respect; many foreign govern- ments and institutions of learning in Europe and throughout the American Continent were represented, and the communications pre- sented covered the entire field of aboriginal American history, anthro- pology, ethnology, archeology, and linguistics. Congress of Orientalists.—Prof. Paul Haupt, LL. D., honorary cura- tor of the division of historic archeology in the United States National Museum, attended the Thirteenth International Congress of Orientalists as delegate of the Smithsonian Institution. This congress, which was held at Hamburg, Germany, from September 4 to September 10, 1902, was organized in eight sections: I, Indo-European Linguistics; I1*, India; II”, Iran; III, Indo-China and Oceania; IV, Central Asia and the Far East; V, Semitic; VI, Islam; VIL*, Egyptian; VII*, African; VIII, Relations between Orient and Occident (including Byzantine studies). At first it was proposed to have a special colonial section, but this idea was afterwards abandoned owing to the fact that a special colonial congress was held at Berlin in October, 1902. The Hamburg congress, which was attended by more than 600 members from all parts of the globe, resolved to depart from the practice of printing the transactions in full and to publish only a volume of proceedings, includ- ing abstracts of all the papers presented and the subsequest discus- sions, to be issued within half a year after adjournment. This volume has as yet not appeared. The next congress will be held at Algiers in April, 1905. NATIONAL MUSEUM. An important epoch in the history of the National Museum has occurred during the past year, when, by act of March 3, 1903, Con- gress provided for the erection of an additional building, to cost not to exceed $3,500,000. The present building was completed in 1881 and was erected pri- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ie marily to accommodate the mass of objects received by the Government from the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, these objects having been in storage for several years. The present building was cheaply erected and was not expected to meet the requirements of a great national museum, and Secretary Baird soon found it necessary to present to Congress the question of constructing a more adequate one; and already in 1888, in my early incumbency, this was represented to the Regents. Although Congress at various times during the past twenty years has had the matter under consideration, definite action was not taken by both Senate and House. During the first session of the last Congress, however, a small appropriation was made for prepa- ration of plans for a new building, as I stated in my last report. Preliminary plans were submitted to Congress at its last session and authority has been granted to the Regents of the Institution to proceed in the construction of an additional building, to contain about 10 acres of floor space, or treble that we have at present, which will be worthy to accommodate the great collections of the nation. The law reads as follows: ‘* Building for National Museum: To enable the Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution to commence the erection of a suitable fireproof building with granite fronts, for the use of the National Museum, to be erected on the north side of the Mall, between Ninth and Twelfth streets northwest, substantially in accordance with Plan A, prepared and submitted to Congress by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution under the provisions of the act approved June twenty-ecighth, nineteen hundred and two, two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Said building complete, including heating and ventilating apparatus and elevators, shall cost not to exceed three million five hundred thousand dollars, and a contract or contracts for its completion is hereby author- ized to be entered into, subject to appropriations to be made by Congress. The construction shall be in charge of Bernard R. Green, Superintend- ent of Buildings and Grounds, Library of Congress, who shall make the contracts herein authorized and disburse all appropriations made for the work, and shall receive as full compensation for his services hereunder the sum of two thousand dollars annually in addition to his present salary, to be paid out of said appropriations.” The Regents, at their meeting of March 12, adopted the following resolution: ‘* Resolved, That the Secretary, with the advice and consent of the Chancellor and the chairman of the executive committee, be author- ized to represent the Board of Regents, so far as may be necessary, in consultation with Bernard R. Green, to whom the construction and contracts for the new Museum building are committed by Congress in the act making an appropriation for that purpose.” The final plans for the new structure were commenced toward the close of the fiscal year, and the construction will be pushed as rapidly as is consistent with the magnitude of the work. It has been decided to locate the building on the northern side of the Smithsonian Park, sm 1903 2 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. facing the present Smithsonian and Museum buildings, thongh at a distance of several hundred feet. It will be a fireproof building with granite front and will have about 500 feet frontage and be about 330 feet deep, with four stories, including the basement. The main and second floors will be used for exhibition halls, while the basement and third floors will serve for laboratory and storage purposes. I have great pleasure in recording this final result of the recommen- dations of the Regents and their Secretary and of the good will of Congress. The year shows marked progress in nearly every branch of the Museum. Two hundred and thirty-six thousand specimens were received, making the present total over 5,650,000, and there were dis- tributed to educational establishments about 383,000 objects. Letters requesting information show an increase of about 25 per cent in num- ber, and nearly 900 lots of specimens were received for identification. The distribution of publications also shows an increase over previous years, and to the library some valuable collections of books on spe- cial zoological subjects have been added. -Among the anthropological accessions during the year I may men- tion some interesting specimens illustrating the native arts and industries of Sumatra and the Straits Settlements, collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott; a large ethnological collection from the Philippines, furnishing information regarding the life and customs of the natives of those islands; a number of bronzed wooden images representative of Buddhist religious art, a series of models of United States war ves- sels, and of land and naval ordnance; and some relics of General and Mrs. Grant of much intrinsic and historic interest, presented by their children. The biological and geological departments of the Museum. also received valuable additions, which are enumerated in the report of the Assistant Secretary, where will also be found details in regard to explorations and researches conducted under direction of the Museum. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Researches among the American Indians have been continued by the Bureau as outlined in the plan of operations submitted June 30, 1902, and approved by me May 23, 1903. The earlier part of the (fiscal) year was marked by the death of Maj. John W. Powell, and in October Mr. W. H. Holmes was appointed his successor. Major Powell was born March 24, 1834, and died September 23, 1902. He organized the Bureau of Ethnology and under the general direction of the Institution carried on its researches until his death. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 The story of his well-filled life has been told by others; he was too near and too dear a friend for me, perhaps, to speak of it With a wholly impartial judgment, but Iam glad to believe that I, too, had acquired his friendship and that this mutual feeling colored all our relations. Major Powell, who had taken his part in the great events of our civil war (where he served as captain of artillery under Grant at Vicks- burg) and who had lost an arm in his country’s service, was first known to me, as to many others, by one of the most remarkable feats of exploration left for anyone to accomplish. The old Spanish explorer, Coronado, who in 1540 penetrated to what is now known as the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, came back with the story of a crack in the earth at the bottom of which the great tower of the cathedral of Seville would seem no bigger than a man. This was set down as a traveler’s tale. In this unexplored region the Colorado River, however, was found to flow for nearly 1,000 miles through scenery unequaled on this globe, for during a great part of its course it is bounded by walls over a mile in altitude, at the bottom of which the unknown stream descends with frequent falls through a channel from which there is no escape except by climbing the nearly impassable precipices which shut it in. The river is the only road, and its entire course abounds in hourly perils. This was the scene of Major Powell’s exploration in 1867, which, though conducted for purely scientific purposes, yet, considering all that it involved, may be called one of heroic adventure, while the skill which overcame every difficulty was not less conspicuous than the courage of the leader, who, maimed as he was, fought with constant physical perils, but came through safely together with those who had trusted their lives to his guidance. None of his subsequent distin- euished scientific life will ever efface the memory of this splendid feat. It is one which surpasses in all its elements of interest and danger, perhaps, the work of any such explorer of modern times. I leave to more competent hands the description of the great and notable work in geology and ethnology which occupied Major Powell’s later life, and only add a few words on some qualities of the man best known to an intimate friend. I have been with Major Powell in the life of the city and in the life of the wilderness, and wherever I have been with him I think I have been more impressed with the simplicity and self-comprised nature of his character than even with the complexity of his knowl- edge and achievements. Besides his splendid capacity for leadership in battle and adventure, besides his varied knowledge as a scientific man, the mystery of this world, which pure science so little recog- nizes, was always present to Major Powell’s mind; the lapse of ages, 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the wonderful birth of species, the path that threaded past time on and up to man—all these things were present to his thought and colored his work, were always associated with what he did as a man of science, and constituted his innermost point of view. He was a generous man, kind to others and helpful; a brave and always a self-contained man who found in himself counsel sufficient for his need. He was a stoic who suffered long years of pain in silence, and who, at the end, met the approach of death as though it were a familiar incident of life. We shall not often look upon his like. In the past year’s work of the Bureau scientific researches among Indian tribes in the field, in documentary investigations, and in labo- ratory and general office routine have been pursued with the usual effectiveness. Systematic field work has been successfully prosecuted in many States and Territories and in San Domingo and Porto Rico, Six members of the staff have spent periods of greater or less extent in the field and have secured materials for embodiment in reports. These researches have furnished data bearing more or less fully upon numerous branches of the science of man, including tribal classifica- tion and history, languages, religions, social systems, arts and indus- tries, esthetics, and welfare. A principal feature of the year’s work has been the taking up, with renewed vigor, of the preparation of the dictionary of Indian tribes, which had been on hand for a number of years. The plan contem- plates the publication of two octavo volumes, which shall embody in compact form the great body of information gathered during the past years regarding the American race, its linguistic families, tribes, vil- lages, individuals, and history, and make more evident the great utili- ties of the Bureau’s work. The first volume was practically ready for the press at the close of the year, but to my regret the resolution pro- viding for the issue of the work in octayo form did not reach a vote during the session of Congress, and the manuscript was not transmit- ted to the printer. The reading of proofs of reports in press, the preparation of illus- trations for forthcoming volumes, and the photographing of visiting Indians have gone on as usual. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. rhe International Exchange Service of the Institution is the medium for exchange of publications between the principal governments and scientific institutions and libraries of the world. Every year shows an increase over the work accomplished during the previous year. During the past year the total number of packages handled showed an REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91 increase of 19 per cent over the year 1901-2, and the weight an increase of 41 per cent. Seventy-five per cent of the weight represents pack- ages sent abroad and 25 per cent the weight of packages received from foreign countries. The total number of correspondents or beneficiaries of the facilities of the exchange service at home and abroad aggregates 44,012, of which 13,121 are foreign institutions, 21,332 foreign individuals, 3,319 domes- tic institutions, and 6,240 domestic individuals. In 1901 Congress increased from 50 to 62 the number of sets of official documents of this country to be exchanged with foreign coun- tries, and provided for a further increase to 100 sets when deemed expedient in the judgment of the Librarian of Congress. Thus far, however, the institution has been called on to transmit through its exchange service only 12 parts of sets to foreign exchanges, thus leaving 12 full sets actually provided for and 26 additional sets, or such parts thereof as may be deemed necessary, still available for exchange with other countries. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The collection of animals housed and cared for in the National Zoological Park continues to increase in interest and value, and in order to adequately provide for it new buildings for special groups of animals need to be erected. During the past year an elephant house has been built, which, owing to the limited appropriation, can only be spoken of as a considerable improvement over the temporary quarters previously occupied. It is expected that the funds provided under the general appropria- tion for the present year will permit the commencement of the con- struction of a house for small mammals, which is the next most important need. As the number of buildings in the park increases it becomes neces- sary to consider a method of heating them in an effective and econom- ical manner. At present each separate building has its own heating apparatus, each requiring the employment of a special set of men for its care and management. It would conduce to economy both in fuel and in service if all the buildings in the park lying within a reason- able radius could be heated from a central heating plant, which could be managed by a single set of men. Considerable additions to the collection have been made during the year through the public spirit of Dr. F. W. Goding, United States consul at Newcastle, New South Wales, who has sent more than 140 specimens of the unusually interesting fauna of that region. This shows in a remarkable manner what can be done by our officers abroad 22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. who are fully awake to the needs of our national collection and are willing to devote some of their time to its enrichment. I have repeatedly called attention to the wasteful destruction of Alaskan fauna, and am gratified to say that the last Congress passed an act for its protection, so that it may be reasonably expected that the wholesale slaughter of these interesting animals may be checked. A clause of the act permits the Smithsonian Institution to procure specimens for its use. The Zoological Park was declared by Congress to be for the advance- ment of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. It has hitherto more largely fulfilled the second object, but in pursuance of the special scientific activities of the park I hope that there may be established at an early date a pathological laboratory, where much may be learned of the diseases of animals and their relations to those that affect the human family. Such a useful laboratory can be erected at a very moderate cost. The growth of the city in the vicinity of the National Zoological Park has finally caused a definitive establishment of streets. These do not in all cases conform to the boundaries of the park, which therefore abuts at several places upon the back yards of neighboring residences. This will undoubtedly cause unsightly borders unless some means is taken to prevent it. I have given a full discussion of this subject in my report for the years ending June 30, 1895, and June 30, 1896. The evil has increased rather than diminished, and I would recom- mend that action be taken by Congress to remedy this condition by purchasing sufticient land to extend the park to the nearest neighbor- ing street throughout its entire boundary. THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Bolographic studies of the spectrum of the sun and the provision of a large horizontal telescope to be used for studies of special portions of the solar radiation have been the distinguishing features of the work of the Astrophysical Observatory during the past year. Results of uncommon interest have been reached in the bolographic work of the past twelve months, and especially in the studies of the absorption of the solar rays by our atmosphere, as appears in the detailed report of the aid acting in charge, which may be found in the Appendix. Briefly this has shown that the earth’s atmosphere, so far as it can be observed here, has been more opaque than usual within the present calendar year, so much so as to reduce the direct radiation of the sun at the earth’s surface by about 10 per cent, on the average, through- out the whole visible and infra-red spectrum, and by more than double this amount in the blue and violet portions of the spectrum. This REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2e alteration of the transparency of the air has not, however, been con- fined to the region of Washington. Another interesting observation is that determinations of the rate of solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere might appear to indicate that there has been adecrease of the solar radiation itself since March 26, 1903; but I refer to this with hesitation, as I have elsewhere observed that it is scarcely possible to be certain of the accuracy of results of this sort when based on observations near sea level. The value of a solar observatory at a high altitude, to which I referred last year, can hardly be overestimated. A new determination of the temperature of the sun, based on the distribution of the solar radiation in the spectrum, has yielded a result of 5,920- of the centigrade scale above absolute zero. For the purpose of the special study of the nature of sun spots, the absorption of the solar gaseous envelope, and for other observations requiring a large solar image an equipment including a horizontal reflecting telescope of 140-foot focus and 20-inch aperature and a coelostat of improved construction to furnish at all times a 20-inch horizontal northerly directed solar beam has been provided. The form of coelostat employed seems so well suited to solar work that this large instrument will be exhibited by the Observatory at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Provision has been made in connection with the long-focus telescope to churn the air traversed by the beam from the coelostat to the focal image after the manner described in my last year’s report. It is hoped that this installation will have yielded results of interest before another year. On the whole the work of the Astrophysical Observatory during the past year has been quite as productive of results of interest as during any former year of its existence, especially in showing a notable varia- tion of atmospheric transparency which is likely to have affected climate and the growth of vegetation over a considerable part of the parth’s surface, and in the studies of atmospheric absorption and those relating to the solar constant, to which I have referred, there seems renewed promise of progress toward the goal **foretelling by such means those remoter changes of weather which affect harvests,” which is one of the great aims had in view in the foundation of the Observatory. Respectfully submitted. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. bares - vow I) one sp eau satire wk: - . = ae en 4 - ie a we - iy Fh ae ©! ay y - he wy) a ee oe TAMAS ete 8 ff a - ’ 4 ¢ = . ” = ‘vg > aN beet i : a Zs n mies) ALE is [ +t gid ‘ee oe s - Pia : i on TAS ot Ge ya Bh if BD eg tal. cell E oe + vas Lae SS - Die wees 19 - 7 - , Te - ? vs fy "ae are . i & tb ; i j ‘ip : al , , . - a Me F -..% Pd ’ a n ‘ Ve ahi! pels eae Le eit ee See gE rare erate ye: ri s i : be J - . MMos ie wile VW fee ue § sige JF VY APPENDIX TO THE SECRETARY’S REPORT. APPENDIX I. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condition and opera- tions of the National Museum during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903. The most noteworthy occurrence of the year, and, in fact, for many years past, was the action of Congress in providing for an additional building for the National Museum, a building that will not only treble the existing amount of space, but also present an imposing and dignified appearance, and be entirely worthy to house the great collections of the nation. The public will be greatly benefited by this measure, and the opportunity will be given to arrange in classified order the great mass of valuable material which, for over two decades, has been accumulating in insecure and inconvenient storage quarters. Marked progress has been made in nearly every branch of the Museum. The number of specimens received was 236,000, increasing the total now in the possession of the Museum to over 5,650,000. The number sent out in exchange and as gilts to educational! establishments was above 33,000. The demands for information by letter were increased at least 25 per cent, and nearly 900 lots of specimens were received for identification. The amount of fieldwork carried on by members of the Museum staff, however, was greatly diminished through lack of means. There was an increased number and a more extensive distribution of publications, and the library received as gifts two valuable collections of books and. pamphlets on special zoological subjects. Preparations for the Louisiana Purchase Exhibition to be held at St. Louis in 1904 were well under way before the year ended, and the fact is now evident that the Museum will have in that connection one of the largest and most interesting exhibits it has ever assembled for such a purpose. Buildings.—The work upon the final plans for the additional building was com- menced near the close of the year, but several months must elapse before the work- ing drawings are sufficiently advanced to begin making contracts. The new structure will stand upon the north side of the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth streets, with its center at Tenth street. Its location is, therefore, directly in front of the present buildings, but at a sufficient distance from them to prevent any clash- ing between the different styles of architecture. The building will be classic in character and constructed of granite. Its frontage will be about 500 feet, and its depth about 330 feet. It will have four stories, including the basement, the main and second stories to be devoted to the public collections, the others to the storage of the reserve specimens and the various objects of the activities of the Museum. The entire floor area will amount to nearly 10 acres. It is expected that about four years will be required for the completion of the structure. The repairs about the present Museum building were extensive, owing in large part to the poor condition of the roof, which seems to develop new leaks during 25 26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. every heavy rain. The rotunda and four main halls have been erttirely repainted, and this work was being extended to the four courts at the close of the year. This extensive renovation will place the exhibition halls in a more presentable condition than at any previous time. Many new cases, both for exhibition purposes and for storage, have been con- structed, and much has been accomplished in the rebuilding and repair of old furni- ture and fixtures. Organization and staf?.—One new division (Physical Anthropology ) has been added to the Department of Anthropology, and one new section (Lower Algze) to the Department of Biology. The scientific organization of the Museum, therefore, now comprises 9 divisions and 4 sections in the Department of Anthropology; 9 divisions and 13 sections in the Department of Biology; and 3 divisions and 3 sections in the Department of Geology. The scientific staff includes 3 head curators, 17 curators, 13 assistant curators, 15 custodians, 12 aids, + associates, and 2 collaborators, mak- ing a total of 66 persons, of whom only about one-half are paid employees of the Museum, the remainder serving in a volunteer or honorary capacity. Mr. W. H. Holmes, head curator of the Department of Anthropology, having been appointed Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Prof. Otis T. Mason has been designated to assume his museum duties as acting head curator. Dr. A. Hrdlicka took charge of the newly organized Division of Physical Anthro- ‘ology on May 1}, as assistant curator, and Dr. G. T. Moore, of the Department of Agriculture, became custodian of the new Section of the Lower Algze on May 25. The designation of Mr. W. T. Swingle has been changed to that of custodian of the Section of Higher Algze. On December 31 Mr. Charles T. Simpson resigned his position as principal aid in the Division of Mollusks, being sueceeded by Mr. Paul Bartsch, whose place was in turn taken by Mr. W. B. Maishall, appointed aid on April 1. Mr. R. G. Paine was made an aid in the Division of Reptiles and Batrachians on April 6. Additions to the collections.—The number of accessions received during the year was 1,648, about 230 more than in 1902, comprising in all about 236,000 specimens. This increases the total number of specimens in the national collections to above 5,650,000. Only the more important additions can be mentioned here. One of the most valuable acquisitions by the Department of Anthropology con- sisted of material recently collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott in Sumatra and the Straits Settlements, and illustrating the native arts and industries of a region but poorly represented in American museums. The many objects, numbering over 1,500, secured in the Philippine Islands by the late Col. F. F. Hilder, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for the Government exhibit at the Pan-American Exposition, have been turned over to the Museum by the Government Board. This collection is of especial interest in that it furnishes much authoritative information regarding the life and customs of the natives of the largest of our new possessions. Dr. Frank Russell, formerly of the Bureau of American Ethnology, secured important material from the Pima Indians of southern Arizona, which, together with many ethnological objects from other sources, have been transferred by the Bureau to the custody of the Museum. Several collections made by Lieut. G. T. Emmons, of the United States Navy, illustrating the arts of the Chilcat and other Alaskan tribes, have also been acquired. An extremely noteworthy collection deposited in the Museum by Mr. 8. 8. How- land, otf Washington, D. C., consists of objects representing Buddhist religious art, such as bronze and wooden images of Buddha and Buddhist saints, shrines, temple lamps, and sacred writings on palm leaves, and also of several Oriental manuscripts in Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages. Twenty-eight Jewish ceremonial objects from North Africa were obtained from Mr. Ephraim Deinard, of Kearney, N. J., one of the most interesting pieces being an ark of carved wood, containing a parchment REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. OG scrou of the Pentateuch. The Egyptian exploration fund has presented some valuable Grieco-Egyptian papyri. Among the accessions to the Division of Prehistoric Archeology were a collection of implements and other objects obtained by Mr. W. H. Holmes from near Kimms- wick, Mo., with the assistance of Mr. Gerard Fowke, who also transmitted a number of hammer-stones, flint nodules, and other o}jects from ancient quarries near Carter, Ky., and a series of implements and specimens of ore, which had been mined for use as paint, from aboriginal hematite mines at Leslie, Mo., collected by Mr. Holmes. About 300 specimens of stone implements, gathered by the late Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing, including spearheads, arrowpoints, harpoons, and tools of various kinds, and a very important collection made by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in Porto Rico and Santo Domingo were received from the Bureau of American Ethnology. The ma- terial from Santo Domingo comprises many types new to the Museum, while that from Porto Rico contains several stone rings or collars, sculptured pillow stones, the remains of human skeletons, and various other objects. A series of models of United States war vessels, including gunboats, monitors, pro- tected cruisers, and rams, deposited in the Museum by the Navy Department, form a very attractive exhibit, being of especial interest to the public. The War Depart- ment has also deposited a large number of models of heavy seacoast cannon, mountain howitzers, and other types of ordnance formerly used by the Army, and a series of small arms. Many relics of General and Mrs. U. 8. Grant, of great intrinsic as well as historic value, have been presented to the Museum by their children, through Brig. Gen. Frederick D. Grant, U.S. Army. They include clothing worn by General Grant during the civil war, commissions to different ranks in the Army, a cabinet presented to Mrs. Grant by the Empress of Japan, said to be 1,000 years old and yalued at $20,000, several Japanese vases presented by the Emperor of Japan, and numerous other objects. Eight hundred and thirty-seven gold, silver, and copper coins were donated to the Museum by Mr. E. M. Chapman, of New York City. Casts of the Neanderthal and Prague ancient crania were purchased for the newly established division of Physical Anthropology, which has also secured five valuable head-hunter’s skulls from New Guinea, and a large series of crania and parts of human skeletons from the Army Medical Museum, the United States Fish Commission, and other sources. The zoological specimens contributed by Dr. W. L. Abbott consisted of a large number of deer, squirrels, porcupines, and a new ape, collected in Sumatra and on the adjacent islands, and on the Riou Peninsula south of Singapore. Many of the species are new to science. The donations made by Doctor Abbott as the result of his recent extensive explorations in the East Indies now comprise about 2,500 mam- mals and nearly 4,000 birds, besides several thousand specimens in other branches of natural history. Large collections of bird skins, fishes, corals, mollusks, crustaceans, and other marine invertebrates, obtained during the expedition of the United States Fish Com- mission steamer Albatross to the Hawaiian Islands and to Samoa, have been trans- mitted to the Museum and will be referred to more in detail in the next report. They include interesting series of the birds of the Laysan Islands. Dr. EK. A. Mearns, U. 8. Army, presented a quantity of mammals from the Yellow- stone National Park and from Fort Snelling, Minn., and the Hon. B.S. Rairden, United States consul at Batavia, two undescribed species ot Tragulus from Java. A valuable skeleton of the porpoise, Pseudorca crassidens, trom the Hawaiian Islands, the first reported from that region, was contributed by Prof. C. H. Gilbert, of the Leland Stantord Junior University. Several rare birds of paradise and other valuable specimens, including a pair of flightless cormorants, from the Galapagos Islands, were received from Mr. A. Boucard, I8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Isle of Wight, England, and a Javan jungle fowl, a black-winged peacock, and other birds from Mr. Homer Davenport, Morris Plains, N. J. The Bishop Museum, of Honolulu, presented about 40 bird skins, including several species not previously represented in the Museum collection, and about 800 interesting specimens from Chiriqui, Costa Rica, including a number of cotypes. Fifty-two bird skins from Hon- duras were obtained from Mr. Outram Bangs, of Boston, partly as a gift and partly in exchange. The most important accession to the Oological collection was a fossil ege of Aepyornis maximus from Madagascar. Valuable birds’ eggs from Australia, South America, and other countries were also received from different sources. Reptiles from southern Florida were contributed by Mr. E. J. Brown, of Lemon City, and a fine series of salamanders was presented by Messrs. Brimley and Sherman, of Raleigh, N.C. From Prof. P. Biolley, of the National Museum of San Jose, Costa Rica, there were obtained several very interesting specimens, including a new gecko, described by Doctor Stejneger as Sphxrodactylus pacificus. Eighteen snakes from the Island of Cyprus were purchased from Giacomo Cecconi, of Florence, Italy. The accessions to the collection of fishes were numerous and important. Dr. O. P. Jenkins, of Leland Stanford Junior University, donated 42 types of Hawaiian fishes, constituting a second installment of a series of types the first of which were trans- mitted in 1901. A yaluable collection of types and cotypes of Japanese fishes was received from Dr. Dayid S. Jordan, president of the same university. A large sal- mon, weighing about 50 pounds, taken at Cascapedia, Canada, was presented by Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, of Philadelphia. A deep-sea pelican fish, captured at a depth of between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, during the survey for the Pacific cable, was trans- mitted by the officers of the U.S. 8. Nero, and a large conger eel was received from Mr. Louis Mowbray, of Bermuda, through the New York Aquarium. Besides the mollusks obtained by the Fish Commission expedition to the Hawaiian Islands a number of well-preserved land shells from the same region were donated by Mr. W. H. Henshaw, of Hilo, Hawaii. Interesting collections of shells were also received from Dr. Henry Loomis, Yokohama, Japan; Mr. F. A. Woodworth, San Francisco, Cal.; Mrs. T. S. Oldroyd, Burnett, Cal., and the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. A specimen of the rare Voluta mamilla Sby., from Tasma- nia, and other valuable Australian shells, were also added to the mollusk collection. Among the most important additions to the entomological division were a collec- tion of over 19,000 specimens of gall wasps, parasites, etc., from Canada, transmitted by the Department of Agriculture; a series of Costa Rican insects of different orders purchased from Mr. P. Schild, of New York City; 2,000 specimens of Chilean insects from Mr. E. C. Reed, Concepcion, Chile; 277 specimens of African Lepidoptera received in exchange from Dr. Yngve Sjostedt, Stockholm, Sweden; a collection of mites, including types and cotypes, from Prof. Robert Wolcott, of the University of Nebraska; specimens of many orders and comprising types and cotypes, from Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, East Las Vegas, N. Mex.; about 700 specimens of European Cole- optera from Dr. W. H. Valway, Cleveland, Ohio, and a valuable series of Venezuelan Cicindellide and Scarabeidex from Mr. E. A. Klages, of Crafton, Pa. A collection of African butterflies, including examples of several species described by Doctor Auri- villius, was received in exchange from the Royal Natural History Museum, Stock- holm. An important exchange was made with the American Entomological Society, whereby the Museum received 100 species of Mexican and Central American Hyme- noptera, including many cotypes. Thirty-four cotypes of Coleoptera were presented by Prof. H. C. Fall, of Pasadena, Cal. The Division of Marine Invertebrates obtained through exchange with the Museum of Natural History, Paris, France, about 50 species of fresh-water crustaceans. s--=--=- 53 96 14 /MoWMDENS Ssecopasooads 6 5 11 Cape Verde Islands ....-.|...-....- 5 5 Bahamass---ases sec 4 11 15 IB PVP bic m cite msistels wisictere ice 38 65 103 Barbad ose. 2 --ea= 1 10 21 31 ren chyKoOn gO) seeeee scr sect =asiatas 1 1 BermMuUdaissasseeeeee 6 21 27 (Epen ONE) BS sabe cadaaascanae|loopoqdcd 2 2 Buen Ayre-..ccsse ssl seaceeee 1 1 German East Africa... -- Bilicaasosoc 3 Cuba eanjocemeeeecncce 59 124 183 Goldi@oastecess-—---s4-—- 1 3 4 Curdedosse-eeess-- 2 4 6 KODE O tec ccet cee eee eleeiemiece 5 5 Wominieaesaceeseeee= 2 u 9 WES OSiererserecscer canis sie 2 3 5 Grenad ait eeccerye ciel 3 4 a WIDETIOe. nesses cee esscese 2 9 | 11 Guadeloupe.....-..--- 2 5 tdi Lourenco Marquez.......|..--..-- 2 2 ati eeeecceemcesisce 38 16 54 Madapascareress--o-ee- == 5 8 13 JAMAICA . sa cee as csiss 19 43 62 Mad cinaaseeneesesseeeere 3 4 qf Marr iin (We eeeeeeerae eeree cee 3 3 Wibhobeahbls) Ss o565qe5oebecer 14 10 24 Montserratoceascs- eee |nseeees 2 2, MOROCCOM= eae - nee eee eres [ova steers 10 10 INC VIS i oaq cine seisscee|eee ose 1 1 IMOZaImMplgliebesecer sees ses al it PorboeRicOneaese ees 4 34 38 Natal sosceccaeeee-s cree 19 23 42 St: Bartholomew ..-..|-.--.--- 2 2 Orange River Colony ....|.-.....- 2 2 St. Christopher ....-- 2 6 8 IRSIUODLONY — Seo eeccoqoocsealsonoouos 2 2 || silis (Cid0hb< (op saoacseccos aL 4 5 Rhodesia.......-. Lee te? | 1 5 6) || east Muntatlus sees eeee ee 1 1 Steliclenaeess ses sseeas 3 2 5 || Stauiiciaseeeaeeer eee 2 4 6 Senegal <:ds2 es meoccccmoes 1 5 6 StieManbins 226. same oc oaeceaee 2, Pe Sierra Weone==-e-eeeeee ee 2 3 5 Sis homastaessse- see 3 5 8 Sudamesessesceae nce esece siete 1 if St. VaNCent ee see 1 2 3 DPransvealecaqeectec ees 27 22 49 Santo Domingo ....-- 3 11 14 (MSDS ss ooonanconconaoDcds 9 8 17 NODAL Osis saeco =-!ei Selon Sos See BS CO Ee AEE Sa ea eae eee ener a eee et Gy y Mactan see BOS) || Emcee sents LW QUE MM ES AM Ses sense ae ern OE ERO oe hcmece ss set ee oes 54 1 OO cee eee SIL OMAUMAS fence ace Seseeeet sec celamis see eise cakes ckcosawebebecdec 59 | 119 142 11 TEER ake eee SESS REC EE ee oe eee ee SOM eI. e by fal ee eee 58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the International Exchange Service, etc. —Continued. 1902. 1903. Country. Packages. Packages. For— From— For— From— Weeland: Sozsis-cek asa seee sow Gee see owas Pee er eenarere CU Eee eaae 55 4 1) ob CREB e Sa GEHE aoEe Ob eecdeaooScad olson saecedoosoauosoqdEs 1,451 202 1,815 326 Mibetlives sates See as oc eee Cee eee IN eee ES eretare 4, 423 2, 541 5, 795 1,395 PUEn EN Cer as Sens Beaon ono ceeABOd Ge bo So EHS pound boGaauRESaEaseaoooe ay ean eee 246 J|ecaesseenie DAMN ic esate Se ore rere Torsone See See erie erate oe ints Dios Serna oeieiaers 1,497 21 2,245 12 BG iter ope HeHobeens cone obdde DOScuac oh bS ce Gn eesseAnepabeeeecee 170 125 229 81 KongovPree!S tate accaswe cc cos aecioae os eet cease ae ere ae tee | eetnaiere crsi=e'l Pras cree ¢ RSS ESIC KOLO Gis Ncis so) he aiars siotansloiets ie etelseete acters eis atete sis « aintais ates eleleistee GYA beaaaaoasal (EARS SesaconS Toa OS ce apa se Nea Sea ae See Sina Seale Ba Nala oe aie crue eee a Ree seaeemc bl Reeecaeone JRA eet ee sO GASES OE DOB AG aoe SR eBoat a Cone nGHOEabeoUauBES Abd ee cece 66) | ssa ersioe OULENCOMMANGueZan. semecm aris sew clooencicieie wen Saco eeaweee ee CU eae oe ies \scecso5c0r Eu b-¢-9601] 0100 y eae Rea eee oe ye Ce ee AAR A ee er aa aaa 86 26 95 | iz Seer iMadagascart est iocniccecccc caren cele ee nisan ee cia ene ne ata eae Gill iStereretrere rere Gis} | ocooocane INENG Kes LGN Se arenes RY Gd mere Eee OE ee ee ae eee ea Oy Seeeetee a IRS} || Sosacescs END 6 Se Bein Seats Aegon a aera Ars ee eet A SOU eacrecmeee WYGlloaascoapee INET GIT Glee one eee) e nee Eee ee a ees Salleeececer 4 | scwanieetne IMPSv UTILS eeiers cies oie eee oleae ea eee eee nee ae aera DGilsseteceeee 1G) | |scisiseieiestae IMIGKICO SREB. Saas meer aee Ree ee ee ee Cee EE ee cee peer nie 1, 852 5,195 2,127 3, 466 IMONTCN ER TOW 8s 5: ane Soe et a en eee Die oth ee Sickel tna cel memieeiateeee MONMtSCrTraibins ) IPontugalit> secc oe -52 Soo oe eee 20 Queensland 25) -e22522er eos eee 9 Roumaniantoe.. cet seo ose eee (¢) IRUSSIA= Steno s oe oe eco eee eee 1 Salvadorsas-. cee ee ee ees 5 SantolDomingoOs= sesso esse eae 5 SOEVIA sae secre seca see eee eee (¢) SHES Sconscobes, Seassssaesseesss il SoutheAuetralia= ss" =e) === eee 20 SpalNa. 62 sac seco ss see eee 30 StiiKattgites 2.224 oee te eee 1 Sthucia se. eso oe ee eee 1 Siwedenie 2a reac emer oe 50 SinvbZOTlam Cleese eters ers ae eee 60 Sila) S252. socket nee eee (>) Magmania = ..s2ees 22 aoe eo ee 5 Transvaal 2s. 22c< cass. Soe ees (4) Mrinidadies 2.3620. are 4 MUNK Y= 2 2s.ce ae 2 Stee ues eee ee 7 Wruguay S22 2525-2 ine eee ee ea sace 15 Wenezuelaig: = 42 2- sot eee eee 15 WictOnrialc aoe ete tere oe ere eee 23 Wiestexme Aus tical litem ser a 12 AOC NGM a ae Nees ee eee 44 IMUISETIAN ceo ones oe eee ora 86 BAT Wad OSs cae ose cee ee eee eee 1 Bel SvU ae noe ae ae eee 66 IRenmudane foe ste eres eee serene il IDOlLVIAKe Sac ees eee ose ee 5 13512 7/11 Wee ene ON eRe ee ee oS 44 Britigshecolonlesia 2 eee eee eee eee 30 BritishaG uiana = eee eee eee aes 2 sian Islom@lbtee so csschcecesseee 2 Cape Colony <2.- 2-2-2 scneoaeeee 12 Claii’a soe eee ye eee eos 4 (Gliese see a ee Se 20 Colombia see seers cee sees 11 @ostagRica fee see eee eee eee 15 Cilla ras Se Ie ane a ees ee ees rere 2 Denim areas eer ee ree 30 DotcheGuianaees2s eee eee eee (¢) CUA OT ae ee ae eee eee eee i) Hastindiesa sense eee eee. 22 Heyipttcses Sach Seo inte 6 Hrance. and colomiesssaeoeeese else ee 244 Germanive sce jes eee Seer 364 Great Britain and Ireland........-- 426 Giree Ces ioe sec eee ee ee eee 10 | Guatemallarsses tees aes ceeee nee 9 Ja Beh hepwee pee rey ane ae ee oer Ae Lene: 2 EOnGurds ee eee eee eee a Hungary; suchas. cacaseeeosoonce ee 40 tally sees oe ees 94 Jamaleaue sect eee ree eae 6 Japan’ 252s Sosesate oacotee: Hose eeoe 65 Wiberides. 395 {eect eco see een eres Y HY eS acl eee ae ee, ee rae ee ee es (2) Following is a list of foreign depositories to which sets of United States Govern- ment publications are sent under the joint resolution of Congress approved March 2, 1867. One box of current publications was forwarded to each depository on Sep- tember 8, October 2, and December 17, 1902, and on February 17 and April 27, 1903: Argentina: Library of the Foreign Office, Buenos Ayres. Argentina: Biblioteca Publica Provincial, La Plata. Australia: Commonwealth of Australia, Melbourne. Austria: K. K. Statistische Central-Commission, Vienna. Baden: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. Bavaria: K6énigliche Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich. Belgium: Bibliotheque Royale, Brussels. Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. « Included in transmissions to Netherlands. > Packages sent by mail. ¢ included in transmissions to Germany. @ Included in transmissions to Great Britain. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 Canada: Parliamentary Library, Ottawa. Chile: Biblioteca del Congreso, Santiago. Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje de Publicaciones, San José. Cuba: Department of State, Habana. Denmark: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen. England: British Museum, London. England: School of Economics and Political Sciences, London. France: Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Germany: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin. Greece: National Library, Athens. Haiti: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince. Hungary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. India: Secretary to the Government of India, Calcutta. Ireland: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome. Japan: Foreign Office, Tokyo. Mexico: Instituto Bibliogrifico, Museo Nacional, Mexico. Netherlands: Library of the States General, The Hague. New South Wales: Board for International Exchanges, Sydney. New Zealand: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Storthingets Bibliothek, Christiania. Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. Prussia: Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin. Quebec: Legislative Library, Quebec. Queensland: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Russia: Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg. Saxony: Konigliche Bibliothek, Dresden. South Australia: Parliament Library, Adelaide. Spain: Seccion de Propiedad Intelectual del Ministerio de Fomento, Madrid. Sweden: Kongliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Switzerland: Bibliotheque Fédérale, Berne. Tasmania: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Transvaal: State Library, Pretoria. Turkey: Minister of Public Instruction, Constantinople. Uruguay: Oficina de Depdsito, Reparto y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Carécas. Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne. Western Australia: Victoria Public Library, Perth. Wurttemberg: Konigliche Bibliothek, Stuttgart. The 50 sets of official documents proyided by the joint resolution of Congress approved March 2, 1867, have all been placed in appreciative hands in other coun- tries, as noted-in the preceding list. Finding that a still further exchange with for- eign governments was necessary in order to increase the collections in the Library of Congress, a joint resolution was approved March 2, 1901, providing 62 sets for distri- bution abroad in lieu of 50 sets as formerly, and further provision was made by this resolution for increasing the number of sets to 100 on the request of the Librarian of Congress. The distribution of the additional sets provided for by the joint resolution of March 2, 1901, has been made through the International Exchange Service to such foreign depositories as the Librarian of Congress in his judgment has deemed expedient, 64 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. having solely in view the procurement of such publications in exchange as were especially desired by that library. On account of lack of space in the Smithsonian building for storing the additional sets provided for by the resolution of 1901, these documents have been delivered from the Government Printing Office to the Library of Congress, and in turn are forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution from time to time for transmission abroad as negotiations are consummated. When depositories for all these additional sets shall have been arranged for, however, it is expected that the documents will be delivered directly from the Government Printing Office to the Smithsonian Institu- tion, and that all uniform sets will then be shipped abroad at the same time and accompanied by duplicate printed lists of the contents of each case, as is now custom- ary when shipments are made to the original 50 depositories. The following is a list of the new depositories to which consignments have been made during the year: British Columbia: Legislative Assembly, Victoria. Cape Colony: Colonial Governor, Cape Town. France: Prefecture de la Seine, Paris. Germany: Foreign Office, Bremen. Guatemala: Secretary of the Government, Guatemala. Jamaica: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. Manitoba: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Natal: Colonial Secretary’s Office, Pietermaritzburg. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. Northwest Territories: Government Library, Regina. Nova Scotia: Legislative Library, Halifax. Prince Edward Island: Legislative Library, Georgetown. Dr. Felix Flugel, Messrs. William Wesley & Son, and Dr. Joseph von Kérésy con- tinue to act as agents of the Institution in Leipzig, London, and Budapest, respec- tively. In each instance the interests of the Institution generally, and those of the International Exchange Service in particular, are conducted with rare ability. To those correspondents abroad who give their personal attention and doubtless often expend private medns in furthering the interests of international exchanges at large the grateful acknowledgment of the Institution should be accorded. The appreciation of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches is due to Mr. Charles A. King, deputy collector of the port of New York, for his constant assist- ance in clearing assignments from abroad for the Institution. I desire to commend also the efficiency and faithfulness of the employes of the exchange service through- out the year. Respectfully submitted. F. W. Hopge, Acting Curator of Exchanges. Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, : Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. JuLy 1, 1903. APppENDIXx IV. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK: Str: I have the honor to herewith submit the following report relating to the con- dition and operations of the National Zoological Park for the year ending June 30, 1903: At the close of that period the approximate value of the property belonging to the park was as follows: Pmuldingspbomanimalss isa2 5.212 sees aay ce se a nS os oz RS ee Says Saisie aoe $84, 000 Biiidines foradministrative purposes=22-- 45 s=<. -sa-55 5.52. 2225252225255 14, 000 Ofiecetunnitunes books apparatus etc saa es re eee ee ee 4, 000 Machinery, tools: andaimplem ents: sess see eer eee eee 2, 200 HEN CestanGeQutdOGl tn ClLOSUTES= esse eye ee a 33, 000 Rovdwayes bridges. «paths, TUstic Seats, Cteas 2 ane te a oes See eee Se 80, 000 INA DIGS (Ete) 5,5 8 aay eee St ge, eee Se, Ee ee Oa ee 1, 000 VIG SHS EIST Ses ee Rs NII oa as ye eT oy 400 ATMA SelaEZzOOLOCICalacOllectiompee = see sees ene ee ra ae --- 40,000 A detailed list of the animals in the collection is appended hereto. They may be classified as follows: Indige- | po rac Domesti- ore | nous. | Foreign. | © cated! Total. ss — WOTEMIAUS 556 remc soenco aac onan sus bes aon acoascoouoSasetecsseer 310 | 143 | 82 535 I STuRt (San in AN oe ee ae ee te SN er ee tine nee 158 | 125 64 347 Sy gy0 TVS Bea seer ee ee EIR Gene ee | 101 | 7) | aoe ese 118 Tig ENR a ee ee OR ne 8 OH 3a nk Ia | 569 285 146 ~—-1, 000 : es LY | The accessions of animals during the year have been as follows: [resented ate cS 5e 558 oe ee rye ef Se ee Se teeeaet =e oe Seale, Sau enlo See ne as ipunchasedrandecollectedes..< = et a= ae era ee ee eee ee eno ees: 102 ene ee ere a Se eh pet ee eric eS ee Te He tosis Se Sa Sten sity se cieiees 3 Received from Yellowstone National Par kegote.2 Set eh eats i A eee 1 Recerca ise ean ere es Soe Bs Sen eee Pe ee Ade ee Sao eee ae 21 BornemeNational A0olocicalibarkese sco pepe seee re sae see oe ae eee eae ee eee 87 Received from United States consul at Neweastle, New South Wales--.-..-.----- 143 RO tae Ae eee a a Sse Pai Se eto peta stan eo oe 470 The cost for purchase, collection, and transportation of these accessions has been $4,500. The appropriation for the general service of the park was made in the following terms: For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and otherwise improving the grounds; erect- sm 1903——5 65 66 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ing and repairing buildings and inclosures; care, subsistence, purchase, and_trans- portation of animals, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees; the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, the printing and publishing of operations, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, ninety thousand dollars. An additional appropriation was made as follows: For the construction of an elephant house, with bathing pools and other accesso- ries, including labor and materials and all necessary incidental expenses, ten thousand dollars; one-half of which sums for the National Zoological Park shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States. (Sundry civil act June 28, 1902. ) In submitting estimates to Congress $20,000 was specified for the elephant house. Only half of this amount was appropriated, which was altogether inadequate for such a building as had been planned—in fact, was sufficient only to inclose the required space with the cheapest possible construction having the necessary strength. The preparation of new plans and specifications adapted to the amount available was begun as soon as the appropriation had been made and a contract for the work was let early in September. Work under the contract was commenced promptly and pushed as rapidly as circumstances would permit. . There was some unavoidable delay in securing materials, but the building was completed early in January, 1903. The contract covered building proper, outdoor bathing pool, and fence for outside yard, and amounted to $8,594. Boiler and heating pipes and some other interior fit- tings and guard rail around outside yard were not included in the contract, this work being done by day labor. The total cost, including architect’s commission, was $10,000. About $500 also was expended from the general appropriation in necessary grading and construction of walks in the immediate vicinity. The house is a plain, barn-like structure of brick, 35 by 65 feet inside, a space 35 feet square being provided for the elephant, a 10-foot passage reserved for attendants, and a space 20 by 35 feet for the public. The outside yard is 79 by 96 feet and includes a concrete bathing pool 20 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep. The fence is 6 feet high, constructed of steel throughout, and consists of I-beam posts, channel- beam rail, and pickets of 2}-inch stiff, round steel 19 inches apart. Both posts and pickets are set in a heavy concrete base. A bar of 2-inch half-round iron, in which are set small pointed steel knobs, is fastened along the inner side of the rail to dis- courage the elephant from pushing against it. An area between the yard and pool, protected by a stockade, has been planted with shrubs and trees, which will soon shade to a considerable extent both yard and pool. The accompanying illustration shows the exterior appearance of the house and yard. The elephant was put in the house March 12, 1903. Besides the regular cost of maintenance, several important improvements have been made during the year from the general appropriation. Boundary fence.—The Secretary had. for several years been urging upon Congress the need of replacing the wooden boundary fence, which was constructed in 1890. There was an increase of $10,000 in the general appropriation over the sum provided for the previous year, and this amount was applied to the construction of a new fence. Work was begun soon after the appropriation became available, and the fence was completed during autumn, except on a small portion of the boundary, where the grades are being changed to conform to newly constructed highways of the District of Columbia. The fence consists of Page woven-wire fencing, 72 inches wide, of extra. strength, and carried on posts of heavy iron pipe set in concrete bases. Three barbed wires are used above, making the total height 90 inches. Heavy galvanized netting extends 12 inches into the ground below for security against dogs. The amount available was not sufficient to provide suitable entrance gates, and temporary gates were made with wire fencing attached to a light frame of angle iron. The total cost of the fence was $10,000. "MYVd IWOIDO1IOOZ IVNOILVN NI GYVA GNV 3SNOH LNVHd3134 Red jt a ah, oiaeniiett oe) Pe hel aT bia we ai *] SLV1d "s06| ‘Hoday uRiuOsUyIWS Smithsonian Repon,.1903. PLATE II. ECHIDNA. “TASMANIAN DEVIL.” TASMANIAN “ZEBRA WOLF.” (Obtained by Dr. F. W. Goding, U. 8. Consul at Newcastle, New South Wales. ) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67 In connection with the building amine fence it became necessary to reestablish certain points on the boundary line where the grading of District highways had dis- placed the original marks or where the line had been altered since the official sur- vey was made. The surveyor of the District of Columbia was accordingly employed to peoey | the boundany and prepare a new and authoritative map. Bear yards. yards begun at the close of the previous year have been completed. Provision has been made fora series of 10 yards, and the site for the entire series has been graded. The two central cages of the series were built and are occupied, respectively, by the Kodiak bear and the pair of polar bears. These cages are approximately 40 feet square, and each contains a bathing pool about 20 feet in diameter. The fence is 10 feet high, with an overhang inward of 2 feet 6 inches. It is constructed of vertical bars of #-inch stiff, round steel, spaced 5 inches on centers, passing through horizontal rails of 23 by { inch round-edged steel. Each yard is provided with a house in the rear, the front of which is of large weathered rocks laid up with wide irregular joints. Rear walls are of concrete. Each house has a grating door at front and rear and a grating across one end the entire width of the house. In winter a tight storm door is fitted into the rear opening, and the open end of the house is closed with a wooden panel. ‘The door at the front is closed with a sliding grating, operated outside the house. There is also a grating door at the rear of the yard for the use of keepers, all attendance being from the rear. The cost, including grading, drainage, and water supply, has been $3,000. Trees have been planted about the cages, which after a few years will shade both animals and visitors. A trellis of light steel framework has been constructed over the public walk and the front part of the cages, and over this quick-growing vines are being trained, which will afford shade till the trees reach sufficient size to render such shade unnecessary. Eagle cage.—This structure.also was begun as the last fiscal year ended. It was completed early in the present year and at once occupied. The cage has proved to be very satisfactory, and it is hoped that in the near future similar structures can be built for other birds of prey, especially for the California condors, which now have to be kept ina cage of quite inadequate size. The following alterations and additions have been made to buildings and grounds during the year: Improvements in aquarium.—The small aquarium maintained for several years in an old work shed proved to be of so much interest to visitors that it seemed advisa- ble to make some alterations in order to provide more satisfactory conditions for operation and exhibition. Under your instructions the lighting, which had been insufficient, was improved by putting in a continuous series of skylights on the north side and doubling the skylight area on the south side. A new exhibition tank, 12 feet long, 3 feet 10 inches high, and 5 feet deep, was constructed at the end of the corridor. A second concrete storage tank for salt water was built and an extra pump and additional piping put in, so that the entire series of tanks on one side and the new end tank can be supplied with salt water. It was also recognized that a bare background of asphalted wood did not display fishes to advantage or give any proper idea of the surroundings in which they ordinarily live. Some of the tanks have therefore been lined with rock of different kinds, while in others cement has been combined with gravel and waterworn stones to give the background the appearance of a natural bank. Fresh-water plants, marine algee, sponges, ete., have been used as accessories in these tanks to produce, so lar as possible, the appearance of natural conditions. The improvement thus made has been appreciated by the public as well as favorably commented on by persons engaged in aquarium work. A large mirror has been installed on the roof of the aquarium and so connected that it throws sunlight at all times of day, through colored glass, into one of the tanks. 68 : REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. e Addition to temporary bird house.—It was found to be necessary to further enlarge the temporary bird house in order to furnish winter quarters for birds from the large flying cage. An extension 50 feet long and 35 feet wide was built at the north end with a height of 20 feet. The end of this extension was made into a single cage, 20 by 35 feet, extending the full height of the building and provided with a pool, trees, etc. A considerable part of the birds from the flying cage were kept here dur- ing the winter. This addition made it possible to keep birds in a fairly comfortable manner, but, with accessions which have come in during the current year, especially from United States officers abroad, the collection has again quite outgrown the accommodations. Repairs to antelope house.—When this house was built it was necessary, on account of insufficiency of funds, to use the cheapest materials. Asa natural result some parts of the structure have already given away from decay. During the year it became necessary to put new floors in all of the large cages. The wooden floors were removed and replaced by a macadam surface on a base of stone laid in the ‘Telford’? manner. Concrete walls were built to sustain the front of the cages and the partitions. New double partitions were also constructed, with doors sliding into them, and the outer wall was ceiled for greater warmth. Repairs to inclosures.—Seyveral of the inclosures for ruminant animals have required repairs during the year. The elk paddock was in such bad condition that the wire fencing had to be replaced for a distance of 100 rods, and at least an equal amount © additional will have to be rebuilt very soon. A fence possessing at once the desirable qualities of lightness, strength, and durability is apparently not yet obtainable. “Work on roadways.—No new roadways have been constructed during the year, but the driveway connecting with Klingle road was rebuilt for a distance of 300 feet in order to conform to the new grade established for that road. The ford on this drive- way was also paved with concrete, as the current of Rock Creek frequently eroded the natural bed at that point to such an extent as to render the crossing unsafe for carriages. Since this improvement was made there has been no further trouble of this kind. It also became necessary to remove the metaling from the roadway between Quarry road entrance and the bridge over the creek, as a considerable fill was required there to connect with the new entrance road constructed by the District at that point. New entrance road from Kenesaw avenue.—The appropriations for the District of Columbia included the following item: ‘‘ For Kenesaw avenue, entrance to Zoological Park, grading (and the Commissioners of the District of Columbia are authorized to adjust the lines of the streets at this locality so as to afford an entrance to the Zoological Park upon good and satisfactory grade, with authority to exchange with the owners of the abutting property any land now within the lines of said streets that may be necessary to accomplish said purpose: Provided, That no expense is incurred thereby by the United States or the District of Columbia), ten thousand dollars.”’ This entrance roadway has been graded throughout to a width of 50 feet. It has not as yet been otherwise improved, but will probably be graveled soon. A fill was required the entire length of the road, which extends into the park about 200 feet, and the side slope encroaches on the park the whole length. The park is now bor- dered on the east side from Quarry road to Klingle road by a bank of raw earth as steep as it will stand and from 15 to 40 feet high. Measures will have to be taken to protect the meadow and woodland below from the wash, also to plant the slope so as to screen it and cover it with a growth of vegetation which will hold the earth and prevent erosion. Important accessions.—Dr. F. W. Goding, United States consul at Newcastle, New South Wales, secured for the park during the year the most important collections yet received from any one source, amounting to more than 140 specimens, among REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69 which were a Tasmanian zebra wolf with 3 young, a Tasmanian deyil, 3 echidnas, 13 kangaroos of various species, 3 phalangers, 2 flying phalangers, 4 native cats ( Dasy- urus), a black-backed jackal, a pair of emus, 30 cockatoos and paroquets, a wedge- tailed eagle, a pair of black swans, and many other birds. A number of these animals were gifts from Doctor Goding, or through him, from persons in Australia who are interested in natural history; others which were especially difficult to obtain were purchased by Doctor Goding at small cost through correspondents in remote parts of Australia and Tasmania. His wide acquaintance throughout the Australian region and knowledge of its fauna made it possible for Doctor Goding to securea thoroughly representative collection, and acknowledgment is here given of the grat- itude of the park and of its obligation to Doctor Goding for his valuable assistance. Some of the animals mentioned are shown in Plate IT. E. H. Plumacher, United States consul at Maracaibo, Venezuela, presented a monkey, a deer, a peccary, 2 agoutis, and several iguanas, parrots, and owls. E. 8. Cunningham, United States consul at Aden, Arabia, presented a fine speci- men of caracal. An officer of the Sudan government offered to the President of the United States a young lion, which was secured for the park. Dr. H. T. McLaughlin, of the Ameri- can mission at Omdurman, kindly attended to the forwarding of the animal, which proved to be a fine male about 12 months old. ~ The President presented to the park a bay lynx and a black bear. Victor J. Evans, of Washington, D. C., presented a fine male Arabian baboon. Capt. John L. Young, of Young’s Pier, Atlantic City, N. J., presented the aqua- rium with a number of interesting fishes and also assisted materially in securing other specimens. The Yellowstone National Park, through its acting superintendent, Maj. John Pitcher, U. 8. Army, furnished a fine male grizzly bear, weighing 500 pounds. Exchanges were made during the year with the New York Zoological Park; Lincoln Park, Chicago; the Zoological Garden at Buffalo, N. Y., and various private indi- viduals, by means of which surplus animals were disposed of and desirable speci- mens obtained. births increased somewhat in number over the previous year, and it is of interest to note that the beavers have again bred, this time producing three young. Purchases included a young female lion obtained for the park by the United States consul at Aden, Arabia, a specimen of the Oregon cougar, 2 fishers, a female moose as a mate for the male already in the collection, 4 Cuban flamingos, also a male Mama and several birds which did not arrive until after the close of the fiscal year. The young brown bear obtained on the mainland of Alaska, opposite Kodiak Island, in May, 1901, made a very satisfactory growth and weighed, in June of this year, 450 pounds. Its weight when captured was 18 pounds. This bear is probably of the kind recently described as Ursus gyas. Losses of animals.—The most important were 5 American bison, 3 of which died from gastro-enteritis, 1 from abscess of the stomach, and 1 from pyzemia; 2 wood- land caribou, 2 prong-horn antelopes, also 15 monkeys, the loss of which must be charged mainly to lack of proper housing. Autopsies on a considerable proportion of the animals which died were made by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Agricultural Department, and facts of interest were learned as well as information secured which will be of service to the park in the future. One draft horse and one saddle horse were condemned during the year as unfit for use and were sold at public auction. The urgent need of a house for small mammals was brought to the attention of Congress, and, while no separate appropriation was made for this purpose, it is hoped that from the slightly increased general appropriation for the year 1904 a sufficient 70 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. amount can be reserved to erect at least a part of the building. Plans for the house are already well under way. It would be of the greatest advantage to the park if immediate provision could be made for its most vital needs. A central heating plant is one of the indispensable features of a permanent equipment and must be put in ultimately. The establish- ment of such a plant will result not only in direct and immediate economy through reducing the amount of fuel and the number of firemen required, but it will also save the expense of providing each building erected with a separate heating plant, and will remove from all the public exhibition houses the dirt, smoke, and other inconveniences which necessarily attend the operation of a heating plant in the building. : Need of a suitable public comfort house equipped for ladies and children and with provision for a restaurant has before been mentioned and is again urged. The present insufficient arrangements are becoming each year more unsatisfactory and objectionable. It may be mentioned that accommodations of this kind are among the most important features in all of the leading zoological gardens. Attention is again called to the great desirability of providing permanent build- ings for animals sufficient to keep pace with the growth of the collections, so that there may be no further necessity for putting up cheap temporary structures, which are never satisfactory and entail a greater final cost than would result were perma- nent houses provided at the outset. Animals in National Zoological Park, June 30, 1903. Name. - | Number. Name. Number. MAMMALS. MAMMALS—Continued. North American species. North American species—Continued. American bison (Bison americanus) -.-- 4" i Crossitox ( Vulpes wfuluws) 222-2 = ee 1 Prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra Arctic fox ( Vulpes lagopus) ....-------- 12 CMETICONM) eo seee ee cee eee Gaeeais ote 2 || Swift fox (Vulpes velow))...--.-.-------- 6 Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) - 12 || Gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus) --- 3 Columbia black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus North American otter ( Lutra hudsonica) 2 COUUMULCNIUS) eee a eee eeee eens 1 || Fisher (Mustela pennantii) ......------- 2 Mule deer ( Odocotleus hemionus) ..----- 10 || American badger ( Taxidea taxus) .-..-.- 4 Cuban deer (Odocoileus sp.) -.---------- 1 || Kinkajou ( Totos caudivolvulus) .....--- 2 American elk (Cervus canadensis) ...-. 33 || Americancivetcat (Bassariscus astutus) 1 Newfoundland caribou (Rangifer Raccoon) (Procyon loton) =~. --2---aaene 22 LenTENMOUVH)) soe oe soseesins ie oais seas 1 || Black bear ( Ursus americanus) .....---- 6 Moose (Alces americanus) ....---------- 2 || Cinnamon bear ( Ursus americanus) -.-- a Collared peceary ( Tayassu angulatum) . 1 || Grizzly bear ( Ursus horribilus)....----- 4 Cougar (Felisiconcolon)eas-see-e -aeeeees 2 || Yakutat bear ( Ursus dallt)--..2...-:--- 1 Oregon cougar (Felis concolor oregon- Kodiak bear ( Ursus middendorffi) ..---. 1 ENSIS) em aanse ese osene Soto sae nees 1 || Polar bear ( Thalarctos maritimus) ....- 2 Oceloti(helispandalis) pase seee eee eee 9 || California sea lion (Zalophus califor- Yaguarundi (Felis yaguarundi).....-.- 2 MUANUS) oases © sina sine ie aieise ie serene Biyrai(CRelis cya) = seem seca e ane anaee 1 || Steller’s sea lion (Hwmetopias steller?) -- it Bayelymix (Ana rA0RUs) eeceeeeecm esse 3 1 || Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) .......---- 3 Spotted lynx (Lynx rufus maculatus) -- 2 |, Common pocket gopher (Geomys bur- Florida lynx (Lynx rufus floridanus) -- 2 SOUNTIS) vane pee Oee eee eee ease 2 Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) .-..-.--- 1 | California pocket gopher (Thomomys Gray wolf (Cants griseus) ....-.--..-.-- 5 DOU): woh Rea woe cee canis eee eee cee 2 Black wolf (Canis griseus) ...-.--.----- 3 |, Mountain pack-rat (Neotoma cinerea) .. 3 Coyote (Cantsitatnans)\=- esses se --eoeee 6 || American beaver (Castor canadensis) -- 11 Coyotel(Ganisimustinon)peasaee eee ee eee 4 || Hutia-conga (Capromys pilorides).....- 9 RECs Ox VAL PEs fULuUs) aes 2 || Southern fox squirrel (Sciwrus niger).. ) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals in National Zoological Park, June 30, 19083—Continued. | | “I Name. Number. Name. Number. MAMMALS—continued. MAMMALS—continued. North American species—Continued. || Domesticated and foreign species—Con. Western fox squirrel (Sciwrus ludovici- Solid-hoofed pig (Sus scrofa).........-- 1 ie all Ss | 16 Le pu CBGSWNAtCUs) ee eseernsee accesses 5 Gray squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis) - --- 34 Carabao (Bos bubalus)....-...-.-------- i Black squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis) --- 9 Yak (Poéphagus grunniens)....-..--.-- = Mountain chipmunk ( Tamias speciosus) 1g || Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus) ..--.- | 5 Beechey’s ground squirrel (Spermophi- COTE EOE (CHET) socom eos: a) lus grammurus beecheyi)......-------- le} Angora goat (Capra hircus)...--------- 7 Antelope chipmunk (Spermophilus leu- || Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) . . - - - - - 4 (ETT re ae oe y || Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) - - 2 Mexican ground squirrel (Spermophilus || Sambur deer (Cervus aristotelis)......-- 4 FEA O TERNS eR De sty een 1 Philippine deer (Cervus philippinus) -- - 1 Northern yarying hare (Lepus ameri- || Axis deer (Cervus avis)....-.----------- : ATT Pe oof te eco ee g | Red deer (Cervus elaphus) ....---------- 1 Peba armadillo (Tatu novemeinctum) -. 4 | Mexican deer (Odocoileus mexicanus) - -| 1 Opossum (Didelphys marsupialis) ....-- 9 || Venezuelan deer (Cariacus sp.)..-...-- q || Fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) ...-------- 5 Domesticated and foreign species. '| Common camel (Camelus dromedarius) -| 2 Bonnet monkey (Macacus sinicus) -...- 1 | Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) - - .| 1 Macaque monkey (Macacus cynomol- Llama (Auchenia glama)........------- 3 GUS) So sceiencte vaice ae cise sec cscmnseece= 10 | South American tapir ( Tapirus ameri- Pig-tailed monkey (Macacus nemestri- | | Canus) ...----------+-2-2 2222222222 3 MNES) iaw seamerec a owas sce oseces pacer es 3 || Donkey (Equus asinus) ........-------- 1 Japanese monkey ( Macacus speciosus) -. 1 | Indian elephant (Llephas indicus) .-.--- 1 Black ape (Cynopithecus niger) .....---- 4 || Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexicana) .| 1 Arabian baboon (Papio hamadryas) .... 2 | Hairy-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta | Spider monkey (Ateles sp.).......-.---- 1 MTUMNOLOPIUG) aaa sa ne eisai eerie eee 2 Capuchin (Cebus capucinus) .......---- 2 | Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azarx) ....- 2 Ruffed lemur (Lemur varius) .......--- 2 | Acouchy (Dasyprocta acouchy) ...----- 4 STON CHELSILC0)) hem nme esis neeeen eoteaae Yi | Golden agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) ..---- 1 EDIE Crd (CHEMS TLGTIS) tenanen cence oes ee ee 2 | Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) ...-..----- 17 meopard: (elsipanrdalts)) s-.s.-2 52s 2 | Alpin marty (MS MULES) eee peice eee 5 Caracal (hyns Canacdl)/s2. sense. sesieeee 1 || Coypu (Myocastor coypus) .......-.-.---- 4 Spotted hyena (Hyzna crocuta) .....-.- 1 Crested porcupine ( Hystrix cristata) ---- 3 Striped hyena (Hyxnc striata) ......... 2 || Domestic rabbit (Lepus cwnieulus) ..--- 16 Wioltinound esascesnccn loses eee 2 || Two-toed sloth (Cholepus didactylus) -- 1 Simbermand dopmsec-oesinacceceee sean il | Great gray kangaroo (Macropus gigan- OUMUCT Ne Aare crc Sess ene eclecise eae es Hi) | C2108) ee = aa 3 Bedlingtoniterrier $5..--2-..c-sc++-s-- = 1 || Wallaros (Macropus robustus) .......---- 1 Smooth-coated fox terrier ............. 3 || Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus)......-- 2 Wire-haired fox terrier ....-...:....5: 1 | Black-striped wallaby (MWacropus dorsa- Dine or(Canisidzvgo)| saaseesnsa eee 2 TES) ee eee eee ne eeae sees saan es 3 Black-backed jackal ( Canismesomelas) - 1 |} Pademelon wallaby (Macropus thetidis) 2 Palm civet (Paradoxurus fasciatus) .... 1 \| Grey’s wallaby (Macropus greyi) ....--- 1 Mongoose (Herpestes mungo)...--.----- 1 || Brush-tailed rock kangaroo ( Petrogale Tayra (Galictis barbara)...........-.--- J DENECHULOLG) ieee nceye sia 3a saan itera 4 Red coatimundi (Naswa rufa) .......-- 1 || Bridled wallaby (Onychogale frenata) - . 1 Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon can- | Rat-kangaroo (prymnus rufescens) ..- 4 CRIVOTO) here cna je tveelain eine Secsecioeee 2 | Flying phalanger (Pefawrus sciwreus) - - 2 Japanese bear ( Ursus japonicus) -.-..--- 1 | Common phalanger ( Trichosurus vulpe- Sun bear ( Ursus malayanus) ....-.-.--- if | CUT eee race ae eae hig ae Meine ee ‘ Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) .......-- 2 | Bandicoot (Perameles sp.)..------------ 1 European hedgehog (Erinaceus euro- | Tasmanian wolf (Thylacynus cynoce- FOLIA tate oe eases poms ece eenss ates oe Bee Hamer g) ROLLS aera tee eae satan stances inion ciclo = 3 Wild boar (Sus scrofa) . 2 | Tasmanian deyil (Sarcophilus ursinus) - 1 12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals in National Zoological Park, June 30, 1903—Continued. Name. Number. MAMMALS—continued. Domesticated and foreign species—Con. Australian “native cat” (Dasyurus sp.) - Echidna (Echidna aculeata) BIRDS. Strawberry finch (Sporeginthus flavidi- ventris) Painted grass-finch ( Poéphila mirabilis) - Bar-breasted fineh ( Munia nisoria) Java sparrow ( Padda oryzivora)....---. Parson finch. ...--. PS Seas aoe ace Piping crow (Gymnorhina tibicen) ..... Toucan (Ramphastos tocard) Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) Sulphur-erested cockatoo ( Cacatua gal- erita) Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua lead- beater) Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gym- MODIS): ajo s Aciacesancc smeeeeosee eee Roseate coeckatoo( Cacatua roseicapilla) . Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ararau- nea) Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara FRACLO) ralem eee ayes ape eae htt eke Red and blue macaw (Ara chloroptera) . Great green macaw (Ara militaris).-.. Chattering lory (Lorius garrulus)...... Green paroquet (Conwrus sp.)--..----- Carolina paroquet (Conuwrus carolinen- Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona auro- POLIOLG) © Shame oe eer pe A ay eee White-fronted amazon ( Amazona leuco- cephala) Double yellow-head ( Amazona oratriz) . Mealy amazona (Amazona farinosa) .--| Yellow-shouldered amazon (Amazona OChTOPlErG) | ewe eens eceeene Sess Levaillant’s amazon (Amazona levail- LON) EE sears Hee tat eee ee Barraband’s parrakeet (Polytelis barra- | UH KU eee = Sakae sna ase SAS pee Rose-hill parrakeet( Platycercuseximius) Parrakeet ( Psephotus haematonotus).... Grass parrakeet (Melopsittacus undula- TUS) 0. So oe Bains cece ee eee OR EERE King parrakeet (Aprosmictus cyanopy- Guus) .c2 coo 6 ea oe ee eee Ree Cockateel( Calopsittacus novex-hollandiz)| Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).. snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea).........--.- Barred ow] (Syrnium nebulosum) Barn owl (Stria pratincola) (2) =] Sora (Porzana carolina) Name. BIRDS—continued. Wenezuelan Owls. Henricksen Miami shia) osecccieieectctisecteie recess serene Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries...........-...----------- Chas. Payne Smith, Colorado Springs, Colo .................. J.-M: Harper: Red Rock, NeiMexe eee: se-secsiene men secret GoW, Halle Washington DaCeoaaasecena seer aae-ereeeeeeare A. M. Nicholson, Orlando, Fla Otis'"Bigelow; Avenel, Midiarasacsemecs dace co eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee DrvAy de eearris; Washinton) iC pees seseeserete ser eeeen eee T. H. Felton, Washington, D. C Rranikaust, Washine tom gD s(C eeecme as cme sien seieiaee cise Mr. Kibble, Islington, New South Wales.............----.--- sigeide do : PaulyBartsch, Washington) Ceescee=ere seers sseceseeesee Doctor Russell, Newcastle, New South Wales............---- Number. ee phwwwwnwends$ Be wee eee ee a PENNE EB EP RP eB eB ee eB BP NEP eB ed BE DP PP ee DD REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. “I Animals presented during the fiscal year ending June 80, 19083—Continued. Name. Donor. Number. [Rees MreeGuck). ..o2csanccchecseoe Frank Underwood, Neweastle, New South Wales...........-. 2 Hering pull. . 3-5 -2--ssee=- Hamypbavley Washington) 5 Case sam see see eee one aee mia 1 WOO! Ao 25 fo esc =-5 osesenere HG bendleton:, Arieustansprings, Valens ce-cesces-sseeacce ea | 1 PANT ALON, so. eo asnisecie stenoses Carrollstarquharaw washington. ws Cieesss.=secs cues ares ane ce 1 BD) Oe oe eee nae eere AG AViEsReese -BaltimonesMid!2 te oo sees ane elec oteiee cence ome 2 DOR Sat ASae ea pagel Ronoaeae DiriwWevire NibiserssKeedysyilles Midi sas-esmcssccc ce scae cess 2 Tieqhimath Sa aeepeoseceeenedecsan E. H. Plumacher, United States consul, Maracaibo, Venezuela. 3 Wooded lizards =-s--eeees- Fitzroy Stacy, Newcastle, New South Wales ................. il Homednlizandise=-eees a= - soe Wr Jeebogardius Washine tomer D(C assess sees nays sees ess 1 D Om ao steenieees cake seek Ee Mieveniberga, EeGostsdlexmassmare oso see ae a(eeeia safe eee = 2 eer 2 Diamond rattlesnake........ Wo 18lo Witwenel, Iheyrsalvoleveoy INbY eos cee eeceadeosecod ee 1 Prairie rattlesnake,.2-2..--=- James Hullerton> Red odgen Mont e-eas sss eeeeeer a2 see eet 1 Wopperhesd) aecse pace sone eMaGaSiinnerh Washington) see seee nese ee ese ea. 1 Black snake t..sseasecceeasee Draisageswe blackburn w Washington Ds Ce seeseasese saa nee 1 Coachwhip snake..----.-.--- (ONiewEeeRonter pKeissimin cea aren ease ers ase se sere cle eee if Rein easnake. soci -assegeee ce MACE MEeRGese sbaltim Ores Manas se esce se eitctencieeeciacicisen esas 1 IDO arse een ee eS PRACe Neuman oRichl ands Gales sas e eae ae ee eee ee il Hog-nosed snake ...........-. (fH: Carrico, Suluhtonephey. oepeesisa = soccer mene naeae toc aaeses 1 DMO Bees a ssc aces seesises: eMIss Vireinia lucas ChanlestowileViceseeseienee sacs oceans 1 PIOLNISNAKE Ses cceceseesemse He Ca Henneksen i Miami hil tena-s- eee reeeeeecseaesseececnee | 1 Summary. Number. ATMals-onmhand ey al yas 1902 eee a ereeinas cisisms ace co ae eee econ Meee ec ee ace ne sence eeee 883 INCCESSIONS GUTIN Pyth Csy CAN. e1 cis) sae eine wie cee ial acisteinerete cis siceroe eicieis cie\nie oslo soaeeimiscee 470 ANON lies AG Gates ee eee eaten ees i hee et Ce a eens see Sa Rate ECe one 12583 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, and returning of animals) ........-..-.-........--------- 353 Onshandesnin es 308 G0 Se aac sence oe on See eee oi ee eee See eee ae Soe seer eeeee 1, 000 Respectfully submitted. Mr. S. P. LAnaiey, FranK Baker, Superintendent. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX V. REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. Str: The kinds and amounts of the Observatory property are approximately as follows: Biildiness ease et as Sa ee $6, 300 ASpparatus 22) tees. c kee Ace tess See ee eee eee in 36, 900 ilbrary/andirecords$=2 22.222 Sst saeco eames eee ae ne EE eee ee 6, 460 Total on 2 Sac noes tok ' ots ia cates See ee 49, 660 During the past year the acquisitions of property of the kind just enumerated have — been as follows: (a) Apparatus.—Astronomical and physical apparatus has been purchased at an expenditure of $3,€00, the chief pieces so procured being in connection with the installation of a long-focus horizontal reflecting telescope of 20 inches aperature and ~ 140 feet focus. (b) Library and records.—The usual periodicals have been continued and additional ooks of reference have been purchased, while 184 volumes of periodicals and books of reference have been bound. There has been expended for these several purposes $460, of which sum $254.50 was chargeable to the appropriation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902. No repairs of buildings worthy of note have been made during the year, but the Observatory inclosure was enlarged for the better accommodation of the great hori- zontal telescope by removing 39 feet at the western end of the south fence to a posi- tion 20 feet to the south. No noteworthy losses of property have occurred. THe Work OF THE OBSERVATORY. For convenience the work of the Observatory will be considered under three heads, as follows: 1. Publications and miscellaneous matters. 2. The new horizontal telescope and other apparatus. 3. Investigations relating to the atmospheric absorption and to the solar constant of radiation. 1. Publications and miscellaneous matters. Eclipse report.—A report of the expedition to Wadesboro, N. C., to observe the total solar eclipse of 1900 has been greatly delayed, but is now complete and in the hands of the printer, and it is expected will be distributed in the coming fiscal year. It will contain numerous plates illustrative of the work of the expedition and espe- -cially of the photography of the inner coronal region with the 135-foot focus lens, by Mr. Smillie. Miscellaneous work.—The Observatory staff has continued, as heretofore, to furnish 76 PLATE III. 2 Shoo) ss 1a Pipe. Stirring Tibe for Coelosrar Lhe Astrophysteal Observatory iathsoniat Lastitut/ora. Mashington D.C. c 7 Feb. 28. (903 ube Section | ND VIEW. Note :- Figures ak Where tube is not portion ; the openit the tube section, f f- 30° al EE A Avene AL sy cet aie ie, 4 ae ay wo 7 oka tes, ; ‘De ni SN) MEP abe we be dosble © conceive: Inner ube 24° dum. Make in sections about 5-0" long telescoped to~ sec~ et Detail of Tube Section Tak ELEVATION. Note - Figures at joints i to diem of diaphragm openings. Where tube js nok cylindrical figures refer te diam of circular rhion; the opening etl diaphragm following the contour of the tube section, though propertionately smaller. Sections ot a.c.e.g.i. - pa a Doves ". a { timate # aidlnh oft adet - _othit lenoas gd? igede ‘enbalsgt eda ont PX «Sie wo # aH ad adh 0 aan @ } 4or ealas ye ae yo Pere . belek pe baetogiber ge , BAS boiosoe af eg! ade ge bat ne se! wert . - _ owes: eval’ eS aeqig ioins @ ahah “hi atm de labaad AvoAlin| salut gens ots ay aband arlond, Sedu team at eq toln-aeo tye sypusidy hey besinilese FLEA eel ii ap hd I ae it i ply. 1 seeat 4 Hcy . REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ch occasional assistance in matters of a physical or astronomical nature connected with the Institution. Among experimental undertakings of this kind may be mentioned the rough measurement of the absorption of certain substances for infra-red radia- tions, made at the request of some correspondents of the Institution. Personnel.—No changes have been made in the permanent staff of the Observatory. Doctor Gilbert completed his temporary services on August 15, 1902, and Dr. J. R. Benton filled a temporary appointment from September 16, 1902, to November 30, 1902. 2. The new horizontal telescope and other apparatus. Referring to my report of last year, it will be recalled that preliminary attempts had been made to measure the absorption of the gases of the solar envelope by bolo- graphic study of an enlarged solar image, and that it was your intention to continue the work so as to include the bolographic study of sunspot spectra, but that these researches were temporarily laid aside till a more suitable arrangement for forming and guiding the solar image could be obtained. Much study and experiment has been devoted to this matter in the past year, and as a result a horizontal reflect- ing telescope of 20 inches aperture and 140 feet focus has been obtained, and pro- vided with a tube in which the air can be thoroughly stirred to overcome ‘‘boiling,”’ in accordance with the experiments reported last year. To ‘‘feed’’ this horizontal telescope a modification of the coelostat has been devised which is believed to be before untried, and which renders this simple instrument so well adapted for the purpose of solar research that it is hoped that the device will approve itself elsewhere. A large instrument of this type has been constructed by the J. A. Brashear Com- pany, of Allegheny, Pa., and will form a part of the Astrophysical Observatory exhibit at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904. All the above - apparatus, including the coelostat, long-focus mirror, tube and air-stirring devices, and three great piers for the coelostat, concave mirror, and bolometric apparatus for the study of the image, are now in use. The accompanying illustration, Pl. IV, shows the great coelostat and a portion of the tube which incloses the beam from the coelostat to the concave mirror, 55 feet north, and thence south and under the coelostat to the plane of the focal image. It will be noted by the reader that the beam is reflected in the plane of the meridian from the first plane mirror mounted on a polar axis which turns half as fast as the earth, and that a second reflection occurs at the surface of a second plane mirror, adjustable about two horizontal axes, and also capable of moving bodily, by means of tracks, east and west and north and south. Thus the second mirror can receive the beam at any hour of any day of the year, and reflect it in any desired direction. In practice a nearly horizontal and northerly direction is chosen. Pl. IIT is from the working drawing of the tube, which is an acute V in general shape, with alonger branch of circular cross section extending from the concave mirror on the northern pier to the focus, 140 feet distant on the southern, and with a shorter branch uniting with the longer at its northern end, but proceeding south- ward and inclined upward at an angle of 6° and ending at the coelostat, 55 feet dis- tant. This shorter branch is circular at its northern end, but broadens out to an elliptical cross section, asshown, in order to inclose the beam for the east and west positions of the second coelostat mirror. Both branches of the tube are of galvanized iron, with two walls separated by an air space 1} inches thick all around. The inner tube is blackened and is provided with diaphragms. In Plate III is also shown the air ducts which are employed for stirring in the great tube. Starting from the blowing engine, which is a 29-inch circular fan blower, with direct-connected 23-horsepower electric motor, making 700 revolutions per minute, the blast is carried by a 20-inch main to a point near the middle of the tube, where 78 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the air duct branches into two 14-inch tubes, which proceed north and south respec- tively and communicate by 5-inch pipes to the interior of telescope tube. At points intermediate with these other 5-inch pipes lead out of the telescope tube and thence by return mains to the suction end of the blower, and thus the same air is continually being churned about through the entire system. To prevent the blowing engine and the city traffic from communicating prejudicial tremors to the apparatus, three deep and massive piers have been constructed, sup- orting respectively the coelostat, the long-focus concave mirr or, and the spectro- bolometric apparatus used to investigate the solar image. Each pier is contained in a pit originally 12 feet square and 10 feet deep, but supported by retaining walls of grouting | foot thick, so as finally to leave a cubical-shaped pit 10 feet onaside. At the bottom is a layer of sand 2 feet deep, and on this a base of grouting 2 feet thick and 9 feet square, supporting the brick pier, which is built to the surface of the ground 7 feet square, with 18-inch walls on the four sides and a 13-inch wall north and south through the center. Over all is the capstone, 8 feet north and south, 7 feet east and west, and 7 inches thick. In the case of the coelostat pier a two-walled brick superstructure is carried up to the top of the horizontal tube to support the base plate of the coelostat. In spite of all these precautions I regret to report that the disturbance from passing traffic and even distant railroad trains has not been suf- ficiently eliminated, and requires further measures to be taken to overcome the almost unconquerable difficulties of the site. Owing to prolonged cloudy weather, the apparatus had not been fully tried between the time of its installation, about June 1, and the close of the period covered by this report, but, so far as preliminary experiments have shown, the whole promises to be a valuable equipment if the tremors due to the site can be corrected. The sensitive galvanometer.—Referring to portions of my reports of preceding years describing the construction and installation of a highly sensitive galvanometer, I regret that attention has been diverted this year to other matters so completely that comparatively little work has been done with it. In the fall of last year an appa- ratus was arranged to measure the heating effect of the brighter stars by its aid, but unfortunately communication with the mercurial air pump had so quickly blackened the silvered galyanometer mirrors that this, together with their almost microscopic size, made it impossible to read the galvanometer by artificial light. After several trials numerous mirrors were platinized by electrical discharge in vacuo and the gal- yvanometer was provided with mirrors of this kind, but immediately after the experi- ments were discontinued to take up work on the provision of the great horizontal telescope. It is hoped to provide for the use of this special galvanometer in spectrum work on the solar image, especially in connection with sun spots, and perhaps upon the heat of the stars. 3. Investigations relating to the solar constant of radiation. Referring to my last year’s report, the bolographic measurements of atmospheric absorption then described have been continued chiefly in the hands of the junior assistant, Mr. Fowle, with improved arrangements and with more complete and exact results. In connection with them the absorption of the radiation in all parts of the apparatus has been determined frequently, and measures of the total solar radiation by the actinometer or pyrheliometer have been made also. From these several kinds of data the solar constant of radiation, or rate of receipt of solar energy at the outer limit of our atmosphere, has been computed for a number of the best days. Improvement of bolographs.—Betore giving these values, I invite attention to Plate V, which shows three superposed energy curves of the prismatic solar spectrum. Such bolographic curves are now obtained covering the region of spectrum from “KHOLVAYNSSHO IVOISAHdOULSY NVINOSHLING ‘HOUUIIA) GNOOSS HLIM LV¥LSO1DO 3NYV7] SHL "Al 3LV1d "€06| ‘Hoday uelUOsUyIWS ‘susvaydrrp [ts SurAoures Aq Posvo1OUl IIS +x VAC allivalel mm vy We ‘smmseiqderp [[t1s Sutsodioqur Aq poysluUluitp ITS * "SO6L ‘21 TIYdW 40 SNOILVAYSSEO ‘WSIYd SSVI .09 V 4O WNYLOAdS YVIOS SHL JO SSAUND AOWANA OlHdvYNO10g 44 Vv St) * (a ‘OUT, O10Z JO TOTIISOd DATS 07 I9IINYS Aq Yo ynd urwog 4 "SQ ‘Hoday URIUOSY}ILUS REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 wave length 0.375 to wave length 2.5 in about twenty-five minutes of time. This region extends from beyond the line ‘“‘L,”’ or farther than the eye can see without special means in the ultra violet, through the whole visible spectrum, and on through the visible but very intense upper infra-red spectrum as far as glass is transparent. It includes about ;°°°, of the solar radiation which reaches the earth’s surface, and so far as experiment has shown, within 1 and 2 per cent of all that reaches the outer layers of the earth’s atmosphere lies within this spectral region. It is only since January, 1903, that the apparatus has been so far perfected as to include in the regular bolographic work the important portion lying between 0.375/4 and 0.47, and in Plate V readers may see for the first time, as the bolometer recog- nizes them, the general features of the violet solar spectrum so familiar in photo- graphic spectra. It is, of course, impossible to show the finer details when the bolom- eter passes through the whole visible and upper infra-red spectrum in less time than was occupied in passing from through a fourth of the upper infra-red alone in preparing the detailed map published in 1900; but nevertheless in a rough compar- ison of three curves it was seen that as many as 325 of the Fraunhofer lines were discriminated by the bolometer as it passed over them thus rapidly. As remarked last year, scarcely any ‘‘ dritt’’ of the galvanometer is now experienced, and, indeed, it is sometimes possible to take bolographs for a month without readjusting the bolometric circuit in any way. This excellent behavior is principally due to the improved rheostat and to the 16-coil type of galvanometer, both of which were men- tioned on page 87 of last year’s report. Transmission of the atmosphere.—From series of such bolographs as are described at page 89 in my last year’s report, coefficients of transmission of the atmosphere are obtained. It is now customary to compute them for more than 30 points in the spectrum between wave lengths 0.37 “ and 2.5 yu, of which 24 are at wave lengths where there are no prominent atmospheric bands and the others within such bands. The reduced observations take such a form that they may be graphically platted as straight lines whose angle of inclination is a measure of the transmission coefficient of the air at the given wave length. It is the exactness with which the reduced observations from the bolograph fall upon such straight lines which furnishes the principal criterion of their value. To show how close this agreement is on the best days, I invite attention to Plate VI, which gives for several wave lengths the reduc- tions of the observations of March 25 and 26, 1903, respectively. Ordinates are logarithms of heights of the bolographic curves at the selected wave lengths and abscissee are air masses. The circles represent observations of March 25 and crosses those of March 26. Lines I and II are for a wave length of 1.027 uw; Ill and IV at 0.656 4; V and VI at 0.468 4, and VII and VIII at 0.395 u. On nearly all days of observation it is found that the forenoons yield a less regular series than the afternoons, and it appears as if the air became clearer and clearer till a little after noon and then remained substan tially unchanged on the best days till4 or5 o’clock p. m. It is therefore the practice here to use only afternoon observations in determining atmospheric transmission, The forenoon observations are distinguished in Plate VI by being connected by dotted lines. Notable decrease in the transparency of the air in the present calendar year.—From numerous determinations of the transmission of the air for solar radiations, a striking diminution of the transmission has been noted in the best days of this year as compared with last year. To illustrate this difference I give the following table: 80 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. TABLE |.—Coefficients of atmospheric transmission for radiation from zenith sun. Wiener pt lies a saa aes aeee | 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.50 | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.80 | 0.90 | 1.00 | 1.20} 1.60 | 2.00 Date. Transmission coefficients for unit air mass. 1901. | Octobe rope ss see ee ees Lee ees Ihren 0.81 {0.82 (0.89 0.94 |...... 0.95 0.96 0.95 |...... November 2): 522. ct.ahes 2 tho enna sessleeeee= oS) flecosss . 87 ODwyellssheee 94 . 95 94: \|) eee 1902. | Mar Ch 2 le 5 2 Stet ces eee ee | Seer Be ayeeee 1 ABS] BOI | 5Ge wile eta EPS ys eee eve 87: L: eee May Stich es ene pe ge ee | ae | Pe8e Woz Weta) 208" |ese.5- A951 | 194) soe Oil ee eee September 11 ........ Torte aie Aeon oe .80 | .78 | 87 | .89 0.92 | 92° | .94 | 93). (O Yet Xo) ooh ht ae eee ee ee ee oe el ee eee . 70 78 34 87 . 89 - 90 91 93) . Jeicetets GTO DENA ene ae toes ae ee mee eo serra Seepoee 73 78 . 86 89 90 | .91 93 .96 | 0.94 Octobersl Gress teste ce oe eas [le 0) 1] SSH) SU | GSB lIoetexe 286 2\[0 901.1 |e 29 lten eee OCOD ELIZ Sees Sorte pee oe Se eee ooh CEO REDE Se: lacie) GBs Sets!) Se |] 665) |jgseec. INOVEMDEr WD = wes Roe oo oe tee ses cee NR re (Ey aie) 83 89 91 92 93 95 96 1903. | | Hebrianvel Qs seseee eee eee O67. {0645 |. 566) Wl) 72) |e76n 80) 83a eso SomueoO 92 LEO ADEN 925) eran SoenaepooEaaooe .48 | .60) | /66 | 168 | 774 9) 83) | 388 90) 93193 92 Dlarchistes ee eae eee aaa =40)°| ©48° | 266) | 73> eto) | t84le nz SO) neo De OGiee meCE Mareh 25 - Report of the Mount Whitney Expedition, p. 32. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 TABLE 2.— Values of the solar constant of radiation from bolographic studies at Washington. Calories per square aan || gee Date. ae A ir Ase c a te ae i : Westy, |r| WA they) cuits) Aop mean earth’s SUS suntace: atmos- of sun. phere 1902. A. m. Cal. Cal. October Oke ase i seee aos aes Sess Soe eee eee eee 0 06 1.425 1.42 2.20 2.19 October Oi Sasssec weiss Woe oe cclowa eer ercer as prey meter eres i] “Bul 1. 624 1. 44 PAPAL Dead) October 22 see ose cc asics oe eee tebe eee Sree cnseieee eeee 3 Ol) 2.415 1.30 2.18 2.16 1903. | JOtE) PADDR AI Sa eee eee Sk ete eee, (a Aan AE ee ele Pam il XOuL 1. 642 1°35 9. 34 2.28 OR eres oi Sad ore Reo Seen eae a See ere Die) 2.003 1.20 AS 225 IMac hiyare sess eee erate cise a ast ere eae ce ie eras 0) (59 | 15.429 1.34 Oye at | 2.26 War Clg ese tiscicters seus sae CORSE ce oe eS cee 2 Ol} 1.454 1.19 2.29 OF ONT WENO NOW eaeoacasee sane beceenaesae sae sthiabmlecicgeee ss |} 1 57] 1.4388 1.16 2A |} 2.10 ID) Cees eat ere Se eRe pee As an scree ae eas 259) | e764 1.05 2.09 | 2.07 PMU ee Beare ees cae Uoosene 2 at -CU ee inp See 1 2 45 | 1.468 1.19 1.97 1.99 PAIS elec e aisteicte east ' . : 2 > Ee : = = tp os bhadsed te ‘ a 1 . = , 7 _ ~ 4 ’ Ay Fe i) s ’ pal ASS eS é ‘ * : ft i i A baa Ge ig 4 { é r 2 ve 7a hae, Ss : sere ie SO NS 2 Rab: a te 7 ' is © Of hat # be ae hea t z 7 a ‘ * Itis well to note the fact that in a celestial telescope objects are seen in reverse position, or ‘‘upside down.’’ For convenience they are usually so depicted on maps and pictures of the moon; the north pole at the bottom, and the east where it is cus- tomary to place the west on terrestrial maps. a3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. 107 it were not more than about 40 miles from the observer. The condi- tions of this seeing are much more favorable than those under which we behold a range of terrestrial mountains at that distance, for the reason that the air, and especially the moisture, in our atmosphere hinders and confuses the light, and there is several times as much of this obstruction encountered in a distance of 40 miles along the earth’s surface as there is in looking vertically upward. Seen with the greater telescopes, the surface of the moon may reveal to able observers, in the rare moments of the best seeing, circular objects, such as pits, which are perhaps not more than 500 feet in diameter. Elevations of much less height may be detected by their shadows, which, because there is no trace of an atmosphere on the moon, are extraordinarily sharp, the line between the dark and light being as distinct as though drawn by aruler. Elongate objects, such as rifts or crevices in the surface, because of their length, may be vis- ible even when they are only a few score feet in width, for the same reason that while a black dot on a wall may not make any impression on the eye, a line no wider than the dot can be readily perceived. Owing to these conditions, the surface of the moon has revealed many of its features to us, perhaps about as well as we could discern them by the naked eye if the sphere were no more than 20 miles away. Separated from all theories and prepossessions, the most important points which have been ascertained as to the condition of the moon’s surface are as follows: The surface differs from that of the earth in the fact that it lacks the envelopes of air and water. That there is no air is indicated by the feature above noted—that there is no diffusion of the sunlight, the shadows being absolutely black and with perfectly clean-cut edges. It is also shown by the fact that when a star is occulted or shut out by the dise of the moon it disappears suddenly without its light being displaced, as it would be by refraction if there were any sensible amount of air in the line of its rays. This evidence affords proof that if there is any air at all on the moon’s surface it is probably less in amount than remains in the nearest approach to a vacuum we can produce by means of an air pump. Like proof of the airless nature of the moon is afforded by the spectroscope applied to the study of the light of an occulting star or that of the sun as it is becoming eclipsed by the moon. In fact, a great body of evidence goes to show that there is no air whatever on the lunar surface. The evidence of lack of water at the present time on the surface of the moon appears to be as complete as that which shows the lack of an atmosphere. In the first place, there are evidently no seas or even lakes of discernible size. There are clearly no rivers. If such fea- tures existed, the reflection of the sun from their surfaces would make 108 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. them exceedingly conspicuous on the dark background of the moon, which for all its apparent brightness is really as dark as the more somber-hued rocks of the earth’s surface when lit by the sun. More- over, even were water present, without an atmosphere there could be no such circulation as takes place on the earth, upward to clouds and thence downward by the rain and streams to the ocean. Clouds can not exist unless there be an atmosphere in which they can float, and even if there be an air of exceeding tenuity on the moon, it is surely insufficient to support a trace of clouds. Some distinguished astrono- mers have thought to discern samething floating of a cloud-like nature, but these observations, though exceedingly interesting, are not sufficiently verified to have much weight against the body of well-observed facts that shows the moon to be essentially waterless. The well-established absence of both air and water in any such quantities as is necessary to maintain organic life appears to exclude the possibility of there being any such life as that of plants and ani- mals on the lunar surface. It may be stated that very few astronomers are now inclined to believe that the moon can possibly be the abode of living forms. Being without an effective atmosphere, for the possible but unproved remnant that may exist there would be quite ineffective, the moon lacks the defense against radiation of heat which the air affords the earth. Therefore in the long lunar night the outflow of heat must bring the temperature of the darkened part to near that of the celestial spaces, certainly to some hundred degrees below Fahrenheit zero. Even in the long day this lack of air and consequent easy radiation must prevent any considerable warming of the surface. The temper- ature of the moon has been made the matter of numerous experiments. These, for various reasons, have not proved very effective. The most trustworthy, the series undertaken by S. P. Langley, indicate that at no time does the heat attain to that of melting ice. Turning now to the shape and structure of the moon’s crust, we observe that it differs much from that of the earth. Considering first the more general features, we note that there are none of those broad ridges and furrows—the continents and the sea basins. A portion of the surface, mainly in the northern hemisphere, is occupied by wide plains, which in their general shape are more nearly level than any equally extensive areas of the land, or, so far as we know, of the ocean floor of the earth, though they are beset with very many slight irregu- larities. These areas of rough, dark-hued plains are the seas or maria of selenographers, so termed because of old they were, from their rela- tively level nature, supposed to be areas of water. These maria occupy about one-third of the visible surface. Their height is somewhat less than that of the crust outside of theirarea. The remaining portion of GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. 109 the moon is extremely rugged. It is evident that the average declivity of the slopes is far greater than on the earth. This is apparent in all the features made visible by the telescope, and it likely extends to others too minute to be seen by the most powerful instruments. Zollner, by a very ingenious computation based on the amount of sunlight reflected, estimates that the average angle of the lunar surface to its horizon is 52 degrees. Though we have no such basis for reck- oning the average slope of the lands and sea bottoms of the earth, it is eminently probable that it does not amount to more than a tenth of that declivity. This difference, as well as many others, is probably due to the lack on the moon of the work of water, which so effectively breaks down the steeps of the earth, tending ever to bring the surface to a uniform level. The most notable feature on the lunar surface is the existence of exceedingly numerous pits, generally with ring-like walls about them, which slope very steeply to a central cavity and more gently toward the surrounding country. These pits vary greatly in size; the largest are more than a hundred miles in diameter, while the smallest discerni- ble are less than a half mile across. The number increases as the size diminishes; there are many thousands of them, so small that they are revealed only when sought for with the most powerful telescopes and with the best seeing. In all these pits, except those of the smallest size, and possibly in these also, there is within the ring wall and at a considerable though variable depth below its summita nearly flat floor, which often has a central pit of small size or in its place a steep, rude cone. When this plain is more than 20 miles in diameter, and with increasing numbers as the floor is wider, there are generally other irregularly scattered pits and cones. Thus in the case of Plato, a ring about 60 miles in diameter, there are some scores of these lesser pits. On the interior of the ring walls of the pits over 10 miles in diameter there are usually more or less distinct terraces, which suggest, if they do not clearly indicate, that the material now forming the solid floors they inclose was once fluid and stood at greater heights in the pit than that at which it became permanently frozen. It is, indeed, tolerably certain that the last movement of this material of the floors was one of interrupted subsidence from an originally greater elevation on the outside of the ring wall, which is commonly of irregular height, with many peaks. There are sometimes tongues or protrusions of the sub- stance which forms the ring, as if it had flowed a short distance and then had cooled with steep slopes. The foregoing account of the pits on the lunar surface suggests to the reader that these features are volcanoes. That view of their nature was taken by the astronomers who first saw them with the telescope and has been generally held by their successors. That they are in 110 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. some way, and rather nearly, related to the volcanic vents of the earth appears certain. We have now to note the following peculiar condi- tions of these pits. First, that they exist in varying proportion, with no evident law of distribution, all over the visible area of the moon. Next, that in many instances they intersect each other, showing that they were not all formed at the same time, but in succession; that the larger of them are not found on the maria, but on the upland and apparently the older parts of the surface; and that the evidence from the intersections clearly shows that the greater of these structures are prevailingly the elder and that in general the smallest were the latest formed. In other words, whatever was the nature of the action involved in the production of these curious structures, its energy diminished with time, until in the end it could no longer break the crust. All over the surface of the moon, outside of the maria, in the regions not occupied by the volcano-like structures, we find an exceedingly irregular surface, consisting usually of rude excrescences with no dis- tinct arrangement, which may attain the height of many thousand feet. These, when large, have been termed mountains, though they are very unlike any on the earth in their lack of the features due to erosion, as well as in the general absence of order in their association. Elevations of this steep, lumpy form are common on all parts of the moon. Outside of the maria they are seen at their best in the region near the north pole, where a large field thus beset is termed the Alps. From the largest of these elevations a series of like forms can be made of smaller and smaller size until they become too minute to be revealed by the telescope; as they decrease in height they tend to become more regular in shape, very often taking on a dome-like aspect. The only terrestrial elevations at all resembling these lunar reliefs are certain ‘arely occurring masses of trachytic lava, which appear to have been spewed out through crevices in a semifluid state, and to have been so rapidly hardened in cooling that the slopes of the solidified rock remained very steep. The only reliefs on the moon that remind the geologist of true mountains are certain low ridges on the surfaces of the maria. The surface of the moon exhibits a very great number of fissures or rents which, when widely opened, are termed valleys, and when nar- row, rills. Both these names were given because these grooves were supposed to have been the result of erosion due to flowing water. The valleys are frequently broad, in the case of that known as the ** Alpine Valley,” at certain places several miles in width; they are steep walled, and sometimes a mile or more in depth; their bottoms, when distinctly visible, are seen to be beset with crater-like pits, and show in no instance a trace of water work, which necessarily excavates GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. LEY smooth descending floors such as we find in terrestrial valleys. The rills are narrow crevices, often so narrow that their bottoms can not be seen; they frequently branch, and in some instances are continued as branching cracks for 100 miles or more. The characteristic rills are far more abundant than the valleys, there being many scores already described; the slighter are evidently the more numerous; a catalogue of those visible in the best telescopes would probably amount to several thousand. (See plates v1, rx, X.) It is a noteworthy fact that in the case of the rills, and in great measure also in the valleys, the two sides of the fissure correspond so that if brought together the rent would be closed. This indicates that they are essentially cracks which have opened by their walls drawing apart. Curiously enough, as compared with rents in the earth’s crust, there is little trace of a change of level of the two sides of these rills— only in one instance is there such a displacement well made out, that known as the Straight Wall, where one side of the break is several hun- dred feet above the other. (See plate 1x.) In the region outside of the maria much of the general surface of the moon between the numerous crater-like openings appears in the best seeing with powerful telescopes to be beset with minute pits, often so close together that their limits are so far confused that it appears as honeycombed, or, rather, as a mass of furnace slag full of holes if greatly magnified, through which the gases developed in melting the mass escaped. (See plate v.) Perhaps the most exceptional feature of the lunar surface, as com- pared with that of the earth, is found in the numerous systems of radiating light bands, in all about thirty in number, which diverge from patches of the same hue about certain of the crater-like pits. These bands of light-colored material are generally narrow, not more than a few miles in width; they extend for great distances, certain of them being over 1,000 miles in length, one of them attaining to 1,700 miles in linear extent. In one instance at least, in the crater named Saussure, a band which intersects the pit may be seen crossing its floor, and less distinctly, yet clearly enough, it appears on the steep inside walls of the cavity. In no well-observed case do these radiating streaks of light-colored material coincide with the before-mentioned splits or rifts. Yet the assemblage of facts, though the observations and the theories based upon them are very discrepant, lead us to believe that they are in the nature of stains or sheets of matter on the surface of the sphere, or perhaps in the mass of the crust. At some points the rays of one system cross those of another in a manner that indicates that the one is of later formation than the other, (See plates Ill, VU, VIII.) LT? GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MOON. Perhaps the most puzzling feature of the radiating streaks, where everything is perplexing, is found in the way they come into view and disappear in each Junar period. When the surface is illuminated by the very oblique rays of the sun they are quite invisible; as the lunar day advances they become faintly discernible, but are only seen in perfect clearness near the full moon. The reason for this peculiar appearance of these light bands under a high sun has been a matter of much conjecture; it is the subject of discussion in a later chapter of this memoir, where it is shown that inasmuch as these bands appear when the earth light falls upon the moon at a high angle, the effect must be due to the angle of incidence of the rays on the shining sur- faces. It should be noted that the light bands in most instances diverge from more or less broad fields of light color about the crater- like pits, fields which have the same habit of glowing under a high illumination; in fact, a large part of the surface of the moon, perhaps near one-tenth of its visible area, becomes thus relatively brilliant at full moon, though it lacks that quality at the earlier and later stages of the lunar day. In the above-considered statement concerning the visible phenomena of the moon no account is taken of a great variety of obscure features which, though easily seen with fairly good instruments, have received slight attention from selenographers. As can readily be imagined, observers find it difficult to discern dimly seen features which can not be classed in any group of terrestrial objects. Whosoever will nar- rowly inspect any part of the lunar surface, noting everything that meets his eye, will find that he observes much that can not be explained by what is seen on the earth. It is evident, indeed, that while in the earlier stages of development this satellite in good part followed the series of changes undergone by its planet there came a stage in which it ceased to continue the process of evolution that the parent body has undergone. The reason for this arrest in development appears to have been the essential if not complete absence of an atmosphere and of water. The difference in height between the lowest and highest points on the lunar surface is not determined. To the most accented reliefs, those of the higher crater walls, elevations of more than 25,000 feet have been assigned; it is, however, to be noted that all these deter- minations are made from the length of the shadows cast by the emi- nences, with no effective means of correcting for certain errors incidental to this method. It may be assumed as tolerably certain that a number of these elevations have their summits at least 20,000 feet above their bases, and that a few are yet higher. We do not know how much lower than the ground about these elevations are the lowest parts of the moon. My own observations incline me to the GENERAL DESCRIPTION GF THE MOON. 1.466; opinion that the difference may well amount to as much as 10,000 feet, so that the total relief of the moon may amount to somewhere between 30,000 and 40,000 feet. That of the earth from the deepest part of the oceans to the highest mountain summits is probably between 55,000 and 60,000 feet; so that notwithstanding the lack of erosion and sedimentation which in the earth continually tends to diminish the difference between the sea-floor and land areas, the surface of the satellite has a much less range of elevation than the planet. If the forces which have built the mountains and continents of the earth had operated without the erosive action of water, there is little doubt that the difference in height between the highest and lowest parts would now be many times as great as it is on the moon. [The following are ten plates selected from the 25 plates in the full memotr. | sm 1908——8 PLATE I. Age of moon, 8 days 4 hours. September 22, 1890. Lick Observatory. [In accordance with the usage of selenographers, the plates are printed in the reversed order in which they appear in a celestial telescope. The top of each is the south, the bottom the north, the right-hand the east, and the left the west. ] In PI. I the most noteworthy features are the maria of the western half of the visible portion of the sphere. The rudely circular form of these fields is well shown, also the fact that none of them extend to the margin or ‘‘limb’’ of the moon. The bright, slightly curved ridge in the lower half of the picture facing the partly illu- minated mare—the Mare Imbrium—is the Apennines; the large yulcanoid at its southern end is Eratosthenes. The larger pit in the ocean opposite the center of the range is Archimedes; the two craters next to the north are, the nearer, Autolycus, and the farther and larger, Aristillus. The larger of the two dark pits near the northern end of the Apennines is Eudoxus, the smaller, Aristoteles. Southeast from these craters lie the Alps, a group of bright peaks extending in a northeast and south- west direction. A faint, dark streak shows the position of the Alpine Valley. The flat, irregular area north of the range is the M. Frigoris. Close inspection of this plate will show that many of the yulcanoids“ have pits or cones on their floors, and that these are very often in the center of these level spaces. The radiating bands or streaks are beginning to appear. In the Mare Imbrium, near the western end of the Alps, next north of Aristillus, is Cassini, of which the encircling cone appears to haye been partly melted down by the lava of the mare so that it shows as a faint ridge with a distinct central crater. @Tn this memoir all the features of the moon commonly termed ‘‘ volcanoes”’ ete., are designated by the generic term ‘‘vulcanoid.”’ : Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Shaler EEE _____________________________________________________ | AGE OF Moon, 8 Days 4 Hours. SEPTEMBER 22, 1890. Lick OBSERVATORY Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Shaler PLATE Il. Moon’s Ace, 10 Days 12 Hours. Lick OBSERVATORY, 1890. PLATE II. Moon’s age, 10 days 12 hours. Lick Observatory, 1890. The most noteworthy changes as compared with Pl. I are the great advance in the development of the fields of very bright hue, and in the bands radiating from them. These are most evident in the system of Copernicus. The system of Tycho also begins to be evident. This vulcanoid may be identified as the deep large crater with a central cone near the border of the illuminated area. The general irregularity of these light bands is well shown in those about Copernicus. So, too, the fact that they are projections from an illuminated or lucent field about the vulcanoid. The relative absence of large vuleanoids on the maria is noteworthy. Those which exist lie nearly, if not altogether, on fields of high ground which appear to have risen above the floors of the maria and so escaped melting. The problematical crater Linné now appears as a small white patch near the mid- dle of the eastern side of the M. Serenitatis. PLATE ITl. Moon’s age, 14 days 1 hour. July 19, 1891. Lick Observatory. In this plate the moon is nearly full, the light being oblique enough to illuminate the crater walls on the eastern margin alone. The maria are well shown nearly to the eastern margin. Separated by a belt of relatively high ground from the Oceanus Procellarum is the large yuleanoid Grimaldi. Tt has a small crater on its floor near its northern side. This yulcanoid has a floor nearly as dark as the seas. It will be noted that Plato has also a dark floor. On the margin of the Oceanus Procellarum, southwest of Grimaldi, is a crater Letronne rather indistinctly seen, the wall of which that faces the maria is, as in other instances, ruined apparently by the lava of the sea. Other like examples are shown in this neighborhood. On the shores of the M. Humorem there are three similar instances of crater walls broken down on the seaward side. It should be noted that none of the maria distinctly attain the margin of the moon’s surface. On the eastern lands the O. Procellarum comes near to the border of the moon, but high, rugged land is cbscurely visible on the very edge. This is more clearly disclosed at certain stages of libration. On the southwest border some observers think there is a nearly level area crossing the border, but, as will be seen, the level land there has not the characteristic dark hue of the maria. It will be observed that in this nearly vertical light, except Plato, the craters on the eastern margin only are distinctly visible. Those exceptions are due to the dark color of their floors. There are two or three craters near the south pole which, because they have rather dark bottoms, are faintly seen. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Shaler PLATE III. 4 Moon’s AGE, 14 DAYS 1 Hour. JULY 19, 1891, LICK OBSERVATORY. nithsonian Report, 1903 haler PLATE IV. Moon’s AGE, 23 Days 7 Hours. JULY 28, 1891, LICK OBSERVATORY. PLATE, PY. Moon’s age, 23 days 7 hours. July 28, 1891. Lick Observatory. At this stage of the waning moon the most interesting of its fields are no longer visible. There are few that command attention in this plate. It may be noted that the system of light bands and the central patches whence they proceed, that have their center in Kepler, are still very bright. The dark mare-like floor of Grimaldi is visible near the bright margin of the sphere. The observer may obtain something of the impression, such as is afforded by good seeing with a powerful telescope, that the Oceanus Procellarum is a relatively shallow sea by the number of fragments of what seems to have been the more ancient surface that protrude through it. PLATE V. Moon’s age, 21 days 16 hours. 1895. In this plate is depicted an area from near the moon’s equator to near the south pole. On the eastern margin the sunlight is passing from the surface, the evening light being so oblique that the bottoms of the vuleanoids are more or less in shadow. Here and there, in the advancing night, there are lofty peaks on the margin of crater rims, which still receive a touch of sun and appear as bright points in a black field. On the western margin the surface is still well illuminated, with the consequent effect that the surface appears to be much smoother than itis. A view taken a few hours later would show about as rude a margin as is here depicted. Perhaps more effectively than any other this view shows how the general surface of the moon outside of the maria is essentially made up of vuleanoids and ridges, the apparently smooth parts appearing so only because the small irregularities are not visible. In this connection it should be noted that near the dark part the surface is seen to be beset by small shallow craters, the smallest visible being more than a mile in diameter and probably several hundred feet deep. Such pits, in equal num- bers to the unit of surface, exist on the bright part to the left when they are observed by the higher light. The way in which the smaller craters cut the larger is shown at many points in this field of view; so, too, the relative lack of sharpness of outline of the greater vuleanoids as compared with the lesser objects of this group. The low, narrow ridges which surround the pits are insufficiently shown because the light does not bring them out. They are best observed near the uppermost part of the picture. The generality of the fact that the larger craters have flat floors and that these floors are prevailingly nearly level is well indicated; so, too, the fact that there is a common tendency of these floors to have either a small crater or a cone in or near the center of each circular field. Four such craters in the central part of the area extending in an obscure line from near the base to near the middle of the pic- ture have cones in their centers. In all, about a dozen of the hundred or so instances in which they would be recognizable have this feature. It will be evident that all the craters in this region have their floors far below the level of the encircling ring and below the general lunar surface. In sundry instances two adjacent vulcanoids of moderate size have their neighbor- ing walls broken down so that they exhibit the first stage of ‘‘crater valleys,’ with a general north and south axis. There are in all about ten cases of this kind on this field, but several of them are not well disclosed by this illumination. 1903.—Shaler PLATE V. Smithsonian Report, 1895. Moon’s AGE, 21 Days 16 Hours. PLATE VI. : o-* i Pee dita 2% = Ne Oot fee i, ee. 5° - iN cot j ee * *o ? ee OS an ~E- Aad * P < - y. “I One - ad ae PHOTOGRAPHED BY RITCHEY WITH 40-INCH TELESCOPE, USING YELLOW COLOR SCREEN AND ISOCHROMATIC PLATE. PLATE VI. Photographed by Ritchey with 40-inch telescope, using yellow color screen and isochromatic plate. This plate shows part of the southwest quarter of the moon’s visible surface. On the lower part of the plate is a portion of the Mare Tranquilitatis; on the middle of the left-hand side a portion of the Mare Nectaris. The large, deep vulcanoid with the steep, ragged peaks rising from its floor, on the lower left-hand portion of the plate, is Theophilus, one of the noblest structures on the moon. The width of the crater is about 64 miles; the greatest height from the floor to the crest of the wall, 18,000 feet. The central mass, composed of several sharp peaks, rises about 6,000 feet above the lava plain. In the center of these masses there appears to be an obscure crater about half a mile in diameter. The terraces in the inner wall of the cone are indistinctly shown. Theophilus has partly invaded Cyrillus, the next large vulcanoid on the southeast, an older structure with less steep slopes and a generally ruined appearance. South of Cyrillus, at a distance of half its width, is Catherina. This crater is met by another of half its diameter, which has developed on one side of its floor. From near the southeastern margin of Catherina a beautiful row of small craters extends eastwardly for a distance of over 200 miles to the large vuleanoid Abulfeda. This is perhaps the most noteworthy crater row on the moon. The long, curved wall extending from Piccolomini, near the upper left-hand corner (the large crater with its floor in shadow), to the east side of Catherina, is the Altai Mountains. Itshould be noted that this step-like structure obscurely extends north- ward to the M. Tranquilitatis, where it forms an irregular ridge-like promontory. PLATE Vil. Copernicus and Kepler. Photographed by Ritchey with the 40-inch Yerkes refractor, with color screen and isochromatic plate. The most important features exhibited here are the systems of bright rays of Copernicus, Kepler, and Aristarchus. These three ray systems, though less exten- sive than those of Tycho, taken together constitute the greatest exhibition of the bright bands that exist over the northern part of the surface. The complex branched nature of these bands is particularly well shown—better, indeed, than the writer has ever been able to note with the telescope. The fact that the bright bands of each system are prolongations of a central bright field is tolerably well shown. Although owing to the high sun and the consequent absence of shadows, Coper- nicus in this view hardly appears as an elevation, it is, under favorable conditions of illumination, perhaps the noblest object on the moon. The wall on the eastern side, according to the estimates of Schmidt, rises to a height of 12,000 feet above the adjacent plain. The outer slopes of the cone are strongly ridged as by the flow from the crater of lavas which cooled on the steep slopes; some of these are faintly traceable in the plate. “SLV1d SILYWOYHOOS|] GNV N33SY0S HO1OO HLIM ‘YOLOVYSSY SAMHSA HONI-Ob HLIM ASHOLIY Ad GSHdVYDOLOHd “YAIday GNV SNOINYSdOO ‘HA aLv1d 1aleUS—'EQ6| ‘Hodey uRiuOsYuyIWS => uw = < = oO PHOTOGRAPHED BY RITCHEY. Ray SYSTEM ABOUT TYCHO. PLATE Vir: Ray system about Tycho. Photographed by Ritchey. This, the most extensive of the ray systems of the moon, has its origin in the field about Tycho, the large vulcanoid to which the numerous bands apparently converge. It appears under the high sun as a large pit with a compound central cone. The rays of this system should be compared with those which have their centers in Copernicus and Kepler. In these last-named groups the streaks are developed on relatively level ground, while on that of Tycho they intersect a rugged surface. On the right hand, some of the bands may be seen crossing the Mare Nubium. Two of them, of great length, are seen to be nearly parallel for a distance of some hundred miles. A number of large yulcanoids, partly in shadow, are shown on the southeast margin of the moon. Of these, the largest is Schiller. Its length, which is 112 miles, will serve as a scale in estimating that of the rays. PLATE IX. Mare Nubium and surroundings. Photographed by Ritchey, November 21, 1901, 7 hours 32 minutes p.m. Exposure, 1 second. In this plate Copernicus is the large vulcanoid on the lower margin. The large crater near the upper margin, a little to the right of the center, with a cone some- what to the right of its center and ‘‘rill’”’ on its floor, is Pitatus. The three great vuleanoids in a row extending in a north-and-south direction are, in succession from the lowest toward the upper margin of the plate, Ptolemzeus, Alphonsus, and Arzachel. The large, deep crater below and to the right of Pitatus, with a divided central cone, is Bullialdus. The most noteworthy features in this plate are found in the many instances in which the lavas of the maria have partly destroyed the vulcanoids within their fields. In the upper right-hand fourth of the plate there are a dozen or more of these ruined craters, some of them with their walls almost effaced. In this part of the field there are several important rills. Some of these are evidently rows of eraterlets in which the adjacent walls of the pits have been broken down so as to form a ragged cleft. A number of these lines of craterlets are traceable on the ~ external slopes of Copernicus. The long, dark line, 65 miles in length, in the upper third of the plate, a little to the left of the center, is the Straight Wall, the most extensive fault known on the moon. The height of its cliff is about 500 feet. The crescent-shaped structure at its southern (upper) end is the remnant of a crater, the remainder of the margin having been destroyed by the lava of the mare. To the right of and near by the Straight Wall is a rill extending in a slightly curved course for a length of about 40 miles, terminating at either end in a distinct craterlet. The brightly illuminated part of the field depicted on this plate, that to the left of the center, exhibits many excellent examples of crater valleys, which in their series afford something like a passage from the condition of rills to those of wider depressions. Smithsonian Report, 1903.— Shaler. PLATE IX. MARE NUBIUM AND SURROUNDINGS. Photographed by Ritchey, November 21, 1901, 7 hours 32 minutes p.m, Exposure, 1 second. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Shaler PUATEDX MARE TRANQUILITATIS AND SURROUNDINGS. Photographed by Ritchey, August 3, 1901, 2 hours 30 minutes a. m., central standard time. Exposure, three-fourths second. PEATE X. Mare Tranquilitatis and surroundings. Photographed by Ritchey, August 3, 1901, 2 hours 30 minutes a. m., central standard time. Exposure, three-fourths second. This plate includes nearly the whole of the Mare Tranquilitatis and, on the lower margin, a portion of the M. Serenitatis. The large crater near the strait connecting these:maria is Plinius. The highland nearest to it is the promontory of Acherusia. On the southern, or upper, margin the view extends to the flanks of Theophilus. The most noteworthy features are the mountain ridges on the maria, the manner in which the maria come in contact with the higher ground, the numerous crater valleys, and the great ‘‘rills.’’ It may be noted that ridges on the maria exhibit little trace of corresponding troughs between them, such as are usually found in terrestrial mountain chains. The contact of the maria with the high ground has evidently resulted in the partial melting of the walls of several vuleanoids. Where these structures are not thus affected they are, apparently, in origin later than the formation of the maria. The crater valleys are abundant on the right-hand or eastern side of the field. Certain of them have been invaded by the lava of the mare. Some of the greater rills are very well shown. That on the extreme right side is Hyginus. It will be observed that the course of these rills is at high angles to the prevailing direction of the ridges on the mare. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION.¢ By E. F. Nicuors and G. F. Hut. As early as 1619 Kepler’ announced his belief that the solar repul- sion of the finely divided matter of comets’ tails was due to the out- ward pressure of light. On the corpuscular theory of light, Newton ° considered Kepler’s idea as plausible enough, but he was of the opinion that the phenomenon was analogous to the rising of smoke in our own atmosphere. In the first half of the eighteenth century De Mairan and Du Fay ¢ contrived elaborate experiments to test this pressure-of-light theory in the laboratory, but, because of the disturbing action of the gases surrounding the illuminated bodies employed in the measure- ments, they obtained wholly confusing and contradictory results. Later in the same century Rey. A. Bennet’ performed further exper- iments, but could find no repulsive force not traceable to convection currents in the gas surrounding the body upon which the light was projected, due, in his opinion, to the heating effect of the rays. Find- ing no pressure due to radiation, he made the following unique sug- gestion in support of the wave theory of light: Perhaps sensible heat and light may not be caused by the influx or rectilinear projection of fine particles, but by the vibrations made in the universally diffused caloric or matter of heat or fluid of light. I think modern discoveries, especially those of electricity, favor the latter hypothesis. In the meantime Euler,’ accepting Kepler’s theory attributing the phenomenon of comets’ tails to light pressure, had hastened to the «Presented to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, December, 1902. Reprinted from the Astrophysical Journal, Vol. XVII, No. 5, June, 1903, omitting some of the tabulated results of experiments. +’ De Mairan, Traité physique et historique de |’ Aurore boréale (2d ed.), pp. 357, 308. Paris, 1754. ¢Tsaaci Newtoni Opera que Existant Omnia. Samuel Horsley, LL.D., R. 8. S., Tom. III, pag. 156. Londinium, 1782. @ De Mairan, loc. cit., p. 371. This treatise contains also the accounts of still earlier experiments by Hartsoeker, p. 368, and Homberg, p. 369. The later experiments are of more historic than intrinsic interest. é€ A. Bennet, Phil. Trans., p. 81, 1792. JL. Euler, Histoire de |’ Académie royale de Berlin (2), p. 121, 1746. 115 116 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. support of the wave theory by showing theoretically that a longitudi- nal wave motion might produce a pressure in the direction of its propagation upon a body which checked its progress. In 1825 Fres- nel” made a series of experiments, but arrived at no more definite conclusion than that the repulsive and attractive forces observed were not of magnetic nor electric origin. Crookes’ believed in 1873 that he had found the true radiation pres- sure in his newly invented radiometer, and cautiously suggested that his experiments might have some bearing on the prevailing theory of the nature of light. Crookes’s later experiments and Zéllner’s¢ meas- urements of radiometric repulsions showed that the radiometric forces were in some cases 100,000 times greater than the light pressure forces with which they had been temporarily confused. Zéllner’s experi- ments are among the most ingenious ever tried in this field of work, and he missed the discovery of the true radiation pressure by only the narrowest margin. An excellent bibliography of the whole radio- metric literature is given by Graetz,“ and an account of some of the older experiments not mentioned above is given by Crookes. In 1873 Maxwell,’ on the basis of the electromagnetic theory, showed that if light were an electromagnetic phenomenon, pressure should result from the absorption or reflection of a beam of light. After a discussion of the equations involved, he says: . Hence in a medium in which waves are propagated there is a pressure in the direction normal to the waves and numerically ecual to the energy in unit volume. Maxwell computed the pressure exerted by the sun on the illuminated surface of the earth, and added: It is probable that a much greater energy of radiation might be obtained by means of the concentrated rays from an electric lamp. Such rays falling on a thin metallic disk, delicately suspended in a vacuum, might perhaps produce an observable mechanical effect. Apparently independent of Maxwell, Bartoli announced in 1876 that the second law of thermodynamics required the existence of a pressure due to radiation numerically equal in amount to that derived by Maxwell. Bartoli’s reasoning holds for all forms of energy streams in space, and is of more general application than Maxwell’s equations, Bartoli contrived elaborate experiments to verify this theory, but was balked in the search, as all before him had been, by the complicated aA. Fresnel, Ann. Chem. et Phys., 29, 57, 107, 1825. DW. Crookes, Phil. Trans., p. 501, 1873. ¢F, Zoliner, Pogg. Ann., 160, 156, 296, 459, 1877. a1. Graetz, Winkelmann’s Handbuch der Physik, 2b, p. 262. Breslau, 1896. éW. Crookes, loc. cit., p. 501. JJ. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricityand Magnetism (1sted.) 2,391. Oxford, 1873. g A. Bartoli, Sopra 1 movementi prodotti della luce et dal calorie, Florence, Le Monnier, 1876; also Nuoyo Cimento, 15, 193, 1884. fond THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. hi character of the gas action, which he found no way of eliminating from his experiments. After Bartoli’s work, the subject was dealt with theoretically by Boltzmann, Galitzine,’? Guillaume,’ Heaviside,’ and more recently Goldhammer,’ Fitzgerald,’ Lebedew,% and Hull” have discussed the bearing of radiation pressure upon the Newtonian law of gravitation, with special reference to the repulsion of comets’ tails by the sun. The theory of radiation pressure, combined with the known properties in negative electrons, has recently been more or less speculatively applied by Arrhenius‘ to the explanation of many cosmical and terrestrial phenomena, among which the following may be mentioned: The solar corona, zodiacal light, gegenschein, comets, origin of come- tary and meteoric material in space, the emission of gaseous nebule, the peculiar changes observed in the nebula surrounding Nova Persei, the northern lights, the variations in atmospheric electricity and ter- restial magnetism and in the barometric pressure. Schwarzschild’ computed from radiation pressure on small spherical conductors the size of bodies of unit density for which the ratio of radiation pressure to gravitational attraction would be a maximum. Before the Congrés international de Physique in 1900, Professor Lebedew,* of the University of Moscow, described an arangement of apparatus which he was using at that time for the measurement of light pressure. He summarizes the results already obtained as follows: Les résultats des mesures que j’ai faites jusqu’ici peuvent se résumer ainsi: L’ex- périence montre qu’un faisceau lumineux incident exerce sur les surfaces planes absorbantes et réfléchissantes des pressions qui, aux erreurs prés d’obseryation, sont égales aux valeurs calculées par Maxwell et Bartoli. No estimate of the ‘errors of observation” was given in the paper, nor other numerical data. Unfortunately the proceedings of the Paris Congress did not reach the writers, nor any intimation of the methods or results of Professor Lebedew’s work, until after the publication of their own preliminary experiments. @J,. Boltzmann, Wied. Ann. 22, 31, 291, 1884. +B. Galitzine, Wied. Ann., 47, 479, 1892. eCh. Ed. Guillaume, Arch. de Gen. (3), 31, 121, 1894. 20. Heaviside, Electromagnetic Theory, 1, 334. London, 1893. eD. A. Goldhammer, Ann. der Phys., 4, 834, 1901. JG. F. Fitzgerald, Proc. Roy. Soc. Dub., 1884. g P. Lebedew, Wied. Ann., 45, 292, 1892; Astrophysical Journal, 14, 155, 1902. 4G. F. Hull, Trans. Astron. Soc. Toronto, p. 123, 1901. #8. A. Arrhenius, Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, Leipzig, 1903, pp. 149-158, 200-208, 226, 920-925. JK. Sehwarzschild, Kgl. bayer. Akademie d. Wissenschaften, 31, 293, 1901. kP. Lebedew, Rapports présentés au Congrés international de Physique (2), p. 133. Paris, 1900. 118 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. The writers” presented the results they had obtained by measure- ments of radiation pressure at eight different gas pressures, in a pre- liminary communication to the American Physical Society, meeting with Section B of the American Association at Denver, August 29, 1901. The main arguments underlying the method of measurement of the radiation pressure may here be given. In the experiments of earlier investigators every approach to the experimental solution of the problem of radiation pressure had been balked by the disturbing action of the gases which it is impossible to remove entirely from the space surrounding the body upon which the radiation falls. The forces of attraction or repulsion, due to the action of gas molecules, are functions, first, of the temperature differ- ence between the body and its surroundings, caused by the absorption by the body of a portion of the rays which fall upon it; and, second, » of the pressure of the gas surrounding the illuminated body. In the particular form of apparatus used in the present study, the latter function appears very complicated, and certain peculiarities of the gas action remain inexplicable upon the basis of any simple group of assumptions which the writers have so far been able to make. Since we can neither do away entirely with the gas nor calculate its effect under varying conditions, the only hopeful approach which remains is to devise apparatus and methods of observation which will reduce the errors due to gas action to a minimum. The following considerations led to a method by which the elimination of the gas action was practically accomplished in the present experiments: 1. The surfaces which receive the radiation, the pressure of which is to be measured, should be as perfect reflectors as possible. This will reduce the gas action by making the rise of temperature due to absorp- tion small, while the radiation pressure will be increased; the theory requiring that a beam totally reflected shall exert twice the pressure of an equal beam completely absorbed. 2. By studying the action of a beam of constant intensity upon the same surface surrounded by air at different pressures certain pressures may be found where the gas action is less than at others. 3. The apparatus—some sort of torsion balance—should carry two surfaces symmetrically placed with reference to the rotation axis, and the surfaces of the two arms should be as nearly equal as possible in every respect. The surfaces or vanes should be so constructed that if the forces due to gas action (whether suction or pressure on the warmer surface) and radiation pressure have the same sign in one case, a reversal of the suspension should reverse the gas action and bring the two forces into opposition. In this way a mean of the forces on the two faces of the suspension should be, in part at least, free from gas action. ak. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull, Science, 14, 588 (October 18, 1901); Phys. Rev., 13, 293 (November, 1901); Astrophysical Journal, 15, p. 62 (January, 1902). THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 119 4. Radiation pressure, from its nature, must reach its maximum value instantly, while observation has shown that gas action begins at zero and increases with length of exposure, rising rapidly at first, then more slowly to its maximum effect, which, in many of the cases observed, was not reached until the exposure had lasted from two and a half to three minutes. For large gas pressures an even longer expos- ure was necessary to reach stationary conditions. The gas action may be thus still further reduced by a ballistic or. semiballistic method of measurement. In the number of the Annalen der Physik for November, 1901, Pro- fessor Lebedew” published the results of a more varied series of measurements of radiation pressure than the early measurements of the present writers. Professor Lebedew’s” estimate of the accuracy of his work is such as to admit of possible errors of 20 per cent in his final results. An analysis of Professor Lebedew’s paper and comparison with our pre- liminary experiments seem to show that his accidental errors were larger than ours, but through an undiscovered false resistance in the bolometer our final results were somewhat further from the theory than his. Either of the above researches would have been sufficient to establish the existence of a pressure due to radiation, but neither research offered, in our judgment, a satisfactory quantitative confirma- tion of the Maxwell-Bartoli theory. LATER PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS. Description of apparatus; the torsion balance.—The form of suspen- sion of the torsion balance, used to measure radiation pressure in the present study, is seen in fig. 1. The rotation axis a4 was a fine rod of drawn elass. A drawn-glass cross arm c, bent down at either end into a small hook, was attached to the axis. The surfaces C and D, which received the light beam, were circular microscope cover-glasses, 12.8 mm. in diameter and 0.17 mm. thick, weighing approximately 51 me. each. To distinguish the two vanes from each other, in case individual differences should appear in the measure:1 ents, and also to mark the two faces of each vane for subsequent recognition, a letter C was marked on one and D on the other by diamond scratches. Through each glass a hole 0.5 mm. or less in diameter was drilled near the edge, by means of which the glasses could be hung on the hooks on the cross arm ¢. On opposite sides of the rotation axis at 7 two other drawn-glass cross arms were attached. The cover-glasses slipped easily between these, and were thus held securely in one plane. «@P. Lebedew, Ann. der Phys., 6, 433, 1901. bP. Lebedew, Ann. der Phys., 6, 457, 1901. 9 sm 1903 120 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. Farther down on @/ a small silvered plane mirror m, was made fast at right angles to the plane of C and D. This mirror was polished bright on the silver side, so that the scale at S, (fig. 2) could be read in either face. A small brass weight 7, (fig. 1), of 452 mg. mass and of known dimensions, was attached at the lower endof a4. The cover- elasses which served as vanes were silvered and brilliantly polished on the silvered sides, and so hung on the small hooks that both silver faces or both glass faces were presented to the light. A quartz fiber F,, 3 em. long, was made fast to the upper end of a4, and to the lower end of a fine glass rod @,, which carried a horizontal magnet m,. The to) 6 cms. Fre. 1. rod (/, was in turn suspended by a short fiber to a steel pin ce, which could be raised or lowered in the bearing 4. The whole was carried by a bent glass tube 7, firmly fastened to a solid brass foot F, resting on a plane ground-glass plate P, cemented toa brass platform mounted on three leveling screws not shown. A bell jar B, 25 em. high and 11 cm. in diameter, covered the balance. The flange of the bell jar was ground to fit the plate P. A ground-in hollow glass stopper fitted the neck of the bell jar, which could thus be put in connection with a system of glass tubes leading to a Geissler mercury pump, a MacLeod pressure gauge, and a vertical glass tube dipping into a THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 1A mercury cup and serving as a rough manometer for measuring the larger gas pressures employed during the observations. The low pressures were measured on the MacLeod gauge in the usual way. A semicircular magnet M, fitted to the vertical curvature of the bell jar, was used to direct the suspended magnet m, and thus to ‘control the zero position of the torsion balance. By turning M through 180°, the op- aes posite faces of the vanes C and D ES could be presented to the light. a AS THE ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. peas aR, A horizontal section of the appa- i ratus through the axis of the light i i Uy beam is shown in fig. 2. The white- e vo taf hot end of the horizontal carbon 8, f of an A. 'T. Thompson 90° are lamp, fed by alternating current, served as a source. The arc played against the end of the horizontal carbon from the vertical carbon, which was 7 screened from the lenses L, and Li, © by an asbestos diaphragm d,. A lens, not shown, projected an en- larged image of the are and carbons on an adjacent wall, so that the posi- tion of the carbons and the condition of the are could be seen at all times ° by both observers. The cone of rays passing through the small diaphragm d, fell upon the glass condensing lenses L,, L,. At d, a diaphragm, 11.25 mm. in diameter, was interposed, which per- mitted only the central portion of the cone of rays to pass. Just be- yond d@, the beam passed to a shutter at S,. This shutter was worked by a magnetic escapement, operated by the second’s contact of a standard clock. The observer at T, might choose the second for opening or closing the shutter, but the shutter’s motion always took place at the time of the second’s contact in the clock. Any exposure was me) S x 9 9 > x & 122 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. thus of some whole number of seconds’ duration. The opening in the shutter was such as to let through, at the time of exposure, all of the direct beam which passed through @,, but to shut out stray light. Just beyond the shutter and attached to the diaphragm d, was a 45° glass plate, which reflected a part of the beam to the lens L,, by means of which an image of d@, was projected upon one arm of a bolo- meter at R. The glass lens L, focused a sharp image of the aperture d, in the plane of the vanes of the torsion balance B,, under the bell jar. The bell jar was ee with three plate-glass windows W,, W,, W,. The first two gave a circular opening 42 mm. in diameter, and through the third pee of the balance were read by a telescope and scale. The lens L, was arranged to move horizontally between the stops S,and S,. These were so adjusted that when the lens was against S, the sharp image of the aperture ¢, fell centrally upon one vane; and when against 5, the image fell centrally upon the To galy. G, REE SN Wy 6 To galy. Ge ae Fie. 3. other. This adjustment, which was a very important one, was made by the aid of a telescope T,, mounted on the carriage of a dividing engine. This was used to observe and measure the position of the rotation axis, as well as the positions of the images of d,, when the lens L, was against the stops. For the latter measurements the vanes could be moved out of the way by turning the suspension through 90° by the control magnet M (fig. 1). To make sure that the balance as used was entirely free from any magnetic moment or disturbance, the small magnet 7, was clamped in one position to maintain a constant zero, and the period of the balance was accurately measured with the axis of the large magnet M in the vertical plane of the vanes and again when the axis was at right angles to the plane of the vanes. Several series of this sort failed to show a difference of 0.1 second in the period of the balance for the two posi- tions of the magnet. THE PRESSURE DUE ‘TO RADIATION: 13 The bolometer at R (fig. 2) was of sheet platinum, 0.001 mm. thick, rolled in silver. The strip was cut out in the form shown in fig. 3 and mounted on a thin sheet of slate S. Two windows had been cut in the slate behind the strips at ABCD where the silver had been removed, leaving the thin platinum. The platinum surfaces were blackened by Kurlbaum’s process. The image from L, (fig. 2) fell at D. The silver ends between A and C were connected with E and F, respectively. On the heavy wire EF a sliding contact c served to balance the bridge, all four arms of which-are shown in the figure. METHODS OF OBSERVATION. The observations leading to the results given later were of three different kinds: (1) the calibration of the torsion balance; (2) the measurement of the pressure of radiation in terms of the constant of the balance, and (3) the measurement of the energy of the same beam in erg-seconds by the rate of temperature rise of a blackened silver disk of known mass and specific heat. 1. The determination of the constant of the torsion balance was made by remoying the vanes C and D and accurately measuring the period of vibration. Its moment of inertia was easily computed from the masses and distribution of the various parts about the axis of rotation. The moment of torsion for 1 mm. deflection on a scale 105 em. distant was 0.36310 ° dynexcm. This value divided by one-half the distance between the centers of the light spots on the two vanes gave the force in dynes per scale division deflection. As the light spots were circles 11.25 mm. in diameter, the area of the image was very nearly 1 cm.*; hence the above procedure gave roughly the pressure in dynes per square centimeter. 2. In the measurements of radiation pressure it was easier to refer the intensity of the beam at each exposure to some arbitrary standard which could be kept constant than to try to hold the lamp as steady as would otherwise have been necessary. For this purpose, the bolom- eter at R (fig. 2) was introduced, and simultaneous observations were made of the relative intensity of the reflected beam by the deflec- tion of the galvanometer G, and the pressure due to the transmitted beam by the deflection of the torsion balance. The actual deflection of the balance was then reduced to a deflection corresponding to a gal- ranometer deflection of 100 scale divisions. The galvanometer sensi- tiveness was carefully tested at the beginning and end of each even- ing’s work. All observations of pressure were thus reduced to the pressure due to a beam of fixed intensity. At each series of radiation pressure measurements two sets of observations were made. In one of these sets static conditions were observed, and in the other the deflections of the balance due to short 4 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. exposures were measured. In the static observations each vane of the balance was exposed in turn to the beam from the lamp, the exposures lasting until the turning points of the swings showed that stationary conditions had been reached. The moment of pressure of radiation and gas action combined would thus be equal to the product of the static deflection and the constant of the balance. The torsion system was then turned through 180° by rotating the outside magnet, and similar observations were made on the reverse side of the vanes. All turning points of the swinging balance in these observations were recorded. From the data thus obtained the resultant of the combined radiation and gas forces could be determined for the time of every turning point. Every yalue was divided by the deflection at standard sensitiveness of the galvanometer G, read at the same time, and was thus reduced to standard lamp. Results thus obtained, together with the ballistic measurements, showed the direction and extent of the gas action as well as its variation with length of exposure. The reasons for reversing the suspension follow: The beam from the lamp, before reaching the balance, passed through three thick glass lenses and two glass plates. All wave lengths destructively absorbed by the glass were thus sifted out of the beam by the time it reached the balance. vanes. The silver coatings on the vanes absorbed, therefore, more than the glass. The radiation pressure was always away from the source, irrespective of the way the vanes were turned, while the gas action would be exerted mainly on the silvered sides of the vanes. At the close of the pressure and energy measurements, when the reflecting power of the silver faces of the vanes was compared with that of the elass-silver faces, the reflection from the silver faces was found very much higher than that for the glass faces backed by silver. This result was the more surprising because the absorption of the unsilvered vanes was found by measurement to be negligibly small.¢ This unexpected difference in reflecting power of the two faces of the mirrors prevented the elimination of the gas action, by the method described, from being as complete as had been hoped for.. But by choosing a gas pressure where the gas action after long exposure is small, the whole gas effect during the time of a ballistic exposure may be so reduced as to be of little consequence in any case. By exposing each of the vanes in turn and by reversing the suspen- sion and averaging results, nearly all errors due to lack of symmetry in the balance or in the position of the light images with reference to the rotation axis, or errors due to lack of uniformity in the distribu- tion of intensity in different parts of ae image, could be eliminated. “Lord Rayleigh records a similar difference between tre a eicchon ae air- Saale er and glass-silver surfaces. Scientific papers, Cambridge, 2, 538-559, 1900. S The results obtained on the two vanes were averaged and plotted as curves in fig. 4, where static deflections due TO RADIATION. PRESSURE DUE ‘PEGE ries of static observations in which the g@lass faces of both The changing character of the gas action, both with time of exposure and gas pressure surrounding the balance vanes, is well illustrated vanes were exposed.” in eight s¢ if a ee a Ss BeCee CCCs MERRSBEE Se eee eee eee et ee a i a a (a ae PS Sat Pc a ADRS Rees GEGaSE Sees Soccer {ss pails Big e SisGiNie ais Sola alee ECE cs i a (7 ps a aL EEE EEN EE EERE EE EHR EEE PEE EER EEENCEEEE TEE RREEE Reece rece EECCA ERECT RTE et ie: pep es Sef a Ve i a 1 a ee Pee ee N % A horizontal line Fia, 4. «Obseryations were also made on the silver faces, but the gas action when the lass faces were exposed was nearly double that for the silver faces, so the least favor- able case is shown. » Ordinates of the curves are proportional to moments. to combined radiation pressure and gas action are shown as ordinates and duration of exposure, in seconds, as abscissve.? Co t=) 126 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. through the diagram gives the mean value of the moment of radiation pressure computed from the data in Table I. Decrease of the deflee- tion with time indicates gas repulsion on the warmed silver faces and increase in deflection gas suction. It will be seen from the curves that beginning at a gas pressure of 66 mm. of mercury, the gas action was repulsion changing to suction in passing from 19.8 to 11.2 mm. In the last two cases the total gas action is small. For lower pressures the suction increases to 0.05 mm. Ata gas pressure of 0.02 mm. the gas action is again a strong repulsion. : The curves indicate the existence of two gas pressures, at which the gas action in our arrangement of apparatus should be zero, one between 19.8 and 11.2 mm. and the other between 0.05 and 0.02 mm.4@ The former région was chosen for the ballistic measurements and nearly all of the observations were made at a gas pressure of approxi- mately 16mm. Even for the two pressures where the decrease in the static deflection was most rapid, 1. e., at gas pressures of 66 and 0,02 min., the first throw was always in the direction of radiation pressure. The gas action is strongly influenced by very slight changes in the inclination of the plane of the vanes to the vertical and also by any object introduced under the bell jar anywhere near the vanes. For instance, a very considerable effect was observed when a small vessel of phosphoric anhydride was placed under the jar behind the vanes, though the nearest wall of the vessel was separated from the vanes by a distance of at least 3 em. During the observations, the polished silver coatings on the vanes deteriorated rapidly; new coatings rarely lasted for more than two evenings’ work. As the balance had to be removed and the mirrors taken from the hooks, silvered, polished, and replaced a great number of times during the entire series of measurements, although great care was taken in setting the plane of the vanes vertical, it is not likely that precisely the same conditions for gas action were ever repeated. The principal value of the static results was in indicating favorable gas pressures for work, rather than affording quantitative estimates of the gas action in short exposures. The dotted parts of the curves are not based on resuits of observation and might perhaps have been omitted without loss. It was plain, therefore, that further elimination of the gas action must be sought in exposures so short that the gas action would not have time to reach more than a small fraction of its stationary value. This led to the method of ballistic observations. «Crookes in his work with the radiometer discovered ‘certain gas pressures for which the combined gas and radiation forces neutralized, but as he did not discrimi- nate between forces due to radiation and gas forces his results were apparently capricious and his reasoning somewhat confused. See Phil. Trans., p. 519, 1875. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. L2 THE BALLISTIC OBSERVATIONS. In passing from the static to the ballistic observations it must always be possible to compute the static equivalent of the ballistic swings. Furthermore, the exposures should be made as short as pos- sible without reducing the size of the swing below a value which can be accurately measured. If the exposure lasts for one-half the period of the balance, the deflection, if the gas action be small, and the damping zero, is equal to 20 where @ is the angle at which the torsion of the fiber will balance the moment produced by the radiation pressure. If the dura- tion of the exposure be one-quarter of the period of the balance, the angle of deflection is 6,/2. The deflection is thus reduced by 30 per cent, but the effect of the gas action is reduced in greater porportion. It was decided, therefore, to expose for six seconds, one-fourth of the balance period. Neglecting the gas action, but taking account of the damping of the system, it may be shown ae the total angle of @efcction of the torsion: balance in the ballistic measurements is equal to 1.357 times the angle at which the torsion moment balances the moment of the radiation préssure. To make sure that the observed radiation pressures depended only on the intensity of the beam, and were uninfluenced by the wave length of the incident energy, the ballistic observations of pressure, the ther- mal measurements of intensity, and the determination of the reflection coefficients were carried out for three entirely different wave groups of the incident radiation. In the measurements designated ** through air” no absorbing medium was introduced in the path of the beam between the lamp and the balance except the glass lenses and plates already mentioned. In the measurements ‘* through red glass” a plate of ruby glass was put in the path of the beam between L, and d, (fig. 2). For the observations ‘‘through water cell” a 9-mm. layer of distilled water in a glass cell was placed in the path of the beam at the same point.“ Applying reduction factors to the averages in the separate series of measurements of radiation pressure, we find the pressure of the stand- ard light beam which has oa (a) through air to be (7.01 = 0.023) x 10° dynes; (>) through red glass to be (6.94 + 0.024) x 107° dynes; (c) through water cell to be (6.52 + 0. 028) Se TY ee « Here follow in the origin: a paper dete fied results of 14 pepe series of measure- ments ‘‘through air,” 8 ‘‘through water,’”’ and 9 ‘through red glass.’’ 128 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. THE ENERGY MEASUREMENTS. The radiant intensity of the beam used in the experiments was deter- mined by directing it upon the blackened face of a silver disk, weigh- ing 4.80 grams, of 13.3 mm. diameter, and of 3.55 mm. thickness, and by measuring its rate of temperature rise as it passed through the temperature of its surroundings. The disk was obtained from Messrs. Tiffany & Co., and was said by them to be 99.8 per cent fine silver. Two holes were bored through parallel diameters of the disk, one- fourth of the thickness of the disk from either face. Two iron con- stantan thermojunctions, made by soldering 0.1 mm. wires of the two metals, were drawn through the holes into the center of the disk. To insulate the wires — from the disk, fine drawn- Thermometer glass tubes were slipped over them and thrust into the holes, leaving less than 2 mm. bare wire on either side of the junctions. The wires were sealed into the tubes and the tubes into the disk by solid shellac. The tubes projected 15 mm. or more Thin Board, from the disk and were bent -- Box upward in planes parallel to the faces of the disk. The general arrangement will be seen in fig. 5. The disk was lo Calv, toGalu. suspended by the four wires some distance below a small flat wooden box. On the box was fastened a calorimeter can swathed in cotton and filled with kerosene in which the constant thermojune- tions were immersed. Cop- per wires soldered to the two ends of the thermoelectric series were brought out of the calorimeter, and the circuit was closed through 1,000 ohms in series with the 500 ohms resistance of galvanometer Gis The thermojunctions in the disk were in series, and as each junction was midway between the central plane of the disk and either face, it vas assumed that when the disk was slowly warmed by heating one face the electromotive forces obtained corresponded to the mean tem- perature of the disk. One face of the disk was blackened by spray- ing it with powdered lampblack in alcohol containing a trace of shellac. Water Jacket Fig. 5. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 129 This method was suggested by Prof. G. EK. Hale and gives very fine and uniform dead-black coatings not inferior to good smoke deposits. For the energy measurements the bell jar and the torsion balance were removed from the platform P (fig. 1) and a double-walled cop- per vessel AB (fig. 5), which served as a water jacket surrounding a small air chamber C, was mounted in the same place. A tube 2 cm. in diameter was soldered into the front face of the jacket to admit the light beam into the chamber C. This opening was covered by a piece of plate lass similar to the plates forming the larger windows in the bell jar. The needle system in G,, a four-coi] du Bois-Rubens galvanometer, was suspended in a strong magnetic field so that its period was about four seconds. The system was heavily damped by a mica air fan of large surface. The’disk junctions and galvanometer responded quickly to the radiation, as was shown by the reversal of motion of the magnet system 1.2 seconds after the light was cut off from the disk, when the latter was a few degrees above the temperature of the room. The disk was calibrated for temperature in terms of the deflection for a definite sensitiveness of the galvanometer G,. * * * The mean of two separate calibrations taken several days apart was 9.96 scale divisions for one degree temperature difference. Before beginning a series of intensity measurements the disk was suspended in an air chamber containing phosphoric anhydride and sur- rounded by a jacket of ice and salt. The disk was thus lowered to a temperature of about zero degrees and was then quickly transferred to the chamber C (fig. 5), and the beam was directed upon it. When its temperature had risen to within 5 or 6 degrees of that of the cham- ber C, galvanometer readings were made at intervals of five seconds until the disk was heated to a temperature several degrees above its surroundings. The temperature of the chamber C was determined by removing the disk and cooling it to a point near the room tempera- ture, then replacing it and observing its rate of temperature change for several minutes. Energy series were made ‘‘ through air,” ‘‘through red glass,” and ‘“‘through water cell,” as in the pressure measurements. During the experiment the black coatings were frequently cleaned off from the disk and new ones deposited. The final result therefore does not correspond to an individual but to an average coating. To correct for any inequality between the two disk thermojunctions or any lack of symmetry in their positions, referred to the central plane of the disk, which might prevent the mean temperature of the two junctions from representing the mean temperature of the mass, series of observations were made on each face of the disks. The black coating was always cleaned off from the face of the disk away from the light.“ oO > “In the original paper here follow detailed results of 82 energy measurements through air, water, and red glass, some on one face of the disk and some on the other. 130 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. As the general result of all the energy measurements it was found that the rise in temperature of the silver disk per second when the light passed: “ (a) through air= (0°.0970--0°.00034) C.; (6) through red glass=(0°.0946+0°.00036) C.; (c) through water cell=(0°.0884+0°.00064) C. The mass of the silver disk was 4.80 grams, its specific heat? at 18° C.=0.0556; the mechanical equivalent of heat at 18° C.=4.272 x10" ergs.° Consequently the energy of the standard radiation is (a) through air, 0.0970 « 4.80 x 0.0556 & 4.272 « 107 or Ey = (1.108 + 0.004) & 108 ergs per second. (b) through red glass, Hy = (1.078 + 0.004) 10° ergs per second. (c) through water cell, #,,, = (1.008 + 0.007) 10° ergs per second. REFLECTING POWER OF THE SURFACES USED. According to Maxwell and Bartoli, the pressure in dynes per square centimeter for normal incidence is equal to the energy in ergs in unit volume of the medium. The energy in unit volume is made up! of both the direct and reflected beams. If E is the intensity of the inei- dent beam and p the reflection coefticient, the pressure p = ee where V is the velocity of light. The methods for measuring p and EK have already been described. The determination of p for both sides of the vanes C and D was made by means of a bolometer. In all, three series of measurements were made on the silver and two series on the yvlass-silver faces of each vane. To get average coeflicients which would represent the range of condition of the mir- rors during the pressure measurements, the vanes were cleaned and new silver coatings deposited between each two series on the same vane. The reflection coefficients are as follows: Connected reflection coefficients in percentages. Air silver. | Glass silver. Throvug hyaline aecss ses cee ss Sees Pe ee eee eee eae Eee ee eer eeiemee 92.0 77.6 Reg lassie S228 fos = fact eee nat eeplacees Se peace eee comer er eres ¢ 93.4 | 76.2 89.0 80.5 ZEAL) cee re ree Ee ee a Re ict san SOOM OO SISOS 39, | 0.5 Average coefficients through air, 84.8; red glass, 84.8; water, 84.8. The diffuse reflection of black coatings deposited by the method used in blackening the silver disk was measured and computed in the same manner as the diffused reflection from the vanes C and D. Five determinations of this reflection were made under different conditions “See footnote to table on page 131. bU. Behn, Ann. der Phys., 4, 266, 1900. ¢Mean of Rowland’s and Griffith’s values. “ Phil. Trans., 5, 184, 496, 1893. @Jn the original paper here follow the details of experiments on the reflecting power of the surfaces. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. Weuh and with different coatings. The values in percentages of the incident beam averaged 4.6 per cent. Thus only 95.4 per cent of the incident beam was absorbed by the black coating on the silver disk in produc- ing the temperature increase observed. Hence the true energy of the beam is equal to the observed energy divided by 0.954. The silver disk, diameter 13.3 mm., used in the energy measure- ments, received long waves and scattered radiation which passed round and through the light-pressure vanes of diameter 12.8 mm. This amount was experimentally determined for both thin and thick silver coatings in order to approximate to the average condition of the coat- ings in the light-pressure measurements, and it was found to average (a) through air, 1.40 per cent; (4) through red glass, 1.44 per cent; (c) through water, 0.46 per cent. On this account the energy E of the standard radiation must be reduced by the above percentages.“ A comparison of observed and computed pressures follows: _ E | Observed values |Computed values uy = = yi srences., | in 10—>5 dynes. | in 10—5 dynes. Tyner ence | Per cent. hroug hleim Sete swe eersieie os a/icsis Ss oss sa seins ap=7.01+0. 02 7.05+0. 03 —0.6 RUTOU STC Gs SARS Ee oe con od cere sinctelses Sas Seti ae es | p=6:94+ 02 6.86+ .03 +1.1 eMHITOU SMW Alen twee neces aon sec esis ejose eee cence SS == Ze SUR 648+ .04 — .6 a The pressure and energy measurements for the three different wave groups through air, red glass, and water cell constitute three independent experiments. The values for pressure, 7.01, 6.94, and 6,52 in the three cases are only accidentally related. The difference arises from the different reflect- - ing power of the 45° glass plate (fig. 2) for the different beams and from the fact that the indications of the lamp galvanometer G. connected with bolometer R were probably not strictly proportional to 29 energy for throws differing as widely as 33, 60, and 100, which, roughly, were the relative intensities of the beams through water cell, red glass,and air. The function of the lamp bolometer and galva- nometer was purely to keep a check on the small variations of the lamp, which rarely fluctuated more than 10 per cent on either side of the mean value. An estimate of the approximate magnitude of the gas action not eliminated by the ballistic method of observation [of which details appear in the original paper] shows that the uneliminated gas action, by the most liberal estimate, can not have exceeded 1 per cent of the radiation pressure. Because of its smallness and indefiniteness no correction for gas action has been made to the final pressure values. If corrections were applied, its effect would be to reduce slightly the observed pressures, From the agreement within the probable errors of the air, red glass, and water values with the theory it appears that radiation pressure depends only upon the intensity of the radiation and is independent of the wave length. The Maxwell-Bartoli theory is thus quantitatively confirmed within the probable errors of observation. Wiuper Lasoratory, DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, TTanover, LV. EES February, 1903. “As the average pitch of the cone of the incident beam was about | part in 40, no correction need be applied for inclination. Furthermore, the inside of the bell jar was blackened and the zero of the balance was so chosen that energy reflected from the window admitting the beam could produce no pressure effects. 132 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. THE APPLICATION OF RADIATION PRESSURE TO COMETARY THEORY. In the experiments described in = foregoing paper the close agree- ment of theory with experiment warrants the rigid application of the. radiation-pressure theory in the ae of cosmical phenomena. In any balancing of radiation pressure against gravitation in comets the size of particles is the determining factor. The repulsion due to radiation pressure depends upon the intensity of the rays, the absorb- ing and reflecting power of the surface, and the cross section of the body exposed. Gravitational attraction depends only upon mass, or the product of volume and density. It will be seen, therefore, that for spheres of a given substance the weight at a fixed distance from the sun will vary with the cube of the radius, while radiation pressure will depend upon the radius squared. The ratio of pressure to weight will thus be inversely as the radius. This relation holds down to the point where the particles become so small that they begin to lose in absorbing and reflecting power through diffraction. The intensity:of the solar radiation and gravitation diminish with distance in accordance with the same law, so that the ratio of pressure to weight is a constant for the same body at all distances from the sun. For spheres of the same size, and the same absorbing and reflecting power, the ratio of pressure to gravitation is inversely as the density. The variation of this ratio, as it depends upon size and density, has’ been used by Lebedew“ and Arrhenius’ in the computation of the repulsion upon the finely divided matter of comets’ tails, but the lim- iting value of the ratio for diminishing spheres of the same density due to diffraction first appears in Schw: srvschildts S paper. ° . Comet heads.—In the heads of comets the phenomena are most com- plicated and difficult of explanation, yet it seems worth while to try to gather together a few of the separate causes which may be at work in producing this intricate structure. The heat received from the sun by the nucleus of a comet may be spent in three ways: (1) In raising the temperature of the nucleus. As the nucleus is of relatively small mass and probably of low heat conductivity no very considerable quantity of heat is required for this purpose. (2) Heat may be, and doubtless is, used in the vaporization of volatile hydrocarbonsand other substances in the nucleus. (8) Large quantities of heat are lost from the nucleus by radiation. The porous structure of meteorites points to a similar straehuce in cometary nuclei. The jets from the nucleus outward to the envelope of the head may be formed oy the heating of the maponzable mi —— @ Wied. Ane Ae OD 1892: Hise Naanherael Journal: 14, 155, 1902. bLehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, p. 150, Leipzig, 1903. eSitzungsberichte der math.-phys. Classe der k. b. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen, 31, 298, 1901. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 11333 in the interior of the nucleus and the consequent shooting out under pressure of a mixture of gases and dust through holes in a loose outer erust. Lack of sufficient means of escape in this way may cause ¢ bursting of the nucleus sometimes observed. The general upward current of vapors from the nucleus to the envel- ope, aside from jets, may be due to convection away from the more strongly heated center.4 Because of the counter-pressure due to the radiation of the nucleus itself, the rising of even small solid particles from the nucleus to the envelope would not encounter as strong an unbalanced pressure from the solar rays as particles in the tail. For, if all the heat received from the sun were again radiated from the frelon on the side toward the sun, these two counter-radiation pressures would exactly balance at the surface of the nucleus. ? Small particles may also be aided in rising from the nucleus toward the sun by gas forces. By numerous experiments on larger bodies immersed in a gas and illuminated on one side, it has been shown that they may be either repelled from the light source or drawn to it, depending upon the pressure of the surrounding gas. (See curves, in the foregoing paper, fig. 4.) If the gas pressure is not too low, par- ticles after leaving the nucleus mene first be drawn toward the sun until a region of higher vacuum was reached in the ascent, and then be repelled.¢ The brilliant envelope of the head may be regarded as forming at the height where condensation, caused by expansion and cooling, takes place. Here the repelling action of the solar radiation would reach a high value and the particles in the envelope would be driven backward to form the tail. According to Arrhenius this condensation in the eny elopes is assisted a Matter in the Pes of gases Pa vapors is not subject to eines pressure, as solid and liquid particles are, because of the minuteness of molecular dimensions. Except in the spectrum regions of characteristic absorption, radiation can, theoreti- cally, exert no pressure whatever upon a gas. Hence gases might rise from the nucleus toward the sun practically unhindered by radiation pressure. bIt is worth noting in this connection that the longer and invisible waves are as effective in producing pressure as the visible radiations, and that these long waves strongly preponderate in the spectra of solid bodies at temperatures low in com- parison with the solar temperature. : ¢It is possible also that electrostatic forces may play a small part in the forma- tion of the head from the nucleus. Arrhenius believes the sun to have a positive electrical charge, due to the fact that it loses more negative electrons by condensation into nuclei and subsequent repulsion by radiation pressure than it does of positive electrons which do not as readily serve as centers of condensation. Streams of nega- tively charged particles would communicate a negative charge to the matter surround- ing the comet’s nucleus, which would thus be attracted by the sun. As this attrac- tion would oppose the formation of the tail in the same measure as it assisted that of the head, it can not be a dominating influence. dL.c., p. 208. 134 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. by the influx of negatively charged nuclei from the sun, which serve as condensation centers for the ascending vapors. The height above the nucleus of the comet at which this condensation would occur would thus, in some measure, be governed by the supply of negative parti- cles. These would be found in increasing numbers with diminishing distance from the sun. This action may be responsible for the contrac- tion of the head and envelope as comets approach the sun. The brilliancy of the envelope may be attributed in large part to the fact that bodies of sufficient size to reflect solar rays are first formed out of the vapors of the head in this region. The negative nuclei from the sun would here experience an obstruction and lose the greater part of their motion by friction. Electrical mterchanges and discharges would be more active, and the hydrocarbon spectrum be brighter in the envelope than in other parts of the head. If the brightness of the head and its envelope depend upon the number of negatively charged nuclei which strike the comet, and if, as Arrhenius maintains, the nuclei move out from the sun radially and in greatest numbers from regions of greater solar activity, comets crossing the surface defined by solar radii drawn through the sun-spot belts should show a marked increase in brightness, especially in maxti- mum sun-spot years. . The writers are not aware that any such influence has been looked for in the cases where sudden changes of brightness in comets have been observed. Comet tacls.—The maximum ratio of radiation pressure to gravita- tion, obtained theoretically by Schwarzschild for sunlight upon opaque reflecting spheres of 0.8 density, under the most favorable conditions, was about 20 to 1, if the recent estimates (ranging from 3.5 to 4) of the solar constant were used. In Bredichin’s three types of cometary tails the highest ratio of attraction to repulsion required is about 18 to 1. The multiple tails observed in such comets as Donati’s may thus be satisfactorily explained by the sifting action of radiation pressure in two ways— either by assuming, with Bredichin, that the particles in the different tails are of different densities, but of uniform size, or by assuming uniform density and particles of several different sizes. While radiation pressure alone may thus afford a satisfactory expla- nation of comets’ tails, there is no reason to assume that it is the only cause of the repulsive action observed. There are several ways in which the gases and vapors present in the tail may exert a force upon the small solid or liquid particles which are known to exist there: _ 1. Small particles, if warmed on one side when surrounded by gases or vapors, even under pressures so low that electrical discharges take place only under relatively high voltages, experience a strong repul- sion, similar to that wpon a vane of a Crookes radiometer. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 135 . Occluded gases or volatile materials upon the surface of the par- oles would be driven off by the sun’s heat on the illuminated sides, and the particles would thus receive a thrust in the direction away from the sun. 3. If the particles were porous or loosely put together, containing cavities filled with more easily vaporizable substances, the resulting vapors would be shot out upon the hotter sides and the particles driven back by a kind of rocket action. That these combined gas forces are still large, even in high vacua, will be seen from an actual experiment described later. If we accept Arrhenius’s theory that the solar activity produces numberless negative electrons which serve as condensation points for the vapors surrounding them in the solar atmosphere, and thus form small, negatively charged nuclei, which are driven from the sun by radiation pressure,” these nuclei would exert a battering action upon the particles of the tail. In the last case a strange meeting point is found between the oldest, or Keplerian, and the latest explanation of the solar repulsion of comets’ tails. Finally Prof. J. J. Thomson,’ in investigating the action of electric waves upon charged bodies immersed in the medium, has found that a small repulsive effect may arise from this cause. This repulsive force is entirely distinct from the radiation pressure so far considered, but on the electro-magnetic theory of light it may be competent to drive away electrons formed above the photosphere of the sun, inde- pendently of the sign of the charge and of whether they have formed nuclei by condensation or not. These last two causes of repulsion are in all probability of very minor importance when compared with radiation pressure, or even with gas action. Experiment with a laboratory comet's tail.—Some of the above con- siderations led the writers to try to reproduce, as nearly as possible, in a vacuum tube some of the conditions believed to exist in comets’ tails. The result of a hasty computation of the magnitude of the effect which might be expected from radiation pressure provided a suitable dust coal be found was most encouraging. At the outset it was apparent that it would be very difficult to man- ufacture a powder the grains of which would be sufficiently small, light, and uniform for the purpose; so the spores of a great variety of degraded vegetable forms were examined. Finally a puffball of the genus Lycoperdon was discovered, the spores of which averaged microns in diameter, and were as nearly spherical and uniform in size «The supposed electrical discharges in the tail of a comet which give rise to its gaseous emission spectrum are attributed by Arrhenius to the electrical disturbances caused by the influx of these negative nuclei. b Phil. Mag., 4, 253, 1902. SM 1903— 10 136 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. as a pile of apples from the same tree. These spores were light, cel- lular structures, filled mainly with oil. They were calcined by heat- ing to redness and all the vaporizable material driven off, leaving only sponge-like charcoal spheres behind. The density of a mass of these spheres (individuals could obviously not be dealt with) was measured and found to be about one-tenth that of water. Making liberal allow- ances for the spaces between spheres in the pile, the density of a sin-’ gle sphere could not exceed 0.15.4 These spores, together with a quantity of emery sand, were placed in a glass tube the form of which was suggested by the hourglass. Smaller tubes led off from either end. One of these was fused to a good mercury pump of the Geissler type, the other bent-down and joined to a small flask containing mercury. Allot the tubes were wrapped with wire gauze and heated to a tempera- ture just below the softening point of glass, and the pump was worked many hours. Whenthe pump showed no further signs of gas the mercury in the flask was boiled and mercury vapor driven through the tubes to ‘arry off any permanent gases which the pump alone could not reach. After this had continued for an hour or more the tube system was sealed off from the pump and the mercury flask was surrounded by solid carbon dioxide and ether, and the hourglass still heated. In this way all of the mercury vapor which could be con- densed at a temperature of —80° C. was drawn out of the tubes. After Ie nearly an hour the mercury flask with its frozen contents was sealed off from the hourglass. The hourglass was then held in a vertical position and a beam of light of approximately known intensity was directed horizontally on the lower half of the tube just below the neck, fig. 1. By tapping the tube a fine stream of sand and charcoal puftball spores descended. The sand particles fell through the beam, showing no deflection, but the spores were driven from the stream sidewise in passing the beam. «According to Schwarzschild’s formula, the ratio of radiation pressure to solar gravitation for spheres of the size and density of these spores would be about 6 to 1. THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. 137 The observed angle of deflection of the spores from the vertical was roughly that given from the computation, and the observers believed that the effects shown must be due almost entirely to light pressure, with possibly a slight gas action. The action of gases upon heated bodies of this size had, so far as we know, never been studied, but one of the writers” had studied the gas action on larger bodies down to a pressure of permanent gases of 0.0005 mm. of mercury, as shown by a McCleod gauge, and had observed that for this pressure the gas action had begun to fall off sharply. The pressure of the permanent gases in the hourglass must have been well below this value, and it was thought that nearly all pressure due to vapor had been frozen out. Later, a review of the preliminary computation was made and an error discovered which had the effect of bringing out the computed light pressure on bodies of this size and density far too large. It was plain, therefore, that the force of deflection due to gas action, proba- bly of the character of rocket action, was at least ten times as large as the effect attributable to radiation pressure. Radiation pressure alone would produce a measurable effect under the conditions of observation, but would have been far less pronounced than the effect obtained. The experiment had unfortunately to be tried under circumstances much more unfavorable for a pronounced effect of radiation pressure than exists in comets, for the deflection produced by repulsion must be measured in terms of terrestrial gravitation, which is over 1,600 times as great as solar gravitation at the distance of the earth. To approach cometary conditions, therefore, it would have been necessary to use a light beam 1,600 times as intense as sunlight at the earth. In the experiment, beams from twenty to forty times as intense as sunlight were used. Because of the meagerness of present knowledge concerning the actual conditions in comets’ tails it is impossible to say how closely the foregoing experiment fulfilled the purpose for which it was tried. It would be difficult to prove from present astronomical data that the hydrocarbon vapors known to exist in comets’ tails exert no radio- metric repulsion upon the small reflecting particles present. Still more difficult would it be to show that nothing which corresponds to what has been called rocket action occurs. This latter repulsion does not require the presence of any generally diffused atmosphere what- ever, but simply that the particles send off gases toward the sun under the action of the sun’s heat. Thus, in passing from the era where no adequate physical causes which would meet the required conditions “A result gained in a series of unpublished experiments on gas forces by W. v. Uljanin and E. F. Nichols. See also W. Crookes, Phil. Trans., p. 300, 1878. 1388 THE PRESSURE DUE TO RADIATION. could be assigned for the repulsion seen in comets, we are now likely to be embarrassed in discriminating between several contributing influences. The writers hope to repeat the comet’s tail experiment, using smaller spores, if they can be found, and a tube of the new silica glass which will stand stronger heating during the pumping, and thus make it possible to reach higher vacua. THe Witper PuysicaL LABORATORY, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., April, 1903. THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD AND THE VARIATIONS OF THE MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH.¢ By Cu. NorpMann, Docteur és sciences, Astronome a l Observatoire de Nice. It has long been sought to discover if the various meteorological phenomena of the earth, and particularly the temperature, are subject to periodic variations other than the diurnal and annual periods depend- ing on the rotation of the earth and its motion in the ecliptic. The astrologers of the middle ages, who affected to discern a relationship between the great climatological changes of the globe and the con- figuration of the sun and planets, and who based predictions upon such phenomena, may be considered perhaps as the pioneers in this line of study. During the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries men of science made numerous attempts to determine if meteorological phenomena were dependent on the relative positions of the sun and moon, and if consequently they could be associated with the various periods common between these heavenly bodies, such as the Draconic period, the Saros, and the period of nodes. These studies were influ- enced by a long-standing and still prevalent belief, profoundly fixed in the popular mind, that the moon exercises a preponderating influence upon terrestrial climates. More modern and exact investigations have thoroughly tested this traditional belief, and while itis shown that the moon actually appears to produce tides in the higher regions of our atmosphere analogous to those of the ocean, it is on the other hand established that our satellite exercises no appreciable influence upon the temperature or climate of the earth, and investigations along these lines have been at length abandoned. ie The inquiry was brought upon a new field when, in 1852, Sabine, Wolf, and Gautier discovered that the phenomena of terrestrial mag- netism were subject to variations of a period equal to that of the sun spots. Monthly Notices of the Meteorological Society of Mauritius, December, 1878. ¢Ch. Nordmann. Recherches sur le rdle des ondes hertziennes en Astronomie physique. Rey. Gén. des Sciences, 1° Avril 1902. @ Wandbuch der Mathematik, Physik, Geodisie und Astronomie, Vol. IT, p. 302. THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. 141 in general employ data other than those given by a single station, instead of employing the only rational method which could distinguish a general influence of solar origin from causes purely local and tem- porary, namely, the study of the contemporaneous records of numer- ous stations. Furthermore, the authors did not employ a sufticiently long period of observations, for these ought at the very least to extend over a complete sun-spot cycle. Some writers even ventured to draw conclusions from the observations continued only a few months at a single station. Finally, for the most part these early investigators studied the records of stations in the temperate zones, where, as K6ppen has shown, the local and accidental variations are so great as to mask completely such minute changes of mean temperature as are here in question. In 1873 there appeared the well-known memoir of Képpen, who concluded, from an able discussion of the thermometric observations at numerous stations during the period from 1820 to 1870, that the pres- ence of sun spots was attended by a slight diminution of the terres- trial temperature.“ Since the appearance of this memoir, which constituted the first trustworthy results reached in this direction, no extended work on the subject has been published. 2 10 Encouraged by the friendly counsel of M. H. Poincaré, I have undertaken to continue the study of this important subject for the period 1870 to 1900, for it seemed to me very desirable to throw addi- tional light, if possible, upon a point so important to physical astron- omy and the physics of the earth. The work of K6ppen established that the curve of variation of mean annual temperature is reasonably regular only for tropical stations, and that in the regions exterior to the Tropics the curve of variation becomes so irregular that it is impossible to recognize in it any perio- dicity whatever. This result was perhaps to be expected, for the tropical regions are characterized by a very even climate, whereas for stations nearer the poles the accidental variations of temperature are very great, and indeed enormously greater than the slight varia- tion of temperature which will be found below to attend the sunspot cycle. Accordingly I have made use of thermometric observations from tropical stations exclusively in this study, but since the meteorological observations of the past thirty years have been greatly extended and systematized, I have been able to employ material much more exten- sive and trustworthy than was at Képpen’s disposal. Thus the series of observations for separate stations are generally longer than he “Koppen: Zeitschrift der dsterreichische Gesellschaft fir Meteorologie, Vol. VIII, 1873, pp. 241, 273. 142 THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. employed, so that while he was occasionally obliged to use series of no more extent than six years of observation, which could not fail to be a serious source of error, I have retained no series shorter than eleven years, corresponding to the mean period of the complete sun spot cycle. Furthermore, while Képpen had no observations from stations outside the Indies, the Antilles, and tropical America, I have been able to employ data from a greater number of stations, distrib- uted more thoroughly over the globe, so that the result obtained can be considered as really representing the mean state of all that portion of the earth comprised within the Tropics. The stations for which I have used all the observations published since 1870 are: Sierra Leone, Recife (or Pernambuco), Port au Prince, Trinité, Jamaica, Habana, Manila, Hongkong, Zi Ka Wei, Batavia, Bombay, Island of Rodriguez; Island of Mauritius. For each station there has been computed the deviation of the mean temperature of each year from the general mean for a great number of years. Then for each year from 1870 to 1900 the general mean of the deviations of all the stations was obtained. The following table contains the results thus derived. In the col- unin headed ** Sun spots,” will be found for each year the relative number of sun spots according to Wolf; and the column headed *‘Deviations,” gives in degrees centigrade the mean departure in tem- perature for all the stations as obtained in the following manner: If a, represent the arithmetical mean of the deviations of tempera- ture at all stations for a given year, a, that for the year preceding, and a, that for the year following, the number found in the column headed ** Deviations ” corresponding to the year in question is equal to a,+ 2a, +a, aaa These numbers have been employed rather than the direct arith- metical mean for the given year, in order to give a more regular series by eliminating as well as possible the secondary irregularities. TaBLE I.—Comparison of sun spots and temperatures, 1870 to 1900. | f } Year. Sun spots. | Deviations.) Year. Sun spots. | Deviations. ay °C. | °C. 1870 seca eee eee «139 == 0072)! SIS8G at osu aae eee as aie 25 — 0.17 SY pO a er eta a ee 111 Seca NaI Bi cy eae ee ee A 13 = aol S72 Stee ya eee eee WOU| (== 07] SSRs! ae See eee: 7 + .13 1873 see ee oe Meee ee GBie| 09s) EL SBO aeep eee ee eee 6 4+ 15 LSTA rene ees eee | 44 2: (,1 33/1800 5s = sae ta eee eee 7 + .06 1S RE aad SOE ance oes 17 ==, FLOM SOT Se son 5s sae ee oe ee 35 + .04 icy Geers Aaeanob ae eese seas ile Pee 3P Nike ees oars, fo Seema ae ce 73 — .05 ABV Seen eee eee ae 22 i MR OSA PISO ean eeee een 5 ee ae as4 —»b.12 1878S Sess ate ee epee 3 | AL 4 AS (S1804S Reo ETI ee Raid Se ee 78 — .05 AS7Onsaces ea eee ae eee Gili ce OG cl ston eae nea eee 64 + .07 TSO seed ene eee | 32 =f: oer 19R) BSG Se eee oe apes wes oe eee 41 + .20 TASt Su be eae a Re 54 =) eo D0 :|| SRO Taree ne teen 26 + .25 WS 2s cen siGenevea re esttet 59 Sa OT | SG 8 ee eee eee | 26 + .19 BSB Re eetise hee eereeeeee a64 =)" yO] W899 2n no csete mem Cemencee | 12 + .18 RSH Se eee 63 20: 391 di GOONER a ee eae meee | 9 + .25 LSS ese ees. ene oe 52 = ,21 | aMaximum. b Minimum. THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. P43 Fig. t is a graphical representation of the results contained in the table. Ordinates of the curve of temperatures are taken directly from the column headed ‘* Deviations,” and plotted in the usual way, while the ordinates of the curve of sun spots are plotted with decreasing values toward the top of the sheet, so as to give a figure appar ently the inverse of the sun-spot frequency. It will be seen at once that the two curves run in a general way parallel. Temperature departures. Sr eciitants = f- ae ate = Vales wal x CoN ae ECENEEE FEECH aaeGbadsae Fic. 1.—Comparison of sun spots and mean ioe The following more careful discussion goes to show that their simi- larity extends eyen to minor details: 1. If we consider the dates of maxima and minima of temperature and sun spots, respectively, as found in the two curves, we may express the results in the form of a table as follows: TaBieE Il.—Mazxima and minima of sun spots and temperatures. mae a Al = I : anes : Minima of | Maxima of|| Maxima of | Minimaof temperature.| sun spots. || temperature.) sun spots. Sete eeteisie ea wlatsieloiptalelele 1881 | 1878 | 1884-85 Debye Ween eeseecdacaallstcnpcaranac SOnCUDO SB sone leccacercpopd || 1889 1889 | 1893 ae a WinsApeceeppoacd bsesseopoccs Se BSE NCCi MEA eee | 1900 1901 This comparison shows that the agreement between the times of minima of temperature and maxima of sun spots on the one hand and between maxima of temperature and minima of sun spots on the other is very satisfactory. 2. It is well known that the interval between a minimum of sun spots and the succeeding maximum is usually shorter than the inter- val between a maximum and the following minimum. The 23 sun-spot 144 THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. periods from 1870 to 1900 were not exceptions to this rule, and it will be noted that the 24 corresponding temperature periods also conform to it, as appears in Table III. TasLe I1]1.—Number of years elapsing between times of successive maxima and minima. oa | 1 2 3 4 5 6 | Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. | sun spots. sun spots. sun spots. sun spots. sun spots. sun spots. eo eee ees SS Sun spots........ 8 5 6 8 Temperatures ... 11 3.5 4.5 4 7 Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. | temp. temp. temp. temp. temp. temp. 2 3 4 5 6 | For both sun spots and temperatures we find: Interval 2-3 less than 3-4, and 4-5 less than 5-6. as) —— — — —— Moreover, for both temperatures and sun spots the intervals 2-3 and 4-5 are smaller than any of the intervals 1-2, 3-4 and 5-6, despite = = = the inequality of the total periods embraced in the two and one-half cycles considered. These include the half period of eight years (1870 to 1878), a full period of eleven years (1878 to 1889), and a second full period of twelve years (1589 to i901). 3. Again, designating as ‘‘rich in sun spots” the years for which the Wolf relative numbers exceed 60, and as **‘ poor in sun spots ” those years in which they fall below 15, we may form the following table, in which the temperature variations are divided between the classes so defined: TaBLE LV. Years rich in sun spots. Years poor in sun spots. | 7 Temperature ae Temperature UGE deviations. | Year. | deviations. | eC ce eek Su Olean cictsseime ne se ae —0. 22 ICViseananbeanacosaannGe +0.13 |p LSM ecemececsacise sales 14 1879 osiaaiciisme aise + .16 VB [Zenoss ascee ee eee = AOU all! BST sercrcteeceieies bee cere — .05 | Igor be ere! 209 ll siaskanhe os ieee aala NBS3 a .o3 date sya eetojsoeeere = pill) || Tiss) cceetessoganogsace + .15 S84 Nepean 21. || A890 ec es2 site erties + .06 1892 saeae tins saeecace ee 705) ||| el SOO Reese Se meeesaee + .18 Mets eetcuremoassonamssar ID) eS shaposacanssecsons + .25 1894 oss 5.2 buslscileis ences = ob) || | WP secosccsoscdoncdcce 07 } | Mean........-.- a | Meanin ete eal | This comparison also exhibits a satisfactory accord between the two kinds of phenomena. 4. Let us now consider the years of maxima and minima of sun spots, and for each of these years calculate a ‘*smoothed” sun spot number by taking the mean between the number for the given year and the half sum of the numbers for the years next preceding and next following, respectively. We proceed similarly with the temper- ature deviations, thus treating both kinds of data in a way to eliminate secondary influences, while leaving a preponderating importance with THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. 145 the year in question. For brevity denote the resulting temperature deviations by 64 and the sun-spot numbers by 6S. We thus obtain Table V. Taste V.—Maxima and minima of sun spots. Maxima. Minima. | Year. <= ase a4 ee Year. SS =a | | 86. és. || 50. és. Oo” i| od by (Dseee ease 2a ee as Ol Oy pee ee +0.10 9 fags kolo en en {S08 heee163)" || lien GOL e meena See se ie fal WT SOR eee rae oes =F 08h) | eee COM | pel OOO Seetes ae erence te | | Mean......| — .12 Mean...... + ,14 | Comparing the values of 6S with the numerical values of 64, it appears that they vary in general in the same sense for years of max- ima of sun spots, and in opposite senses for years of minima. But if we regard algebraical signs, a maximum maximorum of 6S corre- sponds to a minimum minimorum of 04, and vice versa. 5. Finally, the principal points of the preceding discussion may be implicitly summed up as follows: The function of temperature departures which we have just con- sidered may be referred to a new origin of ordinates such that the departure +0°.25 becomes the new zero; and we may reckon the new ordinates in the direction which was formerly that of increasing nega- tive departures. Denoting by 64 the new ordinates as thus consid- ered, it will be seen that 64 represents in some sort (other things being equal) the difference for each year between the temperature which would have been experienced if there had been no sun spots, and that which was experienced in reality; for the origin of ordinates at 4+-0°.25 corresponds with the conditions of the year 1900 when there were scarcely any sun spots. If now we take the mean of the values of 04 for the first half period 1870 to 1881, and multiply this mean by the number of years in this half period, and deal similarly by the periods 1881 to 1889, and 1889 to 1900, also treating the sun spot frequency data 6S after a similar fashion, the results obtained are expressed by the following table.¢ TasLteE VI.—Summation of the temperature curves and of the inverse sun-spot frequency CUrVES. siatiect > 26S Period. S tisg xs hiss ty | 74 aS | + Shag aes i = = sustes: ts F He : is isi PELIOG OL Oe ate ce oe. sok se ne amen wae 297 | 567 | 0.52 YT 9047 | | f = aay DCTIOGLO HO Reet sec. Fee eee Sma eee es eee mt 216 492 | 44 “ = 1500p 2 HEEIONGH ETO eg Gow.) At nee er 167 | 300° _55 11S lee 6 eR Qe OS ROO Eee ROO ARES ees ARE teas a Ser Oar Se COC ee ae GEeE ane an ess 0.5 + 0.06 «The unit of temperatures for this table is the hundredth of a degree centigrade. 146 . THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. >H08 It apppears that = 700 t, ably constant proportionality between the total number of sun spots and the summation of the temperature departures for all of the periods reviewed, 6. From the result just given it seems to follow that we may assign to the arbitrary sun-spot frequency numbers of Wolf a physical sig- nificance expressing the mean relation between sun-spot frequency and terrestrial temperatures. Thus 1 Wolf number corresponds to 0°.01 A — 0S aU. Finally, from this discussion we are able to state definitely the fol- lowing law, which is also in agreement with the results of Képpen: The mean terrestrial temperature is subject to a period identical with that of sun-spot frequency, and the effect of the presence of sun spots is to diminish the mean temperature of the earth, so that the curve of mean temperature departures runs parallel with an inverted curve of sun-spot frequency.4 = 0.5 + 0.06. There seems to be a remark- III. It may now be inquired how far the result just reached might be theoretically predicted. It is known that sun spots radiate less than equal surfaces of the adjoining photosphere. This may be visually observed from a comparative study of sun-spot and photospheric spectra, which indicates a strong general absorption over the sun spots. It has also been shown by the bolometric observations of Langley, who reached the result that the umbra of an average spot emitted only 54 per cent as much radiation as equal areas of the adja- cent photosphere. Again, at the time of maximum sun spots the thickness of the absorbing layer of the chromosphere is increased, which tends to diminish the radiation of the sun. Still, there are also present at this time many faculze which radiate more strongly than other portions of the photosphere. The effect of the faculee tends to offset the absorption of the more opaque chromosphere, and we may assume as a first approximation that the two effects compensate each other, leaving only the influence of sun spots themselves to consider. From the researches of Zenker,’ based upon several different methods yielding concordant results, the mean temperature of the earth’s sur- “This law has been deduced from the discussion of observations made exclusively at tropical stations, for these alone present a sufficient regularity of climate to per- mit of the detection of such small temperature variations as are here in question. But it would seem to be legitimate to extend the application of the law to the whole surface of the globe, for it is impossible to conceive that a variation of the solar radiation could influence temperature over half the surface of the earth without affecting the remainder. bThermische Aufbau der Klimat. Halle (Leipzig), 1895. THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. ay. face would be —73° C.@ if the solar radiation did not exist. Now, the actual mean temperature of the earth is about + 15° C.,’ from which it follows that the effect of solar radiation is to raise the mean temover- ature of the earth 88° C. above the temperature of space. The mean area covered by sun spots during a year of maximum activity may be taken as not far from one one-hundredth of the total area of the sun’s disk. From this it follows that the radiation is diminished by the presence of sun spots by about one two-hundredth, and this should produce a diminution of terrestrial temperature of about 88, ° or 0°.44 C. This, it will be remembered, is almost exactly the result obtained above from the discussion of direct observations as representing the excess of mean terrestrial temperature during the years of minimum over those of maximum sun spot activity.° a[Note by translator.] Professor Poynting gives the temperature of space at —263° C. See Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society of London, Series A, vol. 202, p. 529, 1903. bHann: Klimatologie. Stuttgart, 1897. ¢T desire to express here my thanks to M. Mascart, who has been so good as to place at my disposal for this investigation the library of the Bureau Central meteo- rologique, and to M. Angot, who has given me most valuable counsel. [Nore By TRANSLATOR.] The author’s discussion of temperature departures in connection with the sun-spot cycle has aroused considerable interest among meteor- ologists. It is fair to say that while expert opinion is not entirely in accord with him in his methods of study and conclusions, the criticism which has been called forth by his paper seems to indicate that meteorologists require further evidence rather than that they wholly disbelieve in the alleged association of sun spots and temperatures. Professor Angot, in an article translated for the Monthly Weather Review of Au- ‘gust, 1903 (p. 371), strongly objects to Nordmann’s procedure of smoothing the yearly temperature departures and combining observations from numerous stations, on the grounds of uncertainty of the real mean temperatures of some stations, and of the prejudicial effect upon the general mean of unequal lengths of the series of observa- tions at the several stations. He prefers to treat each station separately, and gives reductions of data from Guadaloupe, Hongkong, Batavia, Bombay, Barbados, and Habana, extending over periods ranging from ten to fifty years, and embracing 16 sun- spot periods altogether. Fourteen of these periods yield results in the same general direction as those obtained by Nordmann, and 2 in the contrary, so that Professor Angot remarks that ‘‘ the probability is, then, according to these observations, 7 to 1, that an increase in the number of sun spots is accompanied by a diminution in the temperature.’’ It appears from his reductions that ‘‘an increase of 100 in Wolf’s relative sun-spot numbers (a difference which frequently exists between a maximum and a minimum ) will be accompanied by a diminution of 0°.33 C. in the value of the mean annual temperature.’’ Professor Angot concludes: ‘‘It isevident that in order to determine the value [of the temperature departure for an increase of 100 sun-spot numbers] it would be necessary to work with a much larger number of series. I have given the numbers which precede only as an example of a method which appears to me more exact and more convincing than that ordinarily employed.” Professor Abbe, commenting editorially on the articles of Nordmann and Angot (Monthly Weather Review, October and December, 1903), refers to a discussion of 148 THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. the observations at Hohenpeissenberg, extending from 1792 to 1850, which he himself published in 1870. This discussion yielded the result that an increase of 100 Wolf numbers in the sun-spot frequency was attended on the average by a decrease of about 1° C. in the mean annual temperature for this station. He refers also to Képpen’s extensive investigation, which yielded the result that an increase of 100 sun-spot numbers was attended with a decrease of temperature of 0°.54 C. for equatorial stations, but with more complex effects for stations in temperate latitudes. But while this statistical evidence thus tends chiefly in the same direction, Professor Abbe is not convinced that we can certainly ascribe this apparent temperature periodicity to solar influences. Hesays that although fora long time he ‘‘ believed that it might be possible to establish an intimate connection between solar radiation and solar spots, yet the steady development of our knowledge of the selective absorption of the earth’s atmosphere has shown that we can not argue by crude statistical methods from terrestrial temperatures up to solar radiation. We may speak of periods and variations in our temperatures, but these do not demonstrate a similar period in the solar temperatures or solar radiations, since unsuspected periodic variations in the constituents of the earth’s atmosphere may be the cause of the variations we should otherwise attribute to the sunitself. * * * The mere fact that there is a decrease of temperature in the Tropics at sun-spot maximum argues nothing as to the direct relation of cause and effect between the two phenomena. I have on hand a collec- tion of monthly charts of temperature departures for the whole globe for several suc- cessive years, which tend to show clearly that the sun-spot period in the earth’s temperature is a purely local, terrestrial matter, moving round from one part of the world to another, just as do our droughts and our rains, our barometric waves and our cold waves; analogous to the movement of an earthquake wave over the ocean, going sometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly, reflected from a continent, exaggerated in some arm of the ocean, breaking in waves on a shore, but scarcely felt on an island in midocean, and finally dying out by virtue of innumerable interruptions, as all forced waves must do unless they happen to be reenforced by a process similar to that of resonance in sound wayes.”’ : A word may be added in connection with Nordmann’s discussion of the direct effect of sun spots on temperature, which the diminished radiation of sun spots as com- pared with the photosphere would lead us to expect. Substantially the same argu- ment, based on Newton’s law of cooling, was published by Professor Langley in 1876 (see Monthly Notices British Astronomical Society, November, 1876), and he reached the conclusion that the presence of sun spots in a period of maximum solar activity might reduce the mean temperature of the earth not exceeding 0°.29 C. by their direct effect in diminishing solar radiation, but he did not decide whether terrestrial temperature may not be quite otherwise affected by some varying solar action of which spots are merely accompaniments. Within the last twenty years it has been shown that Newton’s law of cooling does not apply to bodies losing heat solely by radiation, and it has been experimentally verified that, in accordance with Stefan’s law, the perfect radiator or so-called “absolutely black body’’ emits an amount of radiation proportional to the fourth power of its temperature above absolute zero. All other bodies radiating by virtue of their temperature emit less than the perfect radiator at any given temperature, but at low temperatures imperfect radiators are found to depart from Stefan’s law and to emit amounts more nearly proportional to the fifth power of their temperature. Since the earth is losing heat almost solely by radiation and is kept at substantially a constant mean temperature of about 290° absolute by the solar rays, the earth’s total radiation is proportional to (290)4* and is equal to that received from the sun if we neglect the small amount received from space. If now the sun’s radiation were reduced by 3}5, as supposed by the author, on account of the presence of sun spots, THE SUN-SPOT PERIOD. 149 the earth would, if allowed sufficient time, take up a new mean temperature T such é IGN (290)4* or T=200°( 599). Thus T would be equal to or exceed- that (T)*t=559 ing 289°.97, and the fall of temperature directly due to the sun spots would be only 0°.08 or less. This line of argument is substantially that adopted by Professor Poynting, Philosophical Transactions, Series A, vol. 202, p. 530, 1903. It would therefore appear that the direct effect of sun spots is far smaller than that observed by Nordmann. But it is entirely possible that the increased absorption of the sun’s envelope, which he mentions as probably attending them, may produce the effects found. See in this connection Halm’s article, ‘“A New Solar Theory,’’ Smith- sonian Report, 1902, and also 8. P. Langley, Astrophysical Journal, June, 1904. METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER.¢ By Prof. J. M. PERNTER. Allow me to-day to address you once again on the subject of weather prophets, and this time to bring before you not only one or two kinds of weather forecasting, but to give you a more general survey of all methods at present in use, be they right or wrong, with or without results. I will keep strictly to the title of this lecture and give the prominent place to the methods of forecasting. I shall explain them and subject them to critical analysis, naming at the same time the advocates of each of the various methods; in the technical investiga- tion, we have to do with the value of the methods and not that of the persons. I must, however, at once bring prominently forward the fact that we have at present, unfortunately, no method by which we can forecast the weather with absolute certainty even for one day in advance, to say nothing of longer periods. This is already self-evident from the fact that we are now able to speak of many methods of fore- casting, whereas if there were a sure and infallible method, then it ‘ would be out of place to speak of the other methods to this society for the advancement of scientific knowledge. All methods of weather forecasting, not excepting those in use by the central meteorological offices, are based upon observed weather conditions, and have, therefore, an empirical foundation. Many of them do not even make the slightest attempt to put their methods on a theoretical basis and content themselves with setting up *‘ weather rules.” Even the scientific methods of professional meteorologists have not yet succeeded in deducing a theory capable of determining in advance the changes of the weather as the effect of one or several known causes. Only the advocates of the influence of the inoon have ventured solely by means of aprioristic theories to ‘‘ calculate” the weather for long periods in advance. « A lecture delivered by Prof. Dr. J. M. Pernter to the Association for the Advance- ment of Scientific Knowledge, Vienna, January 14, 1903. Translated from the Vortrige des Vereines zur Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien. 43d Jahrgang, Heft 14. Printed in Monthly Weather Review, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, December, 1903. sm 1903 dual fel SY METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. There are many widely different methods by which the various classes and kinds of weather prophets carry on the work of weather forecasting. There are those who make use of the behavior of animals to foretell the weather; hunters who recognize the character of the approaching season from the actions of the wild animals; the observers of birds, spiders, crickets, ants, and other animals, from whose conduct they judge of the approaching weather. But in addition to this class which utilizes living animals there is another opposing class that pre- fers to make use of the dead substances of the animal or vegetable kingdoms, such as hairs, strings of instruments, roots and fibers of plants; by means of their expansions or contractions, either with the aid of little weather houses and figures or without them, they recog- nize the coming weather. Others prefer to consult stones and walls as to the character of the weather to be expected, and turn rather to inorganic nature in order to learn from the ‘* sweating” or dryness of these whether to expect rain or continued fine weather. Thus, as you see, all the kingdoms of nature are drawn upon to furnish prognostics of the weather, and it may depend upon the occupations and predilec- tions of the various persons interested in the coming weather whether they give the preference to one or the other. But I had almost for- gotten to mention another class—perhaps the largest—those who are not to be satisfied by any one of the three kingdoms nor even by all three together, and who rely only on their own bodies for foretelling the weather—assuming, of course, that these have nerves, joints, and corns. Sometimes it is the stomach and sometimes even the head that is made use of. JI am not joking in the least; on the contrary, the persons inclined to this kind of weather forecasting excite my sincere commiseration. If these classes of weather prophets who undertake to foretell the weather by the sensations of their bodies, by observations of the ani- mal and vegetable kingdoms, and even by the processes of inorganic nature, always rely upon facts which may have a distant connection with the weather, yet they are still far behind that class which forms its conclusions of the approaching weather from observations of the weather conditions themselves. You are all well acquainted with this latter class of weather prophets. In every community there is at least one person who is especially relied upon, whether he be a farmer, a miller, a teacher, or a pastor of long standing. They look up at the sky, observe the clouds and the direction of their motion, and from these they forecast the weather for the next day, with good results. These local weather prophets rely indeed upon phenomena which have the closest connection with the coming weather. For the weather does not spring like a Deus ex Machina down from a distant cuckoo’s nest in the clouds, but is drawn from comparatively near regions, or, if you prefer, forms gradually in the place itself. This coming, this METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 153 formation of the weather, is announced by the appearance of the sky, sometimes for a longer, sometimes for a shorter time in advance, and the skill of the weather prophet consists in rightly interpreting, for the near future, the appearance of the sky and the weather conditions. Since it is generally necessary in order to grasp the weather condi- tions correctly, to have a clear judgment founded on long experience in observing, together with an accurate eye, and, I might almost say, an inborn quickness of perception, therefore there are as a rule only single individuals in every community who enjoy the reputation of being good weather prophets. Certain phenomena, however, are of so typical a nature that they have been reduced to fixed rules and are everywhere expressed in popular language. Thus every country has its weather signs; if the clouds are increas- ing, a storm or continuous bad weather is approaching. In every locality there is one direction of cloud motion that betokens bad weather, and another, generally the opposite direction, which portends fine weather, etc. Weather rules relative to the red morning and evening sky have been deduced. The rules that bad weather is expected when in any given locality the summit of a certain mountain is covered with a cap; that a small ‘‘ watery ” halo around the moon indicates rain; that the weather will continue bad if, when the clouds break up, a second light covering of clouds is seen above them; that: it will be fine weather if, after rainy weather, according to the locality, a certain wind sets in; that a slow breaking up of the clouds gives promise of fine weather, etc.; all of these rules have been formulated from long-continued and accurate observation, and are exceedingly well adapted for local weather forecasts from one day to the next. Experienced observers also know from the color and nature of the clouds whether the prevailing weather, notwithstanding otherwise favorable indications, will continue or will change, and by these deli- cate distinctions they generally acquire the reputation of being especially good weather prophets. These observations of weather signs led the way, however, to more far-reaching rules which included the attempt to determine from the weather conditions at a certain season of the year what they would be for a long series of days; or, to determine from the weather of a sea- son, or of a certain day, ora fraction of a day, the conditions of an approaching season. Thus originated the so-called ‘* farmer’s rules,” among which are some valuable ones based upon good observations extending over a hundred years, but in contrast to these there are, unfortunately, many poor ones for which we are indebted to the superficial and frivolous rules manufactured by speculating calendar makers. Others, however, went still further and, from observing that the weather of one year resembled that of a former year, concluded that 154 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. there is a certain regularity in the recurrence of years with similar characteristics, and that they were justified in enunciating the law that almost exactly the same weather returns at intervals of eleven, or of eighteen, or nineteen years, so that it would only be necessary to expect in the coming year the weather observed a certain number of years before. It is evident that this would be the simplest method for predicting the weather in any year, day by day, or at least week by week, and this is the system followed in the so-called ‘* hundred- year calendar.” Unfortunately the facts do not agree with the predictions. Both the methods above named in general endeavor to keep one free from preconceived ideas as to causes, and base their predictions of the weather only upon earlier observations and experience, often sup- ported by records of the weather actually prevailing, whether made with or without instruments. There are other prophets who have sought for the cause that dominates the weather and weather changes and adopting this when found have made their weather predictions in accordance with the properties, movements, and changes of this accepted cause. This latter class, somewhat precipitately and without sufficient experience in the principles of observational work, but driven by the innate longing in the human breast to seek for a cause for all matters and supported only by general a priori considerations has sought for the dominating cause of the weather. Thus, from the consideration that the sun dominates everything on the earth, Professor Zenger has chosen that as the agent of the weather changes, which he ascribes to the rotation of the sun on its axis. Now, since the time required for a revolution of the sun occupies about twenty-six days, he has chosen one-half of the time of a revolution, that is to say twelve to thir- teen days, as the period by which he measures the changes of the weather, and has arranged a weather calendar according to which there is a day of disturbance every twelve to thirteen days. In the interval between the two days of disturbance there is an interval of safety, or what he calls ‘‘ calms.” The comparison of the predictions of the ‘‘days of disturbance” and ‘‘days of calms” with the weather actually occurring is supposed to give the proof of the correctness of the assumption that the semirotation of the sun governs the weather. Up to the present time, however, this has not yet been accomplished, for the attempted demonstration has entirely failed. The method of weather predictions proposed by Professor Servus is of a similar character; he considers the interior of the earth, and_ from the fact that the attraction of the earth upon the atmosphere attaches the latter to the earth, he argues that ‘‘ all the great disturb- ances in the equilibrium of our atmosphere are caused by changes In the condition of the interior of the earth, which produce disturbances METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 155 in the power of attraction.” You will see at once without further explanation that this is nota tenable principle for weather predictions. Servus himself, for the purpose of preparing weather predictions, has been obliged to call in the sun and moon to his aid as causes of the disturbance in the condition of the interior of the earth. In this way his method approaches so nearly to that of Zenger and those of the lunar prophets that we need not treat of it separately. But Professor Lamprecht has shown us in a most startling manner how far one may be led away by adopting a priori causes for the changes of weather without a sufficient basis of experience. By analyzing a series of observations for several years he has discovered five periods in weather processes, one of 124 days, one of 1233 days, one of 13,%; days, one of 14% days, and one of 297 days. Before pass- ing on I must just tell you that one can, according to his method, compute periods of almost any length desired. This is not objection- able; but he now proceeds immediately to find the causes for these periods, which were really only computed and not at all furnished by experience, and, since he sincerely wished it, he found them. We can only be astonished at the boldness of his hypothesis. He assumes the earth to be surrounded by five rings, similar to the rings of Saturn, and that their periods of rotation and temporary relations to one another are the causes of his weather periods. Lamprecht repre- sented to himself the existence of these imaginary rings in such a manner that he immediately endowed the rings with names, giving them successively the following magnificent names: Emperor William ring, Moltke ring, Bismarck ring, Copernicus ring, King Albert ring. An old and by far the most widespread method of weather predic- tion is based on the idea, which is I might say universal among man- kind,” that the heavenly bodies have an influence on everything which takes place on the earth, and particularly upon the weather. The moon is that one which was supposed to more especially influence the weather, although this power was attributed to the planets also, so that each one produces a certain kind of weather, and therefore divides the year into damp, dry, stormy, quiet periods, ete., accord- ing as one or the other planet is the ‘‘ ruler for the year.” The moon is credited with the principal dominator of the changes of the weather. The weather is supposed to change by preference with the moon; therefore the new moon and the full moon especially possess the power of influencing the weather, and one of the most widely spread weather rules is that the weather changes with the new moon and the « Astrology seems to have been specially cultivated in Mesopotamia and to have been spread north, south, and west by Sanskrit, Greek, and Arab influences. It is peculiarly Asiatic and European. There is no record of its having had any great influence among the Chinese, Malays, or American Indians. It can, therefore, hardly be spoken of as universal among mankind.—Ed. 156 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. full moon. However, the first and last quarters are considered of greatest importance by a great many. Especially clever observers of the influence of the moon upon the weather pretend to have also observed the distinctive individual influences of the phases known as octants. In general the opinion is very widespread that the decreas- ing moon exercises a weak and the increasing moon a strong influence. Thus far the theory of the influence of the moon on the weather is the direct result of the popular belief in the moon, without regard to any scientific basis. Iam not able to state whether the growth of this popular belief was preceded by observations of the weather changes, and is therefore to be regarded as a result of observations (it is not a question here as to whether the latter were defective and inconclusive or not), or whether, on the contrary, the belief in the influence of the heavenly bodies and in that of the one which, after the sun, appears the largest and most striking to mankind, namely, the moon, was the earliest step, and that it was in the light of this belief that observations were first made. Atall events, the latter is far more probable than the former, and therefore I can not put the moon theory of weather pre- dictions in the same category as the methods mentioned in preceding paragraphs. These latter methods were certainly based on observa- tions (we say nothing as to whether the observations were correct or not); but this is not established in regard to the belief in the moon theory; indeed, the probability is in favor of the contrary process, namely, the opinion that the moon must influence the weather came first, and observations only came later in order to see if the theory were correct. This idea is strongly supported by the more recent development of the theory of the influence of the moon upon the weather. This newest and at the present time very prominent phase of this theory did not start by collecting reliable observational data and deducing from these observations the influence of the moon upon the weather, but first adopted the,old belief in the moon and then sought to create for it a scientific basis by means of a prioriassumptions and even theo- retical mathematical explanations. With these results, either assumed or computed, the representative of the modernized theory of the moon appears before the public and invites his contemporaries to test his ‘‘ results” by observation. This process is, as you see, the exact opposite to that of the true empirical method. The empiricist makes observations, observes long and much, and sums up the general results of the observations in certain propositions or ‘‘rules,” and when it is possible draws his conclusions as to the cause of the phenomena. The modern moon prophets turn the process upside down. They designate the moon beforehand as the rause of the changes of the weather; from the various positions of the METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 157 moon with respect to the earth and the sun, with the assistance of the laws of attraction—without any strict investigation as to how far these can possibly be of influence—they compute the attraction exer- cised by the moon in its separate positions, and say on such and such a day the influence of the moon must have produced such and such a result on the weather. The confirmation of these predictions by the observations should then only show the accuracy of their assump- tions and computations. The number of these modern moon proph- ets is at present large. Many of them take into consideration the planets in addition to the moon. The names of the most prominent advocates of these moon theories are known to you. They are as fol- lows: Falb, Ledochowski, Gladbach, Demtschinski, Garigou-Lagrange, A. Poincaré—not the celebrated mathematician—and Digby. It would be quite erroneous if this method of investigation into the causes of the weather were regarded as incorrect and improper. By this presentation of the subject I wish only to show that the modern moon prophets—and probably also the older ones—have not intro- duced strictly inductive empirical methods into their belief in the moon, but that this belief was there from the first and that they have made use of the discovery method for its confirmation, since it is on the basis of the moon theory, or, if you prefer, of aprioristic consid- erations as to the influence of the moon, that they make their weather predictions, and then from the agreement between these they endeavor to deduce the correctness of their assumptions. Against this method as such there is nothing to be said, but it demands the most conscien- tious, straightforward, logical, and accurate determination of the con- sequent weather if we wish by this method to arrive at a confirmation or refutation of the propositions advanced as to the influence of the moon. How this is to be managed we have still to learn; meanwhile it is at present only necessary, in this enumeration of the various methods for predicting the weather, to include that one which repre- sents the influence of the moon. As soon as men began to observe the barometer attentively, they began gradually to recognize that the rising and falling of the barom- eter had an evident connection with the weather. It was the celebrated burgomaster, Otto von Guericke, of Magdeburg, who first used the barometer as a ‘* weather glass.”” He applied, even then, to his water barometer the ‘* weather scale” which is at present in such general use, on which the highest reading occurring at any place is designated as ‘fine weather,” the lowest reading as ‘‘rain and wind,” ete. The barometer as a weather glass has taken its course throughout the world, and is to-day used almost universally. After the introduction of the aneroid barometer the ‘‘ weather scale” was also affixed to that, and whoever purchases such an instrument pays particular attention to te 158 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. make sure that the weather scale is correctly fixed on it. The makers of these instruments must know the mean pressure at the dwelling place of the purchaser; there they place the term *‘changeable;” the point where the pressure is about 10 millimeters above the mean is ‘fine,’ and at about 20 millimeters above the point designated as ‘“‘ changeable” will be ‘‘ steady,” ‘* fine,” or “dry,” or the like. At about the same distance below ‘‘ changeable” is placed ‘‘ rain” and SStonmise Whoever has provided himself with an instrument of this kind believes himself to be the possessor of a self-registering weather prophet and is generally highly indignant if it rains when his barome- ter stands at ‘‘ fine,” or astonished if it is fine weather when the barom- eter says “rain.” Since these erroneous indications are not unusual with the barometer, therefore faith in it as an indicator of the weather is very much diminished, and is only maintained at all, on the one hand, by the fact that the barometer frequently ** indicates correctly,” and, on the other hand, by force of habit. Frequently, however, one has taken refuge in another instrument, namely, the hygrometer. This instrument shows only the amount of moisture actually prevail- ing in the air, in the same way that the barometer indicates the act- ually prevailing pressure. As the pressure and the moisture are both connected with the weather, the hygrometer may be usedas a weather prophet in the same way as the barometer, although that is not its real vocation. If the hygrometer shows a high degree of moisture, that only indicates that the air is just then very moist, and this generally happens only when the weather is already bad. However, it happens sometimes that the moisture in the air increases while the weather is still fine, so that the hygrometer then indicates approaching bad weather. In the same way, the hygrometer will generally indicate dryness when the weather is fine; it will sometimes, however, when the weather is not yet fine, point to decreasing moisture, and thereby foretell approaching drier and finer weather. The best of these hygrometers are made of human hairs, divested of grease, which have the property of being expanded by dampness and contracted by dry- ness ina most admirable manner. This property of varying its dimen- sions with the changing moisture is also possessed« by other animal and vegetable substances. There are a number of weather indicators of this kind, among which the little house with the little man and woman, in which the man goes out in bad weather and the woman in fine weather, is probably the best known. | The discredit into which the hygrometer as a weather prophet has often fallen is as easily understood as in the case of the barometer. Its duty is only to show the moisture actually prevailing at its locality, and this knowledge does not enable one to make determinations of the approaching weather any more accurately than does a knowledge of the pressure at any place. METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 15s) A new, and we must at once say a truly empirical method of weather prediction, is that at present in use by all the official central meteoro- logical establishments in the world. This methed has gradually and slowly developed according to the exact rules of investigation in scientific practical meteorology, and is still far from having reached perfection. It has developed entirely, without any addition of an a priori nature, out of the observations of the weather processes, and is therefore based entirely upon well-established observational data. The most fundamental of these facts is that the weather is associated with the distribution of atmospheric pressure. It has been recognized more and more clearly by experience that the weather is determined not by pressure as shown by the barometer at the place of observation, but by the barometric conditions that prevail over vast regions; for instance, those distributed over the whole of Europe. Therefore one must chart and study the distribution of atmospheric pressure over the whole of Europe if one wishes to understand the weather actually prevailing. It was necessary, first of all, to determine by extended observations, made as nearly simultaneous as possible, the distribution of atmos- pheric pressure for a definite hour, in order to perceive to what kind of weather this distribution of atmospheric pressure corresponded. It was by this means demonstrated that there is an extraordinarily great variety of forms of atmospheric pressure distribution; that these, however, can be classified into a certain number of types by having regard to the form as well as to the weather conditions given in these forms. * * The thorough and persevering study of the weather that prevails on the occurrence of each type has led to the definite and certain recognition of the following theorems: 1. The weather, in all its details, depends upon the distribution of atmospheric pressure, and the same weather always corresponds to the same location relative to this distribution. 2. The weather of any place is, therefore, determined by its position in and relation to the various stvles of pressure distribution. 3. If we succeed in knowing in advance what distribution of atmos- pheric pressure will prevail on a certain day or ona series of succes- sive days or a longer .season, then the weather of the day or of the period of time is thereby determined in advance. 4. The modifications introduced by reason of geographical conditions, the configuration of the ground—as, for example, the location of a place in the Alps, etc.-—are constant for the location in each style of pressure distribution. By means of these theorems, which were deduced from exact obser- vations, the foundation was laid for a careful method of weather pre- diction. Two things were now necessary: (7) The perfecting of our knowledge of the typical distributions of atmospheric pressure and of 160 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. the details of the weather attending them; (4) the deduction of the rules, according to which one form of distribution of pressure either remains stationary, or moves over Europe, or changes into another form, or is pushed aside by some other type. It is in the nature of things that the first task is more easily accom- plished than the second. The present state of the art of weather pre- diction in cur central meteorological institutes corresponds to this condition of affairs. The details of the weather conditions within the various styles of pressure distribution are, on the whole, quite well known. However, there remains much to be done in this alinee ‘tion, and it is now one of the most important duties of meteorology to most thoroughly investigate, in all directions and details, the distribution of the weather according to the forms of pressure distribution. The knowledge of the weather conditions for every place and for every type of pressure distribution offers the only entirely satisfactory empirical basis for weather predictions; moreover, it is by this knowl- edge alone that we can hope at some time to discover the fundamental laws of the changes in the weather. This knowledge, however, does not lead us immediately to a prediction of the approaching weather, but only teaches us to know the weather of one particular place when the distri- bution of pressure is known. In order to be able to predict the weather, we must know one thing more—we must know in advance what distri- bution of atmospheric pressure will prevail at the time for which we are predicting the weather. This foreknowledge of the pressure distribution is the starting point upon which the whole weather forecast depends. If this foreknowledge of the future distribution of atmospheric pressure is impossible, then weather prediction is impossible; if we can foretell it approximately, then a weather prediction of greater or less probability is possible, and we shall be able to make a larger number of correct than of incorrect predictions; if the distribution of atmospheric pres- sure can be known in advance with certainty, then we shall be able to make weather predictions with certainty. Now, how do we stand as to the question of certainty in foreseeing the approaching distribution of atmospheric pressure? If we knew the laws according to which one distribution of atmospheric pressure changes oyer into another, or according to which it moves across Europe, as well as the laws that cause one distribution of atmospheric pressure to continue stationary or suddenly break up and another one result from it, then the problem could be solved and future weather could be predicted with entire certainty. We should proceed with mathematical accuracy in the prediction of weather, and be able to attain the correctness of the astronomers in their predictions of celes- tial planetary motions and phenomena. This, of course, is the ultimate aim of meteorological science, but we are at present so far removed from it that we have many well-founded doubts as to whether this object will ever be attained. Up to the present time we are only able METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 161 to deduce from the experience hitherto acquired a few empirical laws of limited applicability, according to which the types of distribution of atmospheric pressure remain stationary, change, or transform them- selves entirely, or perhaps move away over the earth; even this limited empirical knowledge relates almost entirely to the change from one day to the next. Since these empirical laws as to the changes in the distribution of atmospheric pressure are so defective the difficulty of foreseeing the approaching distribution of pressure is correspondingly great, and the prediction of the weather even for the next day is pro- portionately unreliable. Since we have to do only with theorems founded entirely upon experience, the persons best qualified to make the predictions are those who through long years of practice have col- lected the most theorems as to the variations in the forms of pressure distribution, and have also learned by practice the many modifications to which these theorems are subject. In the forecasts for the next day men of much experience attain to more than 80 verifications in a total of 100 predictions; but the prediction of the distribution of pressure for more than one day in advance has such a low probability that in a forecast of the weather for several days in advance we must expect more failures than results. You will say: ‘* It is despairingly little that we have to expect from scientific weather predictions, and hence it is not to be wondered at that the public generally clamors for methods that promise more.” It is easy to promise, but one’s promise must be kept, and that is difficult. It would also be easv for scientific meteorologists to make the same promises and boastings as the other weather prophets, but they would then cease to be called scientific. And of what use is it to cling to those weather prophets who certainly promise a great deal, but finally leave you in the lurch? Of the popular methods of predicting the weather above enumerated, none accomplish nearly as much as is accomplished at present by the scientific method; indeed, very often they accomplish nothing beyond the noise they make in praising themselves. However, before I begin to criticise the various methods, I will briefly lay before you the processes adopted in weather prediction at the central meteorological stations. You know that at our central office in Vienna, for example, telegrams arrive every morning from more than 140 places over the whole of Europe; these telegrams contain the observations made that morning of pressure, temperature, moisture, precipitation, and wind. According to these telegrams the chart of the distribution of atmospheric pressure is drawn as it pre- railed over Europe that morning; and from this particular style of distribution of atmospheric pressure in conjunction with that which prevailed on the preceding day, and by making use of the above- mentioned empirical laws governing the changes in the forms of the pressure areas, a tracing is made of the probable areas of atmospheric 162 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. pressure for the next day. When this sketch is completed then the predictions for the various portions of the kingdom are madé upon the basis of our knowledge of the weather conditions at different points of cach area of atmospheric pressure. Thus the primary diffi- culty consists in forming a correct conception of the pressure distri- bution for the next day, based on that prevailing on the morning of the day in question, and at the same time a clear idea as to the velocity with which the changes will proceed. In order to facilitate this diffi- cult task the central office receives immediately before the making of the forecast, which takes place at 1.30 p. m., a short telegram from twelve selected stations in Austria-Hungary, giving the latest infor- mation as to changes in temperature, pressure, and cloudiness that have occurred at these stations since the morning observation. From this last item we can perceive with more certainty whether we have formed a correct idea as to the distribution of atmospheric pressure for the next day or not, and therefore whether to retain or modify the forecast. It is only after the data of the midday telegrams have been made use of that the definitive forecast is made. At 1.45 p. m. the weather report goes to the printer, and the corresponding tele- grams are sent to those who have subscribed for the daily telegraphic forecasts. The results of this system of honest weather forecasts are indeed modest, but are suchas to show a real and striking progress in weather predictions as compared with other methods. Of course even this sarnest scientific method allows us only to consider the general char- acteristics of the weather, as, for example, *‘ fine,” ‘‘ windy,” ‘‘ mild,” ‘‘fine and cold,” ‘‘cloady,” ‘‘rainy,” ‘‘ warm,” etc., as the object of the weather forecast. This method would immediately supplant all others if it would undertake to foretell the duration and amount of precipitation, the degree of the thermometer, the exact force of the wind, etc. However, we may at present be very well satisfied if the general character of the weather is predicted for us. Unfortunately even the scientific method can give us no positive certainty, since even by confining itself to these general characteristics it can at present offer only a little above 80 per cent of verifications of the weather. In this state of the case it is self-evident that our efforts are to be guided in the direction of those studies that will lead us to an ever increasing accuracy in forecasting. These studies of course relate (1) to more and more thorough investigations of the weather conditions at every point and in every phase of the distribution of atmospheric pressure; (2) to the discovery of signs by which to form a judgment (a) as to the rapidity and paths with which each type of pressure dis- tribution moyes over Europe, (4) into what other forms a given type of distribution transforms itself and the rapidity of such change, and (c) what changes in the weather attend the various modifications of one METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 1638 and the same type of atmospheric pressure distribution. With the increase of our knowledge on these points the weather predictions will also become more and more accurate. However, it is very doubt- ful whether it will ever be possible for us to invariably attain absolute accuracy even for one day in advance. Every increase in the percent- age of verifications is, however, of the greatest value, especially to national economics. Now, as a matter of course, the meteorologists are looking every- where in order to take advantage of everything which may be of assist- ance to them in this matter. In the first place, there are the many good weather rules that have been deduced from the experience of many hundreds of years. But the greatest number and most valuable of these weather rules are only applicable to local weather predictions, whereas the central meteorological institutes must make their predic- tions for very distant countries also, as, for example, Austria for Dalmatia, Vorarlberg, Bukowina, ete. Those weather rules, however, which relate to the weather condi- tions of certain definite dates, and which are generally looked upon as farmers’ rules, are sometimes of great assistance in making forecasts. Thus we know that on certain dates of the year there has for centu- ries been a tendency to a certain kind of weather; for example, to rainy weather. Therefore, if at such periods the distribution of atmospheric pressure is of such a form that it may easily change to a type corresponding to the weather indicated by the farmers’ rules, then we may be tolerably certain that we must forecast wet weather. But, on the other hand, if at some such period the distribution of pressure is of such a character as would ordinarily justify us in hoping for a change of weather, still we know that this change is not likely to occur, because there is a continued tendency at this period to wet weather, and a change of weather is not to be looked for. Such aid as this from farmers’ rules is, however, of moderate value and rarely available. But it is quite otherwise, in the opinion of the believers in the moon, when we consider the support that the weather predictions might derive from hypotheses that attribute to the moon and the rest of the heavenly bodies a decided influence on the weather. I will express myself more in detail on this subject. First and foremost, I must insist most strongly on the fact that pro- fessional meteorologists themselves have always recognized and do recognize one influence of one heavenly body as most decisive and the sole cause of the weather on our earth, viz, the heating of the earth and of its atmosphere by the sun. The sun regulates our weather; it gives rise to winter and summer; by evaporation it raises the aqueous vapor into the air, and this vapor, by cooling, produces clouds and rain, snow, storms, and hail; it is the primary cause of the differences in atmospheric pressure, and in this way produces the winds, 164 METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. This heating influence of the sun, as also its modifications by cloudi- ness, by the wind, by the change from day to night or from winter to summer, and by the properties of the earth’s surface, which, consist- ing as it does of water and of land either covered with vegetation or barren and bald, has varying capacities for absorbing the sun’s heat— this influence of the heat of the sun has been established with the most absolute certainty by the most exact observations. It has been demon- strated to be so much more important than any other cause, if any such exists, that up to the present time it has not been possible to recognize any other cause with certainty, in spite of the fact that the professional meteorologists, and singularly enough they only, have instituted extensive and most thoroughly exact investigations in order to discover such other influences, in case there are any, and to deter- mine their value. And what has been the result of these extraordi- narily laborious and wearisome investigations? Before I answer this question I must call your attention to the fact that not one of the rep- resentatives of the theory of the influence of the moon, or of any other cosmical influence, has undertaken to give an unobjectionable rigor- ous demonstration of such an influence. These gentlemen content themselves with the inventive method and apply it in a very singular manner. They make their predictions for certain days and always call attention to the cases when they are successful, but never trouble themselves about the failures. Now, I beg you to observe that in every game of chance where there are but two alternatives there must occur fifty verifications out of every one hundred guesses, when a ereat number of guesses are made and it is all pure chance. The time at which the game of chance is played, or the time when the guess is made, is absolutely without any influence whatever upon the result. So, also, the drawing out of an even or uneven number of balls could have no influence upon the weather, even if it should occur to some one always to predict fine weather when he drew an even’ number and bad weather when he drew an uneven one. If, there- fore, one should make use of the above-mentioned inventive methods, he should carefully record all the cases—the failures as well as the verifications. And then, even if every second case is a success—that is to say, even if he obtains 50 per cent of verifications—he will know that the theorem or assumption made use of as the basis of the pre- dictions really has no causal connection with the weather. Only when more than 50 per cent of verifications are attained can the argument favor the assumption, and so much the more in proportion as the verifications exceed 50 per cent. This exact method, the only one for testing their hypotheses as to the cosmical influences on the weather, is the one that has never been applied; in fact, it has often been distinctly rejected by those who maintain the existence of these influences; and yet those who make METHODS OF FORECASTING THE WEATHER. 165 assertions should prove them. It was the professional meteorologists themselves who undertook the accurate examination of all the various cosmical hypotheses, and particularly that of the influence of the moon, and it was they who found a slight influence of the moon on storms, thunderstorms, the direction of the wind, atmospheric pressure, ete. Now, do you say, ‘‘I told you so?” Well, first of all, observe—and I can not insist upon it too strongly—that it is the professional meteorologists, and they alone, who have made these investigations which point to a slight influence of the moon. Next, I must direct your attention to that little word ** slight.” The influence thus dis- covered by them is indeed so small that we can not even state with certainty whether it really does exist at all; or whether, perhaps, it was only perceptible in these investigations because the period of time included in them is still too short to furnish us with an unexceptionable result. However, let us assume that this sight influ- ence really does exist, and let us examine the amount of this influence a little more closely. Its magnitude is expressed by the percentages of the favorable cases. We will, however, for once greatly exaggerate and assume that these favorable cases amount to a surplus of 5 per cent. That is to say, that in 100 cases 55 succeed and 45 fail. Now, if you use such lunar rules for weather predictions, what does it advan- tage you in isolated single cases? For instance, you are in doubt as to whether the rain is to be expected or not; the influence of the moon indicates rain with a weight of 0.05. In spite of this small weight, if now you forecast bad weather, you will, if 100 such cases occur, have a failure in 45 cases. Had you paid no attention to the influence of the moon you would possibly have had 50 failures. Thus, in this case of 5 per cent of surplus, that would be the whole effect of your con- sideration of the moon’s influence. But we have in fact assumed an exaggerated case, and the real influence of the moon is in every case less than one-half of this, if indeed it really exists at all. You may rest assured that the professional meteorologists accept, nay, even seek for, everything that can give them any assistance what- ever in their weather predictions. By constant investigation and study we may hope to advance step by step and per cent by per cent. Every single per cent of agreement that is gained is an important advance and success. * PROGRESS WITH AIR SHIPS.¢ By Maj. B. BapEN-PoweE LL, Scots Guards. The advent of a really practical machine for accomplishing the nay- igation of the air is awaited with much interest, and the somewhat mea- ger and unreliable information that one can pick up from the daily press is apt only to increase our anxiety to know what is really being done in this line. In the Illustrated Scientific News of June, I gave a brief sketch of the history of mechanically propelled balloons and what had been accomplished up to recent years. During this summer some dis- tinct progress has been achieved in this line. SANTOS DUMONT NO. 9. M. Santos Dumont has, of course, been well to the fore, and though he has only been using his little No. 9 balloon, which may be likened to a motor bicycle as compared to a large motor car, yet he has been able to steer this apparatus and drive it about so easily that the accounts of his trips read as if practical aerial navigation had been achieved. But, so far as his particular performances go, we are still some way from this. It has only been during the calmest of weather that he has dared to venture forth, for his little 3-horsepower engine is incapable of propelling the vessel at any great speed. This machine is of a pointed ovoid shape, the length being 49 feet and the greatest diam- eter 18 feet. This compact form gives better stability than the more usual cigar shape, if it detracts from speed. The volume of the main gas vessel is 9,200 cubic feet; but this does not imply that so much gas is available for levitation, for of this 1,566 cubic feet is occupied by the ‘‘ballonet,” which is kept partially full of air by a ventilating fan, so as to keep the whole balloon tightly distended. Along each side of the balloon a strip of canvas is sewn, in which is inclosed a number of short battens of wood, and from slings attached to these some 46 steel wires depend to support the frame. The latter, which is 29 feet long, is composed of pine rods of triangular section, braced with steel wires and kept apart by wooden triangles of varying size. Toward the front of this frame is the little basket car in which the aeronaut stands, and to the after side of this is fixed the motor. This @ Reprinted, after revision by the author, from the Illustrated Scientific News, London, Vol. I, No. 12, September, 1903. sm 1903 12 167 168 PROGRESS WITH AIR SHIPS. is a Clement double-cylinder, air-cooled, petrol engine, weighing but 26.4 pounds and developing 3 horsepower, or less than 9 pounds per horsepower. The fly wheel is formed of a bicycle wheel, which weighs under 2 pounds and makes 1,600 revolutions. The steel shaft runs back from the motor to the propeller in rear. This is two-bladed, formed ‘of steel tubes, covered with tightly stretched oiled silk. The propeller is 10 feet in diameter and 15 inches in greatest width. It weighs 24 pounds and makes 200 revolutions per minute, giving a thrust of 50 to 60 pounds. The balloon itself weighs only 30 pounds, and the whole apparatus, with framework, car, motor, etc., is under 200 pounds. M. and Mme. Curie, C. R., Nov. 6, 1899. Curie and Debierne, C. R., Mar. 4, 1901, July 29,1901, Mar. 25, 1901. 196 RADIUM. ting the material nature of the emanation, this expression may be employed to designate the special radio-active energy stored in the gas. ® Air charged with the emanation provokes phosphorescence in bodies which are immersed in it. Glass (especially Thuringian glass) gives a beautiful white or green phosphorescence. Sidot’s sulphide of zine becomes excessively brilliant under the action of the emanation.’? This experiment may be tried with the apparatus shown in fig. 8. The cock R being closed, the radio-active emanation which is emitted by the solution in A saturates the air above the solution. When the emanation has accumulated in A for some days the reservoirs B and C, whose inner walls are coated with zinc sulphide, are exhausted. The cock R” is then closed and R opened, so that the air charged with the emanation expands suddenly into the reservoirs B and C, which immediately become luminous. Radium emanation comports itself as a gas from many points of view. ‘Thus it is shared in the same proportions as a gas would be by two communicating reservoirs. It diffuses in air according to the law of diffusion of gases, and has a coefficient of diffusion not far from that of carbonic acid gas in air. ¢ Messrs. Rutherford and Soddy discovered that the emanation has the property of condensing at the temperature of liquid air.” The effects of such condensation may be shown with the apparatus pictured in fig. 8. The cock R” being closed, and the emanation being diffused throughout the apparatus, as at the conclusion of the experiment last described, the reservoirs B and C (which are covered within with phos- phorescent zinc sulphide) are luminous. On closing the cock R and plunging the reservoir C in liquid air, at the end of a half hour, it is seen that the reservoir B has lost its luminosity, while the reservoir C is still bright. Thus it is seen that the emanation has quitted the res- ervoir B and become condensed in the cooled portion of the reservoir C. However, the luminosity of C is not very intense, since the phos- phorescence of sulphide of zinc is more feeble at the temperature of liquid air than at ordinary temperatures; but by closing the cock R’, which interrupts communication between the two reservoirs, and again bringing C to the temperature of the surroundings, it becomes again brilliantly illuminated, while B remains dark. Thus the ema- nation which at first filled the two reservoirs is now all contained in C. The preceding experiments tend to convince us that the emanation is analogous to ordinary gases, but up to the present time the hypoth- esis of the existence of such a gas rests wholly on the manifestations “Rutherford, Phil. Mag., 1900, 1901, 1902. Numerous articles—Dorn, Abh. Naturfrshgesel. Halle, June, 1900; P. Curie, C. R. Noy. 17, 1902, Jan. 26, 1903. Curie and Debierne, C. R., Dec. 2, 1901. ¢Curie and Danne, C. R., 1903. @Rutherford and Soddy, Phil. Mag., May, 1903. : RADIUM. 197 of radio-activity. It may be remarked that, contrary to the behavior of ordinary gases, the emanation spontaneously disappears when con- tained for a sufficient time in a sealed tube. The quantity of emanation diminishes by a half in four days, and this time constant is characteristic of the emanation of radium. IX. Having briefly enumerated the principal properties of radium, it is proper to recall in a few words the origin of its discovery, in which Mme. Curie has had a very great share.” Experiments with the substances separated from uranium and tho- rium had showed that the radio-activity is an atomic property which always accompanies the atoms of these simple substances. The radio- activity of a complex substance is generally greater the larger the pro- portion of the radio-active metal contained in the compound. Certain ores of uranium, as pitchblende, chalcolite, and camotite, have, how- ever, a radio-activity superior to that of metallic uranium. We there- fore questioned whether these minerals might not contain in minute proportion some substances still unrecognized and far more radio-active than uranium, and we searched by chemical methods for the hypo- thetical substances, always guided by the radio-activity of the sub- stance treated. Our anticipations were verified by the results. Pitchblende con- tains new radio-active substances, but in an excessively minute pro- portion. A ton of pitchblende, for example, contains a quantity of radium on the order of one-tenth of a gram. In these conditions the preparation of radium salts is very tedious and costly. A ton of ore furnishes some kilograms of radiferous barium bromide, from which the radium is extracted by a series of fractionations. During the separation of radium, Demar¢ay, whose recent death is much deplored, was so good as to examine spectroscopically the prod- ucts which we prepared. This cooperation was most valuable to us, for at the conclusion of our research the spectrum analysis confirmed our anticipations and furnished the proof that the radio-active barium which we had separated from pitchblende contained a new element. Demarc¢ay made the first investigation of the spectrum of radium.’ tadium has a very sensitive spectrum reaction—indeed, quite as sensitive as that of barium. The presence of radium may be detected spectroscopically in radiferous barium containing only one ten- thousandth of radium; but the radio-activity of radium gives a reac- tion 10,000 times as sensitive still. An electrometer ordinarily well insulated enables the observer to detect readily the presence of radium « Mme. Curie, Thése 4 la Faculté des Sciences, Paris, 1903. bDemarcay, C. R., December, 1898, and July, 1900. 198 ; RADIUM. when contained in a mixture of inactive substance in the proportion of 1 to 100,000,000. Radium is a higher homologue of barium in the series of alkaline earth metals. Its atomic weight has been determined by Madame Curie to be 226. While thus a near neighbor to barium, it is not found, even as a trace, in the ordinary mineral sources of barium, and only accompanies it in the uranium ores, which fact is of great theoretical importance. ki Radium therefore gives us an example of a body which, while remaining in the same state, evolves continuously a considerable amount of energy. This fact is apparently in contradiction to the fundamental principles of energetics, and various hypotheses have been put forward to avoid this contradiction. Among these hypotheses we may consider two which were made at the beginning of tae studies of radio-activity.” In the first hypothesis it is assumed that radium is an element in process of evolution. It must then be admitted that the evolution is extremely slow, so that no appreciable change of state is discernable in the course of several years, for the energy which is disengaged in the course of a year corresponds with an insignificant transforma- tion of matter. It would appear natural to suppose that the quantity of energy put in play in the transformation of atoms Is considerable. The second hypothesis assumes the existence in space of radiations still unknown and inaccessible to our senses. Radium might be assumed to be capable of absorbing the energy of these hypothetical rays and transforming it into radio-active energy. The two hypotheses which we have mentioned seem not incompatible. Since the delivery of this lecture there was made (June 19, 1903) a discovery of great importance by Messrs. Ramsay and Soddy. They found that the emanation of radium as it disappears gives place to the production of helium gas, whose presence can be recognized by spec- trum analysis. It seems, then, that we are here brought face to face for the first time with the formation of an element. It is possible that radium is an unstable chemical element, and that helium is pro- duced as one of the products of its disaggregation. «Mme. Curie, Revue général des Sciences, Jan. 30, 1899, RADIUM.+4 By J. J. THomson. The discovery by Monsieur and Madame Curie that a sample of radium gives out sufficient energy to melt half its weight of ice per hour has attracted attention to the question of the source from which the radium derives the energy necessary to maintain the radiation; this problem has been before us ever since the original discovery by Becquerel of the radiation from uranium. It has been suggested that the radium derives its energy from the air surrounding it; that the atoms of radium possess the faculty of abstracting the kinetic energy from the more rapidly moving air molecules while they are able to retain their own energy when in collision with the slowly moving molecules of air. I can not see, however, that even the possession of this property would explain the behavior of radium; for imagine a portion of radium placed in a cavity ina block of ice. The ice around the radium gets melted. Where does the energy forthiscome from? By the hypothesis there isno change in the energy of the air- radium system in the cavity, for the energy gained by the radium is lost by the air, while heat can not flow into the cavity from outside, for the melted ice around the ‘avity is hotter than the ice surrounding it. Another suggestion which has been made is that the air is traversed by a very penetrating kind of Becquerel radiation, and that it is the absorption of this radiation that gives the energy to the radium. We have direct evidence of the existence of such radiation, for MeClennan and Burton have recently shown that the ionization of a gas inside a closed vessel is diminished by immersing the vessel in a large tank full of water, suggesting that part, at any rate, of the ionization of the gas is due to a radiation which could penetrate the walls of the vessel, but which was stopped to an appreciable extent by the water. To explain the heating effect observed with radium, the absorption of this radia- tion by radium must be on an altogether different scale from its absorption by other metals. As no direct experiments have been made on radium, it is possible that this may be the case; it is not, however, what we should expect from the experiments which have been made on the absorption of this radiation by other metals, for these experi- ments have shown that the absorption depends solely upon the density «Reprinted from Nature, London, No. 1748, vol. 67, Apr. 30, 1903, pp. 601-602. sm 1903——14 199 200 RADIUM. of the absorbing substance and not upon its chemical nature or phys- ical state. If this law hold for radium, the absorption by it would be on the same scale as the absorption by lead or gold and altogether too small to explain the observed effects. We are thus led to seek for some other explanation. I think that the absence of change in the radium has been assumed without sufficient justification; all that the experiments justify us in concluding is that the rate of change is not sufliciently rapid to be appreciable in a few months. There is, on the other hand, very strong evidence that the substances actually engaged in emitting these radiations can only keep up the process for a short time; then they die out, and the subsequent radiation is due to a dif- ferent set of radiators. Take, for example, Becquerel’s experiment when he precipitated barium from a radio-active solution containing uranium, and found that the radio-activity was transferred to the precipitate, the solution not being radio-active; after a time, however, the radio-active precipi- tate lost its radio-activity, while the solution of uranium regained its original vigor. The same thing is very strikingly shown by the remarkable and suggestive experiments made by Rutherford and Soddy on thorium. They separated ordinary radio-active thoria into two parts, transferring practically all the radio-activity to a body called by them ‘‘thorium X,” the mass of which was infinitesimal in comparison with that of the original thoria. The thorium X thus separated lost in a few days its radio-activity, while the original thoria in the same time again became radio-active. This seems as clear a proof as we could wish for that the radio-activity of a given set of molecules is not permanent. The same want of permanence is shown by the radio-active emanations from thorium and radium, and by the induced radio-activity exhibited by bodies which have been negatively electrified and exposed to these emanations or to the open air; in all these cases the radio-activity ceases after a few days. I have recently found that the water from deep wells in Cambridge contains a radio- active gas, and that this gas after being liberated from the water gradually loses its radio-activity. The radio-activity of polonium, too, is known not to be permanent. The view that seems to me to be suggested by these results is that the atom of radium is not stable under all conditions, and that among the large number of atoms contained in any specimen of radium there are a few which are in the condition in which stability ceases and which pass into some other configuration, giving out as they do so large a quantity of energy. I may, perhaps, make my meaning clearer by considering a hypothetical case. Suppose tbat the atoms of a gas X become unstable when they possess an amount of kinetic energy 100 times, say, the average kinetic energy of the atoms at the temperature of the room, There would, according to the Maxwell-Boltzmann law RADIUM. 901 of distribution, always be a few atoms in the gas possessing this amount of kinetic energy; these would by hypothesis break up. If in doing so they gave out a large amount of energy in the form of Becquerel radiation, the gas would be radio-active and would continue to be so until all its atoms had passed through the phase in which they possessed enough energy to make them unstable. If this energy were 100 times the average energy it would probably take hundreds of thousands of years before the radio-activity of the gas was sensibly diminished. Now in the case of radium, just as in the gas, the atoms are not all in identical physical circumstances, and if there is any law of distribution like the Maxwell-Boltzmann law, there will on the above hypothesis, be a very slow transformation of the atoms accom- panied by a liberation of energy. In the hypothetical case we have taken the possession of a certain amount of kinetic energy as the criterion for instability. The argument will apply if any other test is taken. It may be objected to this explanation that if the rate at which the atoms are being transformed is very slow, the energy liberated by the transformation of a given number of atoms must be very much greater than that set free when the same number of atoms are concerned in any known chemical combination. It must be remembered, however, that the changes contemplated on this hypothesis are of a different kind from those occurring in ordinary chemical combination. The changes we are considering are changes in the configuration of the atom, and it is possible that changes of this kind may be accompanied by the liberation of very large quantities of energy. Thus, taking the atomic weight of radium as 225, if the mass of the atom of radium were due to the presence in it of a large number of corpuscles, each carrying the charge of 3.4 by 107? electrostatic units of negative electricity, and if this charge of negative electricity were associated with an equal charge of positive, so as to make the atom electrically neutral, then if these positive and negative charges were separated by a distance of LO~* em., the intrinsic energy possessed by the atom would be so great that a diminution of it by 1 per cent would be able to maintain the radiation from radium as measured by Curie for 30,000 years. Another point to be noted is that the radiation from a concentrated mass of radium may possibly be very much greater than that from the same mass when disseminated through a large volume of pitch- blende; for it is possible that the radiation from one atom may tend to put the surrounding atoms in the unstable state. If this were so, more atoms would ina given time pass from the one state to the other if they were placed so as to receive the radiation from their neighbors than if they were disseminated through a matrix which shielded each radium atom from the radiation given out by its neighbors. EXPERIMENTS IN RADIO-ACTIVITY AND THE PRODUC- TION OF HELIUM FROM RADIUM.* By Sir Wrutram Ramsay and Mr. Freperick Soppy. (1) EXPERIMENTS ON THE RADIO-ACTIVITY OF THE INERT GASES OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Of recent years many investigations have been made by Elster and Geitel, Wilson, Strutt, Rutherford, Cooke, Allen, and others on the spontaneous ionization of the gases of the atmosphere and on the excited radio-activity obtainable from it. It became of interest to ascertain whether the inert monatomic gases of the atmosphere bear any share in these phenomena. For this purpose a small electroscope contained in a glass tube of about 20 cubic centimeters capacity, cov- ered in the interior with tin foil, was employed. After charging, the apparatus if exhausted retained its charge for thirty-six hours without diminution. Admission of air caused a slow discharge. In similar experiments with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon, the last mixed with oxygen, the rate of discharge was proportional to the density and pressure of the gas. This shows that the gases have no special radio-activity of their own, and accords with the explanation already advanced by these investigators, that the discharging power of the air is caused by extraneous radio-activity. Experiments were also made with the dregs left after liquefied air had nearly entirely evaporated, and again with the same result; no increase in discharging power is produced by concentration of a possi- ble radio-active constituent of the atmosphere. (2) EXPERIMENTS. ON THE NATURE OF THE RADIO-ACTIVE EMANATION FROM RADIUM. The word emanation, originally used by Boyle (‘‘ substantial emana- tions from the celestial bodies”), was resuscitated by Rutherford to designate definite substances of a gaseous nature continuously pro- duced from other substances. The term was also used by Russell (‘emanation from hydrogen peroxide”) in much the same sense. If @ By Sir William Ramsay, K. C. B., F. R. S., and Mr. Frederick Soddy. Received at the Royal Society July 28. Reprinted from Nature, London, August 13, 1903, No. 1763, vol. 68, pp. 354, 355. 203 204 EXPERIMENTS IN RADIO-ACTIVITY. the adjective ‘‘radio-active” be added, the phenomenon of Rutherford is distinguished from the phenomena observed by Russell. In this section we are dealing with the emanation, or radio-active gas obtained from radium. Rutherford and Soddy investigated the chemical nature of the thorium emanation (Phil. Mag., 1902, p. 580) and of the radium emanation (ibid., 1903, p. 457), and came to the conclusion that these emanations are inert gases which withstand the action of reagents in a manner hitherto unobserved except with the members of the argon family. This conclusion was arrived at because the emanations from thorium and radium could be passed without alteration over platinum and palladium black, chromate of lead, zine dust, and magnesium powder, all at a red heat. We have since found that the radium emanation withstands pro- longed sparking with oxygen over alkali, and also, during several hours, the action of a heated mixture of magnesium powder and lime. The discharging power was maintained unaltered after this treatment, and inasmuch as a considerable amount of radium was employed it was possible to use the self-luminosity of the gas as an optical demon- stration of its persistence. In an experiment in which the emanation mixed with oxygen had been sparked for several hours over alkali, a minute fraction of the total mixture was found to discharge an electroscope almost instantly. From the main quantity of the gas the oxygen was withdrawn by ignited phosphorus, and no visible residue was left. When, however, another gas was introduced, so as to come into contact with the top of the tube, and then withdrawn, the emanation was found to be present in it in unaltered amount. It appears, therefore, that phosphorus burning in oxygen and sparking with oxygen has no effect upon the gas so far as can be detected by its radio-active properties. The experiments with magnesium lime were more strictly quanti- tative. The method of testing the gas before and after treatment with the reagent was to take one two-thousandth part of the whole mixed with air, and after introducing it into the reservoir of an electroscope to measure the rate of discharge. The magnesium-lime tube glowed brightly when the mixture of emanation and air was admitted, and it was maintained at a red heat for three hours. The gas was then washed out with a little hydrogen, diluted with air, and tested as before. It was found that the discharging power of the gas had been quite unaltered by this treatment. The emanation can be dealt with asa gas; it can be extracted by aid of a Tépler pump; it can be condensed in a U-tube surrounded by liquid air, and when condensed it can be ‘* washed” with another gas which can be pumped off completely, and which then possesses no luminosity and practically no discharging power. The passage of the emanation from place to place through glass tubes can be followed by > EXPERIMENTS IN RADIO-ACTIVITY. 205 the eye ina darkened room. On opening a stopcock between a tube containing the emanation and the pump, the slow flow through the capillary tube can be noticed; the rapid passage along the wider tubes; the delay caused by the plug of phosphorus pentoxide, and the sudden diffusion into the reservoir of the pump. When compressed, the luminosity increased, and when the small bubble was expelled through the capillary it was exceedingly luminous. The peculiarities of the excited activity left behind on the glass by the emanation could also be well observed. When the emanation has been left a short time in contact with the glass, the excited activity lasts only for a short time; but after the emanation has been stored a long time the excited activity decays more slowly. The emanation causes chemical change in a similar manner to the salts of radium themselves. The emanation pumped off from 50 milli- grams of radium bromide after dissolving in water, when stored with oxygen ina small glass tube over mercury, turns the glass distinctly violet in a single night; if moist the mercury becomes covered with a film of the red oxide, but if dry it appears to remain unattacked. A mixture of the emanation with oxygen produces carbon dioxide when passed through a lubricated stopcock. (8) OCCURRENCE OF HELIUM IN THE GASES EVOLVED FROM RADIUM BROMIDE. The gas evolved from 20 milligrams of pure radium bromide (which we are informed had been prepared three months) by its solution in water and which consisted mainly of hydrogen and oxygen (ef. Giesel, Ber., 1903, 347) was tested for helium, the hydrogen and oxygen being removed by contact with a red-hot spiral of copper wire, par- tially oxidized, and the resulting water vapor by a tube of phosphorus pentoxide. The gas issued into a small vacuum tube which showed the spectrum of carbon dioxide. The vacuum tube was in train witha small U-tube, and the latter was then cooled with liquid air. This much reduced the brilliancy of the CO, spectrum, and the D, line of helium appeared. The coincidence was confirmed by throwing the spectrum of helium into the spectroscope through the comparison prism, and shown to be at least within 0.5 of an Angstr6ém unit. The experiment was carefully repeated in apparatus constructed of previously unused glass with 30 milligrams of radium bromide, prob- ably four or five months olc kindly lent us by Professor Rutherford. The gases evolved were passe through a cooled U-tube on their way to the vacuum tube, which comp-ctely prevented the passage of carbon dioxide and the emanation. The spectrum of helium was obtained, and practically all the lines were seen, including those at 6677, 5876, 5016, 4932, 4713, and 4472. There were also present three lines of approximate wave lengths, 6180, 5695, 5455, that have not yet been identified. 206 EXPERIMENTS IN RADIO-ACTIVITY. On two subsequent occasions the gases evolved from both solutions of radium bromide were mixed, after four days’ accumulation, which amounted to about 2.5 cubie centimeters in each case, and were exam- ined ina similar way. The D, line of helium could not be detected. It may be well to state the composition found for the gases continu- ously generated by a solution of radium, for it seemed likely that the large excess of hydrogen over the composition required to form water, shown in the analysis given by Bodliinder (Ber., loc. cit.), might be due to the greater solubility of the oxygen. In our analyses the gases were extracted with the pump, and the first gave 28.6, the second 29.2, per cent of oxygen. The slight excess of hydrogen is doubtless due to the action of the oxygen on the grease of the stopcocks, which has been already mentioned. The rate of production of these gases is about 0.5 cubic centimeter per day for 50 milligrams of radium bro- mide, which is more than twice as great as that found by Bodliinder. (4) PRODUCTION OF HELIUM BY THE RADIUM EMANATION. The maximum amount of the emanation obtained from 50 milligrams of radium bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen into a U-tube cooled in liquid air, and the latter was then extracted by the pump. It was then washed out. with a little fresh oxygen, which was again pumped off. The vacuum tube sealed onto the U-tube, after remov- ing the liquid air, showed no trace of helium. The spectrum was apparently a new one, probably that of the emanation, but this has not yet been completely examined, and we hope to publish further details shortly. After standing from July 17 to 21; the helium spec- trum appeared, and the characteristic lines were observed identical in position with those of a helium tube thrown into the field of vision at the same time. On July 22 the yellow, the green, the two blues, and the violet were seen, and in addition the three new lines also present in the helium obtained from radium. A confirmatory experiment gave identical results. We wish to express our indebtedness to the research fund of the chemical society for a part of the radium used in this investigation. THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. By C. G. Aspor. [The so-called ‘*N rays,” recently described by M. Blondlot and others, have too respectable an introduction to the scientific public in the Comptes Rendus of the Institute of France (from which this paper has been*chiefly abstracted) and have attracted too wide attention to justify an omission of all notice of them in this place. It never- theless seems proper to state here that the experiments on which they rest are not universally deemed conclusive, and that final judgment upon them may be suspended until the appearance of still further eyidence.—Note by 8. P. Langley. | DISCOVERY. In the early part of the year 1903 M. Blondlot, professor of physics at the University of Naney, was carrying on some studies of the X rays to discover if these could be polarized. He found that a con- venient method of recognizing the presence and possible polarization of these rays consisted in the employment of a small electric spark- ing device. ‘Two sharpened wires, communicating inductively with the terminals of a Ruhmkorff coil, were so nearly approached that feeble sparks continually passed between them, and upon bringing this sparking device near a source of X rays the luminosity of the sparks was found to increase. M. Blondlot at first thought he detected by his experiments a considerable degree of polarization in the X rays, but a little later he decided that it was not the X rays themselves which gave the appearance of polarization, but a new kind of rays heretofore unrecognized. In his first experiments with these rays their source was a Crookes tube provided with a thin covering of aluminum to cut off the light. The rays which traversed the aluminum then passed through a rectangular opening in a sheet of lead and fell upon the little sparking device already mentioned. It was found that only when the line of sparks flew in a certain direction, as compared with the slit in the leaden sheet, could the maximum brightness be observed, and this direction for maximum brightness was altered when a substance which rotates the plane of polarization of light was intro- duced. 207 208 THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. The experiments on polarization suggested to M. Blondiot the pos- sibility that the new rays might also be refracted. He tested this by interposing a quartz prism, and found that in fact the rays were now diverted from a straight line, so that he was obliged to carry the sparking device to one side in order to reach a point of increased luminosity. By means of a quartz lens the fact of the refraction of the rays was further verified, and following this it was found that the rays could be reflected regularly and diffusely, just as is the case with ordinary light. As polarization, refraction, and reflection are not qualities of X-rays, but are essentially qualities of ordinary light, M. Blondlot drew the conclusion that he was now dealing with radiation propagated by waves in the ether in essentially the same manner as ordinary light. This new type of rays he found to be transmitted by. wood, paper, aluminum, and many other metals, but to produce no direct effect upon the eye, the photographic plate, or a phosphorescent screen, and he was at first unable to recognize them excepting by means of the little sparking device. The experiments with refraction in prisms and lenses had indicated that the index of refraction of these rays in quartz was very high and indeed exceeding 2. Professor Rubens had not long before discoy- ered rays of great wave length for which the index of refraction in quartz was about 2.18. This similarity of refractive index led M. Blondlot at first to think that perhaps he was now dealing with a type of radiation belonging to the extreme infra-red, and as Rubens had employed a Welsbach lamp as a source of the radiations he had meas- ured, M. Blondlot sought to determine if these tiew rays were also emitted by this source. Shielding the lamp waich he employed by an iron covering having a small aluminum window, he was able to detect the presence of the rays in question in its radiation by the aid of the small sparking device. When the quartz lens was used to form an image of the source, the rays appeared not to be homogeneous, but to contain at least four different varieties whose indices of refraction were, respectively, 2.94, 2.62, 2.44, and 2.29. With the exception of lead, rock salt, platinum, and water, the rays were found to be trans- missible by moderate thicknesses of many different substances, includ- ing tin foil, copper, aluminum, steel, silver, gold, paraffin, black rubber, and othevs. SOURCES OF THE RAYS AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN THEIR RECOGNITION. M. Blondlot now gave a name to these rays, calling them N rays, after the city of Nancy, in which he lives. He claims to detect their presence in the emission of luminous gas flames, as well as in the sources already mentioned, but he failed to find them in the emission of a Bunsen burner. The “Nernst lamp is spoken of as a specially intense source of them. THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. 209 Other methods of recognizing the rays were now introduced, for M. Blondlot was led to inquire whether the sparking device acted as a sign of their presence by virtue of its electrical properties or by vir- tue merely of its emission of light. Accordingly he used a small blue flame instead of the device, and found with it also an increased lumi- nosity when placing it in the focus of the rays. A little later he found that phosphorescent substances, though not excited directly by the rays, yet if first made feebly luminous by ordinary light were raised to a higher luminosity when exposed to the N rays. In later experiments it appeared that a surface feebly illuminated by reflected light became brighter under the influence of N rays. Still more remarkable, he found that if the N rays fell only on the eye of the observer, and not on the object observed, the latter was nevertheless made to appear more luminous, though the N rays themselves produce no sensation of light. Photography failed as a direct method of observing the rays, but he used it indirectly to note the increased luminosity of the spark, the blue flame, or the phosphorescent surface which was employed to recognize the presence of the rays. .The accompanying figure, taken from the Comptes Rendus of February 22, 1904, shows an example of this indirect photographic method. Experiments with the most sensitive apparatus failed to record any sensible heating produced by the N rays. M. Blondlot makes the following general remark concerning the ~ observation of the N rays: The ability to recognize slight variations of luminous intensity varies very much between different persons. Some see at the first glance, without any difficulty, the augmentation which the N rays produce in the brightness of a small luminous source, while to others these changes are very near the limit which they can distinguish, and it is only after some experience that they are able to be sure of having observed the phenomenon. The feebleness of these effects and the delicacy of the observation ought not, however, to arrest our study of these heretofore unknown radiations. I have found recently that the Welsbach burner may be advantageously replaced as a source by the Nernst lamp with no glass covering, for this latter gives forth the N rays with greater intensity, and thus with a 200-watt lamp, for cxample, the phe- nomena are so marked that they may be easily observed. N RAYS FROM THE SUN. The following simple experiment is given by the discoverer to show the existence of N rays in the solar beam: A completely darkened chamber is furnished with a window exposed directly to the sun’s rays, and this window is closed by an oak shutter at least half an inch thick, so that no ordinary light can possibly penetrate into the room. Behind this shutter, at about a meter distance, for example, is placed a small glass tube contain- ing a phosphorescent substance sulphide of calcium, for example which has pre- viously been exposed to light and become feebly luminescent. If, now, in the beam of the sun, which we suppose to pass through the wooden shutter and fall upon the phosphorescent tube, we interpose a screen of lead, or even simply the hand of the PO) THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. observer, though at considerable distance from the tube, the brightness of the phos- phorescence is seen to diminish, and upon removing the obstacle the brightness again increases. The only precaution which it is necessary to take is to employ a tube only slightly phosphorescent, but it is advantageous to place behind it a black paper, so that the interposition of the screen produces no change whatever in the back- ground against which one sees the tube. The variations of brightness are most easy to observe near the boundaries of the luminous spot formed upon the black background by the phosphorescent body, and when the N rays are intercepted these contours lose their sharpness and regain it when the screen is removed. Sometimes the variations of brightness are not instantly recognized. Interposition in the path of the beam of several sheets of alurnainum, of cardboard, and even of a board of oak more than an inch thick, does not prevent the effect, so that all possibility of the action of any ordinary radiation is of course excluded. A thin sheet of water, however, entirely arrests the rays, and thin clouds passing before the sun consider- ably diminish their action. WAVE LENGTH OF THE: RAYS IN QUESTION. M. Blondlot, as we have seen, was at first inclined to think that his ‘ays belonged in the extreme infra-red spectrum, but more recently he has described measures of their wave length by means of the diffrac- tion grating which lead him to the opposite conclusion. He employed a spectroscope with aluminum prism to separate the several different species of N rays emitted by a Nernst lamp, and then estimated their wave length by means of several different diffraction gratings having, respectively, 50, L00, and 200 lines to the millimeter. The following table contains the results of his measures: | | Wave lengths. - | Indices a = a as c SS lMatare=. 4 Grating employed. | Probable fraction | values in alum- 2eG | inum. Ruliags Rulings Rulings | seduces 0.02mm, | 0.01 mm, | 0.5mm. preceding. i fe | be ee 1.04 |} 0.00813 | 0.00795 | 0. 00839 0. 00815 asa). 9 - 00980 | . 01020 - 01050 . 00990 1 40 eee 01107 Oe | ene epeneentene . 01170 1.68 | OL460. i see eeesee [sa vseets oerstcicioe . 01460 1.85, | . 01760 . 01710 | . 01840 . 01760 | | Thus it appears that the N rays belong far beyond the previously studied ultraviolet, and have a wave length only one-tenth that of the rays with which Doctor Schumann has been working with his vacuum spectograph. It is somewhat extraordinary that the N rays should so readily traverse thicknesses of the air and other substances, which would entirely arrest the ultraviolet rays examined by Doctor Schu- mann, but, as is the case in other regions of the spectrum, it may be that the air has here special bands of great absorption, in one of which Doctor Schumann’s rays lie, and that beyond this region there are other parts of the spectrum where the air is again transparent. Another curious thing about the measures just given is that the aluminum Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Abbot. PeAneale Without N-rays. With N-rays, produced by two large lime lights. Without N-rays. With N-rays, produced by a Nernst lamp. PHOTOGRAPHS OF INCREASED LUMINOSITY PRODUCED BY N-RAYS. a Li THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. 211 prism appears to be anomalously refracting; in other words, its indices of refraction increase rather than decrease with increasing wave length of the rays. M. Blondlot suggests that the augmentation of brillianey observed in a small luminous source under the action of the N rays may be attributed to a transformation of these radiations into lumi- nous ones in conformity to the law of Stokes. STORING UP OF THE N RAYS. M. Blondlot finds that many substances are able to store up the N rays and emit them for some time after having been subjected to the influence of a source. This property, it will be seen, is similar to the phenomenon of phosphorescence which is observed with ordinary light. Among the substances which appear to store up the N rays are quartz, Iceland spar, fluorspar, glass, and many others. Alumi- num, wood, paper, and paraffin, on the other hand, do not appear to possess this property of storing up N rays to any very appreciable extent. The phenomenon is so general that a large portion of the bodies upon which the sun’s rays fall are said by M. Blondlot to become saturated with the rays and to’ give them out undiminished in some cases as long as four days after they have been removed from the influence of the sun. N RAYS PRODUCED BY MECHANICAL PROCESSES. It appeared that compression and other distortions of metals, wood, glass, rubber, etc., caused these substances to emit N rays while under such mechanical constraint. Crystalline substances, tempered steel, and some other bodies possessing special internal structure, are stated to be spontaneous and permanent sources of N rays. As an illustra- tion of the permanence with which this property remains associated with such substances, M. Blondlot mentions that a sword found in an ancient sepulcher dating from the Merovingian epoch, was found to give out the N rays strongly. It thus appears that the emission of the N rays by tempered blades of steel may continue for centuries with- out becoming enfeebled, and as regards continuous emission, therefore, the N rays may be compared with the radiation of uranium, radium, polonium, and other sources of Becquerel rays, although, of course, in other respects the two kinds of radiations are entirely different. EMISSION OF N RAYS BY THE HUMAN BODY. M. Charpentier, while repeating in his laboratory many of the experiments of M. Blondlot on the production and observation of N rays, noted that the luminosity of phosphorescent substances used to detect the presence of the rays appeared to increase when the observer approached these phosphorescent substances. Continuing VAM ay? THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. the studies which this- observation led him to pursue, he found that the increase of brightness was most considerable in the vicinity of a muscle, and was greatest when the muscle was strongly contracted. Nerves and nervous centers were afterwards found to produce similar effects, and he was even able to follow in this manner the course of certain nerves beneath the skin. These experiments suggested to him that the human body, at least some portions of it, might be emit- ting N rays, and he found that the emissions observed passed readily through aluminum, paper, and other substances classed as transparent to the N rays, and that they were arrested by lead and moistened paper which had been used by M. Blondlot as screens. The rays were further found to be reflected and refracted, and could be brought to a focus by the aid of convex lenses, and appeared to have about the same indices of refraction as the N rays themselves. It seemed possible, however, that the human body acted merely as a reservoir, storing up the rays like some other substances in which such action had been observed by M. Blondlot, but M. Charpentier states that _after continuing nine hours in complete darkness the rays were still emitted by the body, though perhaps a greater sensitiveness of the eye under these conditions may have made it more easy to recognize them. However, M. Charpentier is of the opinion that the human body certainly emits N rays, and especially in those parts of 1t which are in active use. From later experiments it was concluded that the lower animals, such as the monkey and others, are active sources of the N rays, and that here, as in man, the principal seat of the emission is in the muscles and nerves. It was not alone the warm-blooded animals which appeared to give rise to emission, but also the cold-blooded—frogs and others. As in the case of metals and other substances experimented upon by M. Blondlot, mechanical constraint, such as the compression of nerves and muscles, greatly augmented the luminous effects. In order to localize the observations in a convenient manner, M. Charpentier uses a narrow lead tube from 2 to 4 inches in length, of which one end is placed in contact with the body to be examined and the other contains the phosphorescent substance used as the indicator. He states that he can thus trace out the regions of the brain which are active in special functions, such as the ‘* center of Broca,” reputed to be the seat of articulate language. It appears from Charpentier’s later experiments that the physiolog- ical emissions are not- exclusively composed of N rays, but include other kinds of radiation differing in some degree in their properties from those which have been found associated with the N rays. THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. 213 TRANSMISSION OF THE N RAYS ALONG WIRES. In the course of M. Charpentier’s experiments he found that the ‘ays emitted by the human body are capable of being transmitted not only in the air, but along wires of metal, such as copper or aluminum. This extraordinary discovery has been explained by M. Bichat, who observes that this method of transmission may be compared to the repeated reflections of ordinary light within a long glass tube. His experiments indicated first of all that the wire itself was certainly the conductor of the rays, and not the medium in which it was placed, for upon immersing the wire in water the conductivity remained undi- minished. It was necessary, moreover, that the wire should be of good transinitting material, for leaden wires are said to transmit nothing. The wire must not be bent at a sharp angle, nor should it be rough at any point, for in these cases the internal reflections along its boundary can not be propagated. N, RAYS. Some very recent experiments of M. Blondlot led him to think that, whereas the N rays augument the luminosity of certain sources of light, there is another kind of rays associated with them which diminishes instead of augments the luminosity, and he has investigated these rays among those emitted by a Nernst lamp. These so-called N, rays he finds to be reflected and refracted similarly to the N rays, but to He alternately with them in wave length, so that, for example, he states that a group of N, rays exists of wave length .003y, a group of N rays at 0.00484, another group of N, rays at 0.00564, N rays at 0.0067u,and N, rays at 0.0074. All of these new groups, both N and N,, are of smaller wave length than those included in the table already given. Certain sources appear to emit exclusively, or at least principally, the N, rays, such as copper, silver, and platinum. The N,rays may be stored up, he states, like the N rays. CONCLUSION. To sum up these newly reported discoveries and experiments, it appears that several other men of scientific standing and attainments have repeated and verified M. Blondlot’s discoveries of the N and N, ‘ays and those of M. Charpentier on the rays emitted by living bodies. The observations appear, however, to be difficult, and many able observers who have endeavored to repeat the experiments have not been able to verify even the existence of such radiations, to say noth- ing of making measurements of their wave length by the diffraction erating. It has been stated in Griticism that augmentation of bright- ness in phosphorescent substances may be the result of several causes, 914 THE N RAYS OF M. BLONDLOT. perhaps not sufliciently excluded from M. Blondlot’s experiments. As we have seen, however, M. Blondlot does not depend wholly on phos- phorescent screens to observe his rays, and he remarks the difference in sensitiveness of eyes to minute changes of the intensity of light, so that this negative evidence is not a disproof of the existence of the rays in question. On the other hand, the positive photographic evi- dence afforded in the illustrations given by M. Blondlot, which does notat all depend on phosphorescence, but only on the brightness of the little sparking device, seems to outweigh indications depending merely on sight alone. In connection with M. Charpentier’s physiological rays, it may be recalled by the reader that a half century ago there was great interest aroused, both in scientific and popular circles, by the accounts of the so-called ** odie force” of Reichenbach. This was said to be mani- fested as a luminous aureole which appeared to some observers to sur- round certain persons. For some time there was a controversy between those who claimed they could see it and those who certainly could not see it, but at length the discussion disappeared from the journals, and the general impression has been that no such thing really existed. Some persons have thought that these new discoveries of M. Char- pentier and others may in a certain sense revive the old idea of such an aureole thrown out by living people, but the methods of observing the new rays are evidently wholly different. The physiological rays now being discussed can not be seen by the naked eye, nor do they affect the photographic plate or any other of the ordinary means of observing light, and they are only to be distinguished indirectly by the augmentation of brightness which they produce in feebly luminous objects. Accordingly, however interesting it may be if we know that the living body actually is surrounded by special radiations which it emits in addition to those rays of great wave length which we have long known are emitted by every body, living or dead, above the temperature of absolute zero, still so long as our eyes can not see them they can hardly be supposed to belong in the category of the aureole of Reichenbach. It is to be hoped that they will not, like this asserted aureole, fall into scientific oblivion. MODERN -VIEWS ON MATTER.¢ By Sir Otrver Loner, Hon. D. Sc., F. R. 8. The nature of matter has been regarded by philosophers from many points of view, but it is not from any philosophic standpoint that I presume in this university to ask you to consider the subject under my guidance. It is because new views as to the structure and properties of what used to be called the ultimate atom are now being born, and because these views, whether they succeed in ulti- mately establishing themselves in every detail or not, are of surpass- ing interest, that I have chosen this very recently deciphered chapter of science as the subject-matter for the lecture—the Romanes lecture to be given this year in remembrance of a man whom I knew as a friend, and whose mind, if he had been alive to-day, would have been widely open to these most modern developments of physical science. Nor would the admittedly speculative character of some of the hypoth- eses now being thrown out have deterred him from hearing about them with the keenest interest. If I may venture to say so, it is the more philosophical side of physics which has always seemed to me most suitable for study in this university; and although I disclaim any competence for philo- sophie treatment in the technical sense, yet 1 doubt not that the new views, in so far as they turn out to be true views, will have a bearing on the theory of matter in all future writings on philosophy, besides exercising a profound effect on the pure sciences of physics and chem- istry, and perhaps having some influence on certain aspects of biology also. In admitting that Iam going to promulgate a speculative hy pothesis— that is, ahypothesis for which there is evidence but not yet conclusive evidence—I must not lead you to suppose that the whole of what I have to say is of this character. On the contrary, much of it is certain; that is to say, is accepted by a consensus of opinion to-day among those who by reason of study are competent to judge. I will endeavor -arefully to discriminate between what is in this sense certain and what must still be regarded as doubtful and needing further support. a@The Romanes Lecture, delivered in the Sheldonian Theater, Oxford, June 12, 1903. Reprinted by permission of the author. Published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1903. sm 1903- 15 215 216 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. To treat the subject properly, to give all the evidence as well as the’ results, would need a volume, or a course of lectures; and in order to be brief I must frequently be dogmatic, but I shall only intend to be so in those places where I feel sure that the physicists present (whom here I salute) will agree with me. When I have a dogma of this kind to propound I shall call it a thesis. The more speculative opinions | shall plainly denominate hypotheses. 1. My first thesis is that an electric charge possesses the most fun- damental and characteristic property of matter, viz, mass or inertia; so that if anyone were to speak of a milligram or an ounce or a ton of electricity, though he would certainly be speaking inconveniently, he might not necessarily be speaking erroneously. At the same time it would be well to mistrust anyone who employed such a phrase, except in speaking to experts. He would most likely be talking nonsense; but if he talks nonsense to experts, his blood is on his own head. In order to have any appreciable mass, however, an electric charge must either be extremely great or must be extremely concentrated, and unless it is to be utterly masked by the matter with which it is associated it must be the latter; that is to say, it must exist on bodies of far less than ultra-microscopic size. The mass or inertia of a charge depends upon two factors—the quantity of electricity in it, and its potential—and by concentrating a given charge onto «a sufli- ciently small sphere the latter factor can be raised theoretically to any value we please, and thus any required inertia can be obtained, unless a stage is reached at which it becomes physically impossible to concentrate it any more. - 2. The next thesis is a very simple and familiar one, and dates virtually from the time of Faraday, though the conception has grad- ually gained in clearness and solidity. It is that every atom of matter can have associated with it a certain definite quantity of electricity called the ionic charge; that some atoms can have double this quantity, some treble, and so on, but that no atom or any piece of matter can have a fraction of this quantity; which therefore appears to be an ulti- mate unit, a sort of ‘‘atom,” of electricity. The ratio of the charge to the weight of a material atom is measured with accuracy in electrol- ysis, in accordance with what are called Faraday’s laws; and in so far as the mass of the atom itself is otherwise approximately known the quantity of electricity which can be associated with it is known with a similar degree of approximate accuracy. 3. Now, mathematical data were given by J. J. Thomson in 1881 which enable us to say that if the charge of electricity usually associ- ated with a single monad atom of matter were concentrated on to a spherical nucleus one hundred-thousandth of an atom’s dimension in diameter, it would'thereby possess a mass about one-thousandth of that of the lightest atom known, viz, the hydrogen atom. MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. Duet: Such a hypothetical concentrated unit of electricity it has become customary to call an ‘‘electron,” a name invented by Dr. Johnstone Stoney to designate the so-to-speak ** atom” or smallest known unit of electric charge. Every electric charge is to be thought of as due to the possession of a number of electrons, but a fraction of an electron is at present considered impossible, meaning that no indication of any further subdivision has ever loomed even indistinctly above the horizon of practical or theoretical possibility. The electrification of an atom of matter consists in attaching such an electron to it or in detaching one from it. An atom of matter possessing an electron in excess is called an ‘*ion;” and there is reason to know that, considered as a charged body, its charge is that which we have been historically accustomed to designate ** negative; whereas an atom of matter with one electron in defect is that which has his- torically been called a ‘* positive” ion. This inversion in the natural use of the names positive and negative is inconvenient but accidental and not really serious; it dates from the time of Benjamin Franklin. These ions or traveling particles of matter have been long known. A liquid or a gas conducts because of the locomotion of its charged particles. The particles travel in an electric field because of their attached charges, all the positive going one way, and all the negative the other way; and each kind of matter possesses an intrinsic or char- acteristic ionic velocity, when urged by a given field through a given solution. The charges may be likened to horses or other propelling agency, and the atom to the vehicle or heavy body which is dragged along. The speed of travel through liquids is very slow, but through gases is considerably quicker, partly because there is less resistance, and partly because it is easier to maintain a steep gradient of potential in a medium where the ions are not too numerous. The act of production of such ions is styled *‘ionization,” and the process has been employed to explain very many facts in both physics and chemistry. As an example, Réntgen rays passing through air ionize it and so render it conducting for a time; wherefore they are able readily to discharge electrified bodies in this secondary way. ~ It may be convenient here toemphasize the dimensions of an electron as above specified, for the arguments in favor of that size are very strong, though not absolutely conclusive; we are sure that their mass is of the order one thousandth of the atomic mass of hydrogen, and we are sure that if they are purely and solely electrical their size must be one hundred-thousandth of the linear dimensions of an atom; a size with which their penetrating power and other behavior is quite con- sistent. Assuming this estimate to be true, it is noteworthy how very small these electrical particles are, compared with the atom of matter 218 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. to which they are attached. If an electron is represented by a sphere an inch in diameter, the diameter of an atom of matter on the same scale is a mile and a half. Or if an atom of matter is represented by the size of this theater, an electron is represented on thé same scale by a printer’s full stop. It is well to bear this extreme smallness in mind in what follows. An atom is not a large thing, but if it is composed of electrons, the spaces between them are enormous compared with their size—as great relatively as are the spaces between the planets in the solar system. 4. My next thesis is that these electrons or minute-charged cor- puscles can exist sepurately, for they can be detached from their atoms of matter at an electrode, not only in electrolytic liquids but also in gases, and when thus released from their thousandfold more massive atom, they fly away from the negative electrode with prodigious speed, because they are acted on by the same electrical propelling force as before, but now have hardly anything to move. These isolated flying particles travel a long distance in rarefied gas, and are known as cathode rays. They were studied by Hittorf, Crookes, Lenard and others, both inside and outside vacuum tubes, and they are now known to be flung off spontaneously from many substances. When stopped suddenly by a massive obstacle, they give rise to the X radiation discovered by Réntgen. At first these cathode rays were thought to be atoms of matter, though their extraordinary penetrating power rendered such a hypothesis difficult of belief, and caused Crookes to speak of them as matter ina fourth state. They are, however, certainly energetic bodies, being able to propel light windmills, to heat platinum to redness, and to charge an electroscope; they are also able to penetrate thin sheets of metal and to affect pho- tographic plates or phosphorescent substances on the other side. They are not so penetrating, however, as are some of the Réntgen rays. The final definite establishment of the fact that these flying par- ticles are not atoms of matter, but are bits chipped off the atoms, frac- tions of an atom, as it were, the same identical kind of bits being chipped off every kind of chemical atom, their mass always about one- thousandth of that of a hydrogen atom, and moving under favorable circumstances with something not much less than the speed of light, is due to the researches of Prof. J. J. Thomson and his coadjutors in the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, and represents a long series of measurements devised and executed with consummate skill. I have no time to go into detail concerning these important and elaborate and most interesting investigations. Suffice it to say that portions of them are due to your own Wykeham professor of physics, Professor Townsend, working in conjunction and collaboration with others, under the leadership of Prof. J. J. Thomson; and that this whole series of Cavendish Laboratory researches may be said to con- MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 219 stitute the high-water mark of the world’s experimental physics during the beginning of this century. 5. I must not dwell upon the properties and powers of electrons, nor upon the experimental means by which these measurements were made, for it is far too large a subject. I must exhibit a few diagrams, and briefly summarize a few main facts. Electrons have been shown to be shot off from any negatively charged body, especially from negatively electrified metals, when exposed to ultra-violet light. When shot into a mass of air they ionize that air for a time and render it electrolytically conducting; also, of course, they can discharge positively electrified bodies themselves, and can thus be most readily detected in small numbers. Electrons in orbital motion have been shown to constitute the mech- anism by which atoms are able to radiate light; and a great mass of semiastronomical facts concerning these orbits and their perturbations have been obtained by immersing the source of light in a-strong mag- netic field and observing the minute but very definite changes of spectra thereby produced, a branch of science with which the names of H. A. Lorentz, of Leyden, and Zeeman, of Amsterdam, will be inseparably associated. In all these and other ways the electron has become a familiar object. It constitutes the ionic charge of matter. Multiples of it, but no fractions, are possible. Its mass, its charge, and its speed have been frequently measured by different processes, and always with consistent results. It is the most definite and fundamental and simple unit which we know of in nature. It has thus displaced the so-called atom of matter from its funda- mental place of indivisibility. The atom of matter has been shown capable of losing an electron, of having at least one chipped off it. The electron has been shown to possess in kind, though not in degree, the fundamental properties of the original atom of which it had formed a part; and it becomes a reasonable hypothesis to surmise that the whole of the atom may be built up of positive and negative elec- trons interleaved together, and of nothing else; an active or charged ion having one electron in excess or defect, but the neutral atom having an exact number of pairs. The oppositely charged electrons are to be thought of on this hypothesis as flying about inside the atom, as afew thousand specks like full stops might fly about inside this hall, forming a kind of cosmic system under their strong mutual forces, and occupying the otherwise empty region of space which we call the atom—occupying it in the same sense that a few scattered but armed soldiers can occupy a territory—occupying it by forceful activity, not by bodily bulk. 990 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 6. The hypothetical part of the statement about the size of an elec- tron is the following. Whereas both the mass and the charge of an electron are known, it is not yet quite certain that the mass is wholly due to the charge. It is possible, but to me very unlikely, that the electron, as we know it, contains a material nucleus in addition to its charge, so in that case it need not be so concentrated, because a portion of its mass would be otherwise accounted for. I say ‘‘accounted for,” but it would be equally true to say ** unac- counted for.” The mass which is explicable electrically is to a con- siderable extent understood, but the mass which is merely material (whatever that may mean) is not understood at all. We know more about electricity than about matter, and the way in which electrical inertia is accounted for electromagnetically and localized in the ether immediately surrounding the nucleus of charge is comparatively clear and distinct. There may possibly be two different kinds of inertia which exactly simulate each other, one electrical and the other material, and those who hold this as a reasonable possibility are careful to speak of elec- trons as ‘‘corpuscles,” meaning charged particles of matter of ex- tremely small size, much smaller than an atom, consisting of a definite electric charge and an unknown material nucleus, which nucleus, as they recognize, but have not yet finally proved, may quite possibly be Zero. The chief defect in the electrical theory of matter at present is that the positive electron, if it exists, has never yet been isolated from the rest of an atom of matter. It has never been found detached from a mass less than the hydrogen atom; whereas the negative electron is constantly and freely encountered flying about alone, its mass being little more than the thousandth part of an atom of hydrogen. Until a positive electron can be similarly isolated, the hypothesis that an atom is really composed solely of electricity—that is to say, of equal quantities of positive and negative electricity associated together in a certain grouping of little bodies, each of which is nothing more than a concentrated charge of electricity of known amount—must remain a hypothesis. 7. It isa fascinating guess that the electrons constitute the funda- mental substratum of which all matter is composed; that a grouping of, say, 700 electrons, 850 positive and 350 negative, interleaved or interlocked in a state of violent motion so as to produce a stable con- figuration under the influence of their centrifugal inertia and their electric forces, constitutes an atom of hydrogen; that sixteen times as many, in another stable grouping, constitute an atom of oxygen; that some 16,000 of them go to form an atom of sodium, about 100,- 000 an atom of barium, and 160,000 an atom of radium. MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. Al On this view all the elements would be regarded as different group- ings of one fundamental constituent. Of all the groupings possible, doubtless most are so unstable as never to be formed; but some are stable, or at least relatively stable, and these stabler groupings consti- tute the chemical elements that we know. ‘The fundamental ingredient of which, on this view, the whole of matter is made up, is nothing more or less than electricity, in the form of an aggregate of an equal number of positive and negative electric charges. This, when established, will be a unification of matter such as has through all the ages been sought; it goes further than had been hoped, for the substratum is not an unknown and hypothetical protyle, but the familiar electric charge. Nevertheless, of course, it is no ultimate explanation. The questions remain, What, then, is an electric charge / What is the internal structure and constitution of an electron/ Wherein lies the difference between positive and negative electricity / and What is their relation to the ether of space? Definite questions these, and doubtless some day answerable; indeed, powerful methods of attack on this position have been already contrived by Dr. J. Lar- mor and others; but they are questions of a higher order of difficulty than those which occupy us to-day, and it must remain for a future tomanes lecturer to report progress in these directions, whenever adequate progress has, in fact, been made. 8. That is the end of the first half of my lecture; and six months ago that, somewhat expanded, might have been the whole of it, because the next portion would have seemed too fanciful; but discoveries have been made, chiefly in France and in Canada—some of the most strik- ing of them within the present year—which remove the treatment of the next part of my subject from the realm of fancy to the region of probability, and justify my proceeding further with some of the theo- retical consequences deducible from an electric theory of matter. I referred above briefly to the origin of radiation, saying that by the method of applying a powerful magnet to a source of light, and examining the minute perturbations in the lines of the spectrum thus produced, it had been proved that the real source of radiation was an electric charge in rapid orbital motion; and I now go on to say that by careful measurement of the amount of perturbation it has been definitely proved that it is our friends the negative electrons, with a mass about one thousandth of the smallest known atom of matter, that are responsible for the excitation of ether waves or the production of light. Larmor and others have, indeed, shown mathematically that whenever an electric charge is subject to acceleration, an emission of some amount of radiation is inevitable, by reason of the interaction of its electric and magnetic fields; and it is probable that there is no other source of light or radiation possible except this change in the 222 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. motion of electrons. It is known, for instance, that the violent accel- eration or retardation of electrons when they encounter an obstacle is responsible for the excitation of Réntgen rays. All light and all the Hertz waves or pulses employed in wireless telegraphy are due to electric acceleration, and the greater the rate of change of velocity the more violent is the radiation emitted. The charge may oscillate, as in a Hertz vibrator, or it may revolve, as ina source of ordinary light, such as a sodium flame. In order to emit perceptible radiation by revolving, it must revolve with extreme speed in a very small orbit, so that its rate of curvature or centripetal] acceleration may be considerable; for it is on the square of the value of the average acceleration that the energy of radiation depends. 9. All this is of the nature of a definite and certain thesis, but now we are going to apply it to our hypothesis that the atom of matter is either wholly or partially composed of electrons in a state of vigorous motion among themselves. Such revolving or vibrating electrons are subject to acceleration, either radial or tangential, and must therefore to a greater or less extent necessarily emit radiation; it becomes natural to inquire whence comes the energy that is radiated away. Now, in ordinary familiar cases it is the irregular agitation of molecules which we call ‘* heat” that is being radiated away; and in that case the result is a mere cooling, or diminution of the molecular agitation, which can readily be made up by receipt of similar energy from the inclosures or from surrounding bodies; or, if not made up, it can produce the ordinary well-known effects of ‘‘ cold.” But to the motion of the internal parts of an atom the ideas of heat and tempera- ture do not apply. The atom, if it lose energy, must lose what is to it an essential ingredient, and hence this inevitable radiating power of the constituents of an atom seemed to constitute a difficulty, for it suggested that an atom of matter was not really a permanent and eternal thing, but that it contained within itself the seeds of its own decay and ultimate dissipation into the separate electrons of which it was composed. The process might indeed be exceedingly slow, the radiation loss might be almost imperceptible, but, in so far as an atom is composed of revolving electrons, it is inevitable that. radiation of energy must go on from it, and that this must in the long run have some perceptible degenerative result. 10. That result has quite recently, I believe, been experimentally discovered, and isa part of the phenomenon known as ** radio-activity.” So now we come to the most remarkable and probably the most inter- esting step of all. The phenomenon of spontaneous radio-activity, discovered first by Beequerel in uranium and thorium, and greatly extended by the bril- . liant chemical researches of M. and Mme. Curie which resulted in the discovery of radium, was at first supposed to consist in the emission of MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 723 a sort of X rays or ether pulses; and was subsequently assumed to con- sist chiefly in the bodily emission of electrons; which were shot off from the radio-active substance as they are from a negative electrode in a vacuum tube, or as they are in air when ultra-violet light falls upon clean negatively charged surfaces. Asa matter of fact, both these modes of radiation—the wave form and the corpuscular form—are emitted by radio-active bodies, but they turn out to be of subordinate importance, and must be regarded as secondary or subsidiary results of the main phenomenon. The main fact of radio-activity has been shown by Professor tutherford, of Montreal, in a paper published in the month of Feb- ruary this very year, to consist in the flinging away with great violence of actual atoms of matter—atoms electrified indeed, but not negatively like electrons, and not small or penetrating like them, but full-sized atoms, such as are easily stopped by a thin sheet of metal, or even by a sheet of paper—atoms which are positively charged and possessed of aremarkable amount of energy, ionizing the air which they bom- bard to an extraordinary extent, and likewise generating quite a per- ceptible amount of heat wherever they strike; producing indeed a flash when they strike a suitable target, as Crookes has shown, quite like the impact of a cannon ball on an armor plate. Their speed, indeed, far exceeds that of any cannon ball that ever existed, being as much faster than a cannon ball as that is faster than a snail’s crawl; a hundred times faster than the fastest flying star, these atomic pro- jectiles constitute the fastest moving matter known. This furious bombardment from a radio-active substance continues without inter- mission and apparently without sign of diminution or cessation. There is every reason to believe that a minute scrap of radium, scarcely per- ceptible to the eye, may go on emitting these energetic projectiles for hundreds of years. 11. At first sight the fact that it is merely atoms of matter which are being flung off by most radio-active substances, and that ethereal and other effects are subsidiary to this emission of substance, seems to lessen the interest attaching to the phenomenon, reducing it to something of merely chemical importance and suggesting a resem- blance to scent or other volatilization from solid bodies. But Professor Rutherford, with great skill, succeeded in determining approximately the atomic weight of the utterly imperceptible amount of substance thrown off, as well as its speed, and found that it was not by any means the radio-active substance itself which was evaporating, but something quite different. it Plainly, if an elementary form of matter is found to be throwing off another substance, it becomes imperative to inquire what that sub- stance is and what it is that is left behind. Now, the atomic weight of ‘adium, or of thorium or uranium, or of any known strongly radio- 294 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. active substance, is very high, in each case over two hundred times the atomic weight of hydrogen, whereas the atomic weight of the substance flung off appears to be more nearly of the order one or two; in other words, the substance thrown off is more likely to be either hydrogen or helium than it is likely to be radium. It is just possible that the inert chemical elements are by-products of radio-activity. Now, clearly here is a fact, if fact it be, of prodigious importance. Undoubtedly the measurements require confirmation, but for myself I see no reason to doubt them, at least as regards their order of magni- tude. The atomic weight of radium being, say, 225, and that of the projected portion being, say, 2, the residue must represent by its atomic weight the difference between the heavy atom of the original substance and that of the light atom or atoms which have been flung away, unless indeed it be assumed, as it will almost certainly be assumed by some skeptical chemists, those who derided argon and other chemical discoveries when made in a physical manner, that the substance flung away is some foreign ingredient or impurity——a hypothesis, I venture to say, already strongly against the weight of available evidence. The substance left behind in the pores of the radio-active substance has been examined even. more completely than the projected portion; it is volatile, it slowly diffuses away, and it behaves like a gas. It can be stored in gas holders when mixed with air, for in amount it is quite imperceptible to all ordinary tests; and yet it can be passed through pipes and otherwise dealt with. It condenses not far above the tem- perature of liquid air, and it is itself radio-active,-but in such a way that its power decays rapidly with time. Its radio-activity seems to consist likewise in throwing away part of itself and leaving yet another residue, likewise radio-active; and one of the residues so left seems ultimately to pitch away electrons simply instead of atoms of matter. It is not to be supposed that thorium and radium and uranivm all behave alike in details. The emanation of one may lose its activity rapidly, and give rise to another substance which retains its power for some time; the emanation of another element may: last some time and generate a substance whose activity rapidly decays, but into these details it is not now the place to go. 12. Assuming the truth of this strange string of laboratory facts, we appear to be face to face with a phenomenon quite new in the his- tory of the world. No one has hitherto observed the transition from one form of matter to another, though throughout the Middle Ages such a transmutation was looked for. The transmutation of elements has been suspected in modern times on evidence vaguely deducible by skilled observers from the spectroscopic details of solar and stellar appearances. The evolution of matter has likewise been suspected by a few chemists of genius. It was perceived, on the strength of Men- delejeff’s law, that the elements form a kind of family or related series, MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 995 and it was surmised that possibly the barriers between one species and the next were not absolutely infrangible, but that temporary transi- tional forms might occur. All this was speculation; but here in radio- active matter the process appears to be going on before our eyes. Professor Rutherford and Mr. Soddy, who in Canada during the present year have worked hard and admirably at the subject, have adduced facts which point clearly in this direction; and they initially describe what appear to be the first links of a chain of substances, all produced in hopelessly minute quantities reckoned by ordinary tests, but which yet by electrical means can easily be detected, and their boiling points and other properties investigated. Moreover, the investigators of these strange substances are able to dissolve and precipitate, and per- form ordinary chemical operations on, these utterly imponderable and hopelessly minute deposits of radio-active substances, because of the powerful means of detection which their ionizing power puts into our hands—even a few stray atoms being able by their ionizing power to discharge an electroscope appreciably. 13. Thus, then, it would appear that our theoretical conclusion con- cerning the inevitable radiation and loss of energy from electrically constituted atoms of matter, a loss which must inyolve them in neces- sary change and dissolution, meets with quite unexpectediy rapid con- firmation, and it is for that reason that I feel willing to accept tenta- tively and as a working hypothesis this explanation of radio-activity. It represents a fact previously wanted on theoretical grounds. For how is radio-activity to be explained? It looks as if the massive and extremely complex atoms of a radio-active substance were liable to get into an unstable condition, probably reaching this condition whenever any part of it attempts or is urged to move with the velocity of light. IT have shown elsewhere” that the mere fact of radiation will act asa resisting medium and increase the speed of the particles automatically, on the same principle that a comet would be accelerated if it met with resistance, since the inverse-square law applies to electrical central forces. Electrical mass is not strictly constant; it is a function of speed, but in such a way that it is practically constant until the velocity of light is very nearly attained. That is a critical velocity, which apparently can not be surpassed. When this critical speed is reached any electrified body becomes suddenly of infinite mass, and something is bound to happen. What that something is, it is not easy theoret- ically to say, but the partial or incipient disintegration or dissociation of the atom and the flying away of a portion with a speed comparable to that of light is no unlikely result. Out of the whole multitude of atoms, even of the atoms of a con- spicuously radio-active substance, it is probable that only a very few get into this unstable or critical condition at any one time; perhaps not aSee Nature, June 11, 1908. 226 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. more than one in a million million. Nevertheless, just as occasional though rare encounters take place in the heavens, followed by the blaze of a new and temporary star, so, though probably not by the same mechanism, here and there a few out of the billions of atoms in any perceptible speck of radium arrive in due time at the unstable con- dition and break down into something else, with energetic radio- activity during the sudden collapsing process, emitting in the process of collapse not only the main projected substance, but likewise also a few electrons and those X rays which always accompany a sudden electric jerk or recoil. And the X rays so emitted are of the most penetrating kind known, being able to pass through an inch of solid iron in perceptible quantity. 14. The hypothesis concerning radio-activity which is now in the field, then, is that a very small number—an almost infinitesimal pro- portion—of the atoms are constantly breaking up, throwing away a small portion, say 1 per cent, of themselves with immense violence at about one-tenth of the speed of light; the remainder constitute a slightly different substance, which, however, is still extremely unstable, and therefore radio-active, going through its stages with much greater rapidity than the radium itself, because practically the whole of it is in theunstable condition, and so giving rise to fresh and fresh products of its own decay, till a comparatively stable state is reached, or till the process passes beyond our means of detection. Roughly, the process may be likened in some respects to the con- densation or contraction of a nebula. The particles constituting a whirling nebula fall together until the centrifugal ferce of the periph- eral portions exceeds the gravitative pull of the central mass, and then they are shrunk off and left behind, afterwards agglomerating into a planet, while the residue goes on shrinking and evolving fresh bodies and generating heat. A nebula is not hot, but it hasan immense store of potential energy, some of which it can turn into heat, and so form a hot central nucleus or sun. Works of Sir Humphry Davy, Vol. VIII, p. 325. DOO 230 MODERN.VIEWS ON MATTER. three species of ponderable matter we might conceive all the diversity of material substances to owe their constitution.” Again, in 1811, he said:¢ It will be useless to speculate upon the consequences of such an advancement in chemistry as that of the decomposition and composition of the metals. * * * It is the duty of a chemist to be bold in pursuit. He must not consider things as impracticable merely because they have not yet been effected. He must not regard them as unreasonable because they do not coincide with popular opinion. He must recollect how contrary knowledge sometimes is to what appears to be experi- enCen | To inquire whether the metals be capable of being decomposed and composed is a grand object of true philosophy. Davy first used the term ‘‘ radiant matter” about 1809, but chiefly in connection with what is now called ** radiation.” He also used the term in another sense, and the following passage’ in its clear forecast is prophetic of the modern electron: If particles of gases were made to move in free space with an almost infinitely great velocity—i. e., to become radiant matter—they might produce the different species of rays, so distinguished by their peculiar effects. In his lectures at the Royal Institution, in 1816, **On the general properties of matter,” another prescient chemist, Faraday, used simi- lar terms when he said: If we conceive a change as far beyond vaporization as that is above fluidity, and then take into account also the proportional increased extent of alteration as the changes rise, we shall, perhaps, if we can form any conception at all, not fall far short of radiant matter; and as in the last conversion many qualities were lost, so here also many more would disappear. Again, in one of his early lectures he strikes a forward note: At present we begin to feel impatient and to wish for a new state of chemical ele- a ments. To decompose the metals, to re-form them, and to realize the once absurd notion of transmutation are the problems now given to the chemist for solution. But Faraday was always remarkable for the boldness and originality with which he regarded generally accepted theories. In 1844 he said: The view that physical chemistry necessarily takes of atoms is now very large and complicated; first many elementary atoms—next compound and complicated atoms. System within system, like the starry heavens, may be right—but may be all wrong. A year later Faraday startled the world by a discovery to which he gave the title **On the magnetization of light and the illumination of the magnetic lines of force.” For fifty years this title was mis- understood and was attributed to enthusiasm or confused ideas. But to-day we begin to see the full significance of the Faraday dream. It was not till 1896 that Zeeman showed a spectrum line could be acted on by a magnetic field. A spectrum line is caused by motion of the electron acting on the ether, which can only move and be moved aoc. eit., Vol. VILL, p. 330: boc. cit., Vol. VIII, p. 349. MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 931 by the electron. A magnetic field resolves this motion into other component motions—some slower, others quicker—and thus causes a single line to split into others of greater and less refrangibility than the parent line. In 1879, ina lecture I delivered before the British Association“ at Sheffield, it fell to my lot to revive ‘‘radiant matter.” I advanced the theory that in the phenomena of the vacuum tube at high exhaustions the particles constituting the cathode stream are not solid, nor liquid, nor gaseous, do not consist of atoms propelled through the tube and ‘ausing luminous, mechanic, or electric phenomena where they strike, ‘“but that they consist of something much smaller than the atom— fragments of matter, ultra-atomic corpuscles, minute things, very much smaller, very much lighter than atoms—things which appear to be the foundation stones of which atoms are composed.” ? I further demonstrated that the physical properties of radiant matter are common to all matter at this low density—** Whether the gas origi- nally under experiment be hydrogen, carbon dioxide, or atmospheric air, the phenomena of phosphorescence, shadows, magnetic deflection, etc., are identical.” Here are my words, written nearly a quarter of a century ago: ‘*We have actually touched the border land where matter and force seem to merge into one another ‘—the shadowy realm between the known and unknown. I venture to think that the greatest scientific problems of the future will find their solution in this border land, and even beyond; here, it seems to me, lie ultimate realities, subtle, far-reaching, wonderful.” It was not till 1581 that J. J. Thomson established the basis of the electro-dynamic theory. Ina very remarkable memoir in the Philo- sophical Magazine he explained the phosphorescence of glass under the influence of the cathode stream by the nearly abrupt changes in the magnetic field arising from the sudden stoppage of the cathode particles. The now generally accepted view that our chemical elements have been formed from one primordial substance was advocated in 1888 by me when president of the Chemical Society,“ in connection with a theory of the genesis of the elements. I spoke of ‘tan infinite num- ber of immeasurably small ultimate—or, rather, ultimatissimate particles gradually accreting out of the formless mist, and moving with inconceivable velocity in all directions.” Pondering on some of the properties of the rare elements, I strove to show that the elementary atoms themselves might not be the same “British Association Reports, Sheffield meeting, 1879. Chemical News, Vol. XL, p. 91. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1879, Pt..I, p. 585. ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880, No. 205, p. 469. 6Sir O. Lodge, Nature, Vol. LX VII, p. 451. ¢**Matter is but a mode of motion’’ (Proce. Roy. Soc., No. 205, p. 472). @ President’s address to Chem. Soc., March 28, 1888. sM 1903 16 232 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. now as when first generated—that the primary motions which consti- tute the existence of the atom might slowly be changing, and even the secondary motions which produce all the effects we can observe—heat, chemic, electric, ete.—might in a slight degree be affected; and I showed the probability that the atoms of the chemical elements were not eternal in existence, but shared with the rest of Creation the attri- butes of decay and death. The same idea was expanded at a lecture I delivered at the Royal Institution in 1887, when it was suggested that the atomic weights were not invariable quantities. I might quote Mr. Herbert Spencer, Sir Benjamin Brodie, Professor Graham, Sir George Stokes, Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), Sir Norman Lockyer, Doctor Gladstone, and many other English men of science to show that the notion, not necessarily of the decompos- ability, but at any rate of the complexity of our supposed elements, has long been ‘‘in the air” of science waiting to take more definite development. Our minds are gradually getting accustomed to the idea of the genesis of the elements, and many of us are straining for the first glimpse of the resolution of the chemical atom. Weare eager to enter the portal of the mysterious region too readily ticketed ‘‘Unknown and Unknowable.” Another phase of the dream now demands attention. I come to the sxarlier glimpses of the electric theory of matter. Passing oyer the vaguer speculations of Faraday and the more positive speculations of Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), one of the earliest definite statements of this theory is given in an article in the Fortnightly Review for June, 1875, by W. K. Clifford, a man who in common with other pioneers shared that ** noblest misfortune of being born before his time.” ‘*There is great reason to believe,” said Clifford, ** that every material atom carries upon it a small electric current, if it does not wholly consist of this current.” In 1886, when president of the chemical section of the British asso- ciation, in a speculation on the origin of matter, I drew a picture of the gradual formation of the chemical elements by the workings of three forms of energy—electricity, chemism, and temperature—on the ‘formless mist” (protyle”), vyherein all matter was in the preatomic state—potential rather than actual. In this scheme the chemical elements owe their stability to their being the outcome of a struggle for existence—a Darwinian development by chemical evolution—a survival of the most stable. Those of lowest atomic weight would first be formed, then those of intermediate weight, and finally the « We require a word, analogous to protoplasm, to express the idea of the original primal matter existing before the evolution of the chemical elements. The word I venture to use is composed of zpo (earlier than) and UAy (the stuff of which things are made). MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. Iso elements having the highest atomic weights, such as thorium and uranium. I spoke of the ‘‘dissociation point” of the elements. ‘*What comes after uranium?” Tasked. And I answered back—‘* The result of the next step will be * * the formation of Sere compounds the dissociation of which is not beyond the powers of our terrestrial sources of heat.” A dream less than twenty years ago, but a dream which daily draws nearer to entire and vivid fulfillment. I will presently show you that radium, the next after uranium, does actually and spontaneously dissociate. The idea of units or atoms of electricity—an idea hitherto floating intangibly like helium in the sun—can now be brought to earth and submitted to the test of experiment.” Faraday, W. Weber, Laurentz, Gauss, Zoéllner, Hertz, Helmholtz, Johnstone Stoney, Sir Oliver Lodge, have all contributed to develope the idea, originally due to Weber, which took concrete form when Stoney showed that Faraday’s law of electrolysis involved the existence of a definite charge of elec- tricity associated with the ions of matter. This definite charge he called an electron. It was not till some time after the name had been given that electrons were found to be capable of existing separately. In 1891, in my inaugural address as president of the Institution of Electrial Engineers,’ I showed that the stream of cathode rays near the negative pole was always negatively electrified, the other contents of the tube being positively electrified, and I explained that ** the division of the molecule into groups of electro-positive and electro-negative atoms is necessary for a consistent explanation of the genesis of the elements.” In a vacuum tube the negative pole is the entrance and «The equivalent weights of bodies are simply those quantities of them which contain equal quantities of electricity; * * * it being.the electricity which deter- mines the equivalent number, because it determines the combining force. Or, if we adopt the atomic theory or phraseology, then the atoms of bodies which are equiva- lents to each other in their ordinary chemical action, have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them.’’—Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity, par. 869, January, 1834. “This definite quantity of electricity we shall call the molecular charge. If it were known it would be the most natural unit of electricity.’’—Clerk Maxwell’s Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, first edition, Vol. I, 1878, p. 311. ‘“‘Nature presents us with a single definite quantity of electricity. * * * For each chemical bond which is ruptured within an electrolyte a certain quantity of electricity traverses the electrolyte, which is the same in all cases.’’—G. Johnstone Stoney, On the Physical Units of Nature, British Association meeting, Section A, 1874. “The same definite quantity of either positive or negative electricity moves always with each univalent ion, or with every unit of affinity of a multivalent ion.’”’—Helm- holtz, Faraday Lecture, 1881. “Every monad atom has associated with it a certain definite quantity of electricity; every dyad has twice this quantity associated with it; every triad three times as much, and so on.’’—O. Lodge, On Electrolysis, British Association Report, 1885. > Electricity in Transitu: from Plenum to Vacuum (Journ. Inst. Electrical Engineers, Vol. XX, p. 10, January 15, 1891). 234 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. the positive pole the exit for electrons. Falling on a phosphorescent body, yttria, for instance—a collection of Hertz molecular resonators— the electrons excite vibrations of, say, 550 billion times a second, pro- ducing ether waves of the approximate length of 5.75 ten-millionths of a millimeter, and occasioning in the eye the sensation of citron- colored light. If, however, the electrons dash against a heavy metal, they produce ether waves of a far higher frequency than light and are not continuous vibrations, but, according to Sir George Stokes, simple shocks or solitary impulses, more like discordant shouts as compared with musical notes. During that address an experiment was shown which went far to prove the dissociation of silver into electrons and positive atoms.“ A silver pole was used, and near it in front was a sheet of mica with a hole in its center. The vacuum was very high, and when the poles were connected with the coil, the silver being negative, electrons shot from it in all directions, and passing through the hole in the mica screen formed a bright phosphorescent patch on the opposite side of the bulb. The action of the coil was continued for some hours to volatilize a certain portion of the silver. Silver was seen to be deposited on the mica screen only in the immediate neighborhood of the pole; the far end of. the bulb, which had been glowing for hours from the impact of electrons, being free from silver deposit. Here, then, are two simultaneous actions. Electrons or radiant matter shot from the negative pole caused the glass against which they struck to glow with phosphorescent light. Simultaneously, the heavy positive ions of silver, freed from negative electrons and under the influence of the electrical stress, likewise flew off and were deposited in the metallic state near the pole. The ions of metal thus deposited in all ‘ases showed positive electrification.’ In the years 1893-1895 a sudden impulse was given to electric vacuum work by the publication in Germany of the remarkable results obtained by Lenard and Réntgen, who showed that the phenomena inside the vacuum tube were surpassed in interest by what took place outside. It is not too much to say that from this date what had been a scientific conjecture became a sober reality. One important advance in theoretic knowledge has been obtained by Dewar, the successor of Faraday in the classic laboratories of the Royal Institution. Soon after Réntgen’s discovery Dewar found that the relative opacity to the Réntgen rays was in proportion to the atomic weights of bodies, and he was the first to apply this principle to settling a debated point in connection with argon. Argon is rela- tively more opaque to the Réntgen rays than either oxygen, nitrogen, “1n describing the experiment, one of fundamental importance, modern terms are empioyed. bProc. Roy. Soc., Vol. LXIX, p. 421. MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 935 or sodium, and from this Dewar inferred that the atomic weight of argon was twice its density relative to hydrogen. In the light of to-day’s researches on the constitution of atoms it is impossible to overestimate the importance of this discovery. : In 1896 Becquerel, pursuing the masterly work on phosphorescence inaugurated by his illustrious father, showed that the salts of uranium constantly emit emanations, which have the power of penetrating opaque substances and of affecting a photographic plate in total dark- ness, and of discharging an electrometer. In some respects these emanations, known as ‘* Becquerel rays,” behave like rays of light, but they also resemble Réntgenrays. Their real character has only recently been ascertained, and even now there is much that is obscure and pro- visional in the explanation of their constitution and action. Following closely upon Becquerel’s work came the brilliant researches of M. and Mme. Curie on the radio-activity of bodies accompanying uranium. Hitherto I have been recounting isolated instances of scientific specu- lation with apparently little relation to one another. The existence of matter in an ultra gaseous state; material particles smaller than atoms; the existence of electrical atoms or electrons; the constitution of Réntgen rays and their passage through opaque bodies: the emana- tions from uranium; the dissociation of the elements—all these isolated hypotheses are now focussed and welded into one harmonious theory by the discovery of radium. Often do the spirits Of great events stride on before the events, And in to-day already walks to-morrow. No new discovery is ever made without its influence ramifying in all directions and explaining much that before had been mystifying. Certainly no discovery of modern times has had such wide-embracing consequences and thrown such a flood of light on broad regions of hitherto inexplicable phenomena as this discovery of M. and Mme. Curie and M. Bémont, who patiently and laboriously plodded along a road bristling with difficulties almost insuperable to others who, like myself, have toiled in similar labyrinths of research. The crowning point of these labors is radium. Let me briefly recount some of the properties of radium and show how it reduces speculations and dreams, apparently impossible of proof, to a concrete form. Radium is a metal of the calcium, strontium, and barium group. Its atomic weight, according to C. Runge and J. Precht, is probably about 258. In this case it occupies the third place below barium in my lemniscate spiral scheme of the elements,” two unoccupied gaps intervening. @ Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. LXIII, p. 408. 236 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. The spectrum of radinm has several well-defined lines; these I have photographed and have also measured their wave lengths. Two espe- dally are strong and characteristic—one at wave length 3649.71, and the other at Wave length 3814.58. These lines enable radium to be detected spectroscopically. The most striking property of radium is its power to pour out tor- rents of emanations bearing a certain resemblance to Réntgen rays, but differing in important points. The emanations of radium cause soda glass to assume a violet color, and they produce many chemical changes. Their physiological action is strong, a few milligrams brought near the skin in a few hours producing a wound difficult to heal. The emanations from radium are of three kinds. One set is the same as the cathode stream, now identified with free electrons—atoms of electricity projected into space apart from gross matter—identical with ‘‘matter in the fourth or ultragaseous state,” Kelvin’s *‘satel- lites,” Thomson’s ‘* corpuscles” or ** particles;” Lodge’s *‘ disembodied ionic charges, retaining individuality and identity.” These electrons are neither ether waves nor a form of energy, but substance possess- ing inertia (probably electric). Liberated electrons are exceedingly penetrating. They will discharge an electroscope when the radium is 10 feet or more away, and will affect a photographic plate through 5 or 6 millimeters of lead and several inches of wood or aluminum. They are not readily filtered out by cotton-wool; they do not behave asa gas, i. e., they have not properties dependent on intercollisions, mean free path, etc.; they act more like a fog or mist, are mobile and earried about by a current of air to which they give temporary con- ducting powers, clinging to positively electrified bodies and thereby losing mobility and diffusing on the walls of the containing vessel if left quiet. Electrons are deviable in a magnetic field. They are shot from radium with a velocity of about one-tenth that of light, but are g@rad- ually obstructed by collisions with air atoms, so that some become much slowed, and then are what I formerly called loose and erratic particles, which diffuse about in the air and give it temporary con- ducting powers. These can turn corners, can be concentrated by mica cones into a bundle and then produce phosphorescence. Another set of emanations from radium are not affected by an ordi- narily powerful magnetic field and are incapable even of passing through thin material obstructions. These emanations have about one thousand times the energy of those radiated by the deflectable particles. They render air a conductor and act strongly on a photographic plate. Their mass is enormous in comparison with that of the electrons, and their velocity is probably as great when they leave the radium, but, in consequence of their greater mass, they are less deflected by MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. ort the magnet, are easily obstructed by obstacles, and are sooner brought to rest by collisions with air atoms. The Hon. R. B. Strutt” was the first to affirm that these nondeflectable rays are the positive ions moving in a stream from the radio-active body. Rutherford has shown that these emanations are slightly affected in a very powerful magnetic field, but in an opposite direction to the negative electrons. They are therefore proved to be positively charged bodies moving with great velocity. For the first time Ruther- ford has measured their speed and mass, and he shows they are ions of matter moving with a speed of the order of that of light. There is also a third kind of emanation produced by radium. Besides the highly penetrating rays deflected by a magnet, there are very penetrating rays not at all affected by magnetism. These accom- pany the previous emanations, and are Réntgen rays—ether vibra- tions—produced as secondary phenomena by the sudden arrest. of velocity of the electrons by solid matter, producing a series of Stoke- ee sian Many lines of argument and research tending toward the same point give trustworthy data by which to calculate the masses and velocities of these different particles. I must deal with big figures, but big and little are relative and are only of importance in relation to the limita- tions of our senses. I will take as the standard the atom of hydrogen geas—the smallest material body hitherto recognized. The mass of an electron is one seven-hundredths of an atom of hydrogen, or 3 x 10~?° gram, according to J. J. Thomson, and its velocity is 2 x 10° centi- meters per second, or two-thirds that of light. The kinetic energy per milligram is 10'* ergs, about 3,500,000 foot-tons. Beequerel has calculated that 1 square centimeter of radio-active surface would radiate into space 1 gram of matter in one billion years. The positively electrified masses or ions are enormously great in comparison with the size of the electron. Sir Oliver Lodge illustrates it thus: If we imagine an ordinary sized church to be an atom of hydrogen, the electrons constituting it will be represented by about 700 grains of sand, each the size of an ordinary full stop (850 positive and < Lord Kelvin, rotating with inconceivable velocity. Put in another way; the sun’s diameter is about 1,500,000 kilometers, and that of the smallest planetoid about 24+ kilometers. If an atom of hydrogen be magnified to the size of the sun, an electron will be about two-thirds the diameter of the planetoid. The extreme minuteness and sparseness of the electrons in the atom account for their penetration. While the more massive ions are stopped by intercollisions in passing among atoms, so that they are pulses” or explosive ether waves shot into space. > 350 negative), dashing in all directions inside, or, according to @Phil. Trans. KR. 8:, A,-1901, Vol. OXCVI, p. 525. 238 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. almost completely arrested by the thinnest sheet of matter, electrons will pass almost unobstructed through ordinary opaque bodies. The action of these emanations on phosphorescent screens is differ- ent. The electrons strongly affect a screen of barium platinocyanide, but only slightly one of Sidot’s zine sulphide. On the other hand, the heavy, massive, nondeflectable positive ions affect the zine-s1lphide screen strongly, and the barium-piatinocyanide screen in a much less degree. Both Réntgen rays and electrons act on a photographic plate and produce images of metal and other substances inclosed in wood and leather, and throw shadows of bodies on a barium-platinocyanide screen. Electrons are much less penetrating than Réntgen rays, and will not, for instance, show easily the bones of the hand. A photo- graph of a closed case of instruments is taken by radium emanations in three days and by Réntgen raysin three minutes. The resemblance between the two pictures is slight and the differences great. The power with which radium emanations are endowed of dischareg- ing electrified bodies is due to the ionization of the gas through which they pass. This can be effected’ in many other ways; thus, ionization is communicated to gases faintly by the splashing of water, by flames and red-hot bodies, by ultraviolet light falling on negatively electri- fied metals, and strongly by the passage of Réntgen rays. According to Sir Oliver Lodge’s electronic theory of matter, a chem- ical atom or ion has a few extra negative electrons in addition to the ordinary neutral atom, and if these negative electrons are removed it thereby becomes positively charged. The free electron portion of the atom is small in comparison with the main bulk, in the proportion in hydrogen of about 1 to 700. The negative charge consists of super- added or unbalanced electrons—one, two, three, etc., according to the chemical valency of the body—whereas the main bulk of the atom consists of paired groups, equal positive and negative. As soon as the excess electrons are removed the rest of the atom, or ion, acts as a massive positively charged body hanging tightly together. Ina high vacuum the induction spark tears the components of a raritied gas apart; the positively charged ions, having great comparative density, are soon slowed down by collisions, while the electrons are driven from the negative pole with an enormous velocity, depending on the initial electromotive force and the pressure of gas inside the tube, but approaching at the highest exhaustions half that of light. After leaving the negative pole the electrons meet with a certain resistance in a slight degree by physical collisions, but principally by reunion with the positive ions. Since the discovery of radium and the identification of one set of its emanations with the cathode stream or radiant matter of the vacuum tube, speculation and experiment have gone hand in hand, and the MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 239 two-fluid theory of electricity is gradually replaced by the original one-fluid theory of Franklin. On the two-fluid theory the electrons constitute free negative electricity and the rest of the chemical atom is charged positively, although a free positive electron is not known. It seems to me simpler to use the original one-fluid theory of Franklin, and to say that the electron is the atom or unit of electricity. Fleming uses the word **coelectrons” to express the heavy positive ion after separation from the negative electron. ‘* We can no more,” he says, ‘Shave anything which can be called electricity apart from corpuscles than we can have momentum apart from moving matter.” A so-called negatively charged chemical atom is one having a surplus of electrons, the number depending on the valency, whilst a positive ion is one hay- ing a deficiency of electrons. Differences of electrical charge may thus be likened to debits and credits in one’s banking account, the electrons acting as current coin of the realm. On this view only the electron exists; it is the atom of electricity, and the words positive and negative, signifving excess and defect of electrons, are only used for convenience of old-fashioned nomenclature. The electron theory fits and luminously explains Ampére’s idea that magnetism is due to a rotating current of electricity round each atom of iron; and following these definite views of the existence of free electrons has arisen the electronic theory of matter. It is recognized that electrons have the one property which has been regarded as inseparable from matter—nay, almost impossible to separate from our conception of matter—I mean inertia. Now, in that remarkable paper of J. J. Thomson’s, published in 1881, he developed the idea of electric inertia (self-induction) as a reality due to a moving charge. The electron therefore appears only as apparent mass by reason of its electro-dynamic properties, and if we consider all forms of matter to be merely congeries of electrons the inertia of matter would be explained without any material basis. On this view the electron would be the ‘‘protyle” of 1886, whose different groupings cause the genesis of the elements. There is one more property of the emanations of radium to bring before your notice. I have shown that the electrons produce phos- phorescence of a sensitive screen of barium platinocyanide and the positive ions of radium produce phosphorescence of a screen of zine blende. If a few minute grains of radium salt fall on the zine-sulphide screen the surface is immediately dotted with brilliant specks of green light. In a dark room, under a microscope with a 4-inch objective, each luminous spot shows a dull center surrounded by a diffused luminous halo. Outside the halo the dark surface of the screen scintillates with sparks of light. No two flashes succeed on the same spot, but are 173 240 MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. scattered“ over the surface, coming and going instantaneously, no movement of translation being seen. If a solid piece of a radium salt is brought near the screen, and the surface examined with a pocket lens magnifying about 20 diameters, scintillating spots are sparsely scattered over the surface. Bringing the radium nearer the screen, the scintillations become more numerous and brighter, until when close together the flashes follow so. quickly that the surface looks like a turbulent luminous sea. When the scin- tillating points are few, there is no visible residual phosphorescence and the successive sparks appear ‘‘atoms of intensest light,” like stars ona black sky. What to the naked eye seems like a uniform ‘* milky way,” under the lens becomes a multitude of stellar points flashing over the whole surface. **Polonium” basic nitrate, actinium, and radio-active platinum pro- duce a similar effect on the screen, but the scintillations are fewer. In a vacuum the scintillations are as bright as in air, and, being due to interatomic motion, they are not affected by extremes of low tem- perature; in liquid hydrogen they are as brilliant as at the ordinary temperature. A convenient way to show these scintillations is to fit the blende screen at the end of a brass tube with a speck of radium salt in front about a millimeter off, and to have a lens at the other end. I propose to call this little instrument the ‘‘ Spinthariscope,” from the Greek word ozivéapis,“ a scintillation. It is difficult to estimate the number of flashes of light per second. With the radium about five centimeters off the screen the flashes are barely detectable, not more than one or two per second. As the dis- tance of the radium diminishes, the flashes become more frequent, until at one or two centimeters they are too numerous to count, although it is evident this is not of an order of magnitude inconceivably ereat. Practically the whole of the luminosity on the blende screen, whether due to radium or ‘* polonium,” is occasioned by emanations which will not penetrate card. These are the emanations which cause the scintil- lations, and the reasons why they are distinct on the blende and feeble on the platino-cyanide screen is that with the latter the sparks are seen on a luminous ground of general phosphorescence which renders the eye less able to see the scintillations. aEyv@ é«k vnos Opovéev Avaé, Exdepyos AnodAwr, QOTEPL EISOMEVOS, ECW NUATI TOU 8 amo TOAAaI onivOapides mw@tavro, Glas S E15 Obpavov KEV (Here from the ship leaped the far-darting Apollo, like a star at midday, while from him flitted scintillations of fire, and the brilliancy reached to heaven. )— Homer’s Hymn to Apollo, lines 440-442. MODERN VIEWS ON MATTER. 241 It is probable that in these phenomena we actually witness the bom- bardment of the screen by the positive ions hurled off by radium with a velocity of the order of that of light. Each particle is rendered apparent only by the enormous extent of lateral disturbance produced by its impact on the sensitive surface, Just as individual drops of rain falling on astill pool are not seen as such, but by reason of the splash they make on impact, and the ripples and waves they produce in ever- widening circles. Indulging in a ‘‘scientific use of the imagination,” and pushing the hypothesis of the electronic constitution of matter to what I consider its logical limit, we may be, in fact, witnessing a spontaneous dissoci- ation of radium—and we begin to doubt the permanent stability of “matter. The chemical atom may be actually suffering a katabolic transformation, but at so slow a rate that, supposing a million atoms fly off every second, it would take a century for weight to diminish by one milligram. It must never be forgotten that theories are only useful so long as they admit of the harmonious correlation of facts into a reasonable system. Directly a fact refuses to be pigeonholed and will not be explained on theoretic grounds, the theory must go, or it must be revised to admit the new fact. The nineteenth century saw the birth of new views of atoms, electricity, and ether. Our views to-day of the constitution of matter may appear satisfactory to us, but how will it be at the close of the twentieth century? Are we not incessantly learning the lesson that our researches have only a provisional value? A hundred years hence shall we acquiesce in the resolution of the material universe into a swarm of rushing electrons / This fatal quality of atomic dissociation appears to be universal and operates whenever we brush a piece of glass with silk; it works in the sunshine and raindrops, and in the lightnings and flame; it prevails in the waterfall and the stormy sea. And although the whole range of human experience is all too short to afford a parallax whereby the date of the extinction of matter can be calculated, protyle, the ** formless mist,” once again may reign supreme, and the hour hand of eternity will have completed one revolution. , } Ne 5 1 = os ie Gee ee : THE ATOMIC THEORY.4 By Prof. F. W. Ciarxes, D. Se. One hundred years ago, on October 21, 1803, John Dalton gave this society the first announcement of his famous atomic theory. It was only a slight preliminary notice, a mere note appended to a memoir upon another subject, and it attracted little or no attention. In 1804 Dalton communicated his discovery to Dr. Thomas Thomson, who at once adopted it in his lectures, and in 1807 gave it still wider pub- licity in a text-book. A year later Dalton published his New System of Chemical Philosophy, and since then the history of chemistry has been the history of the atomic theory. To celebrate Dalton’s achieve- ment, to trace its influence upon chemical doctrine and discovery, is the purpose of my lecture. It is an old story, and yet a new one; for every year adds something to it, and the process of development shows no signs of nearing an end. A theory that grows and is continually fruitful can not be easily supplanted. Despite attacks and criticisms, Dalton’s generalization still holds the field; and from it, as from a parent stem, spring nearly all the other accepted theories of chemistry. Every thought has its ancestry. Let us briefly trace the genealogy of the atomic theory. In the very beginnings of philosophy men sought to discover the nature of the material universe and to bring unity out of diversity. Is matter one thing or many? Is it continu- ous or discrete? These questions occupied the human mind before recorded history began, and their vitality can never be exhausted. Final answers may be unattainable, but thought will fly beyond the boundaries of knowledge to bring back, now and then, truly helpful tidings. To the early Greek philosophers we must turn for our first authentic statements of an atomic theory. Other thinkers in older civilizations doubtless went before them; perhaps in Egypt or Babylonia, but of them we have no certain knowledge. There is aglimpse of something in India, but we can not say that Greece drew her inspiration thence. For us Leucippus was the pioneer, to be followed later by Democritus «The Wilde Lecture, delivered May 19, 1903, by Professor Clarke before the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society. Reprinted from Memoirs and Proceed- ings of the Society, Manchester, England, vol. 47, Part IV, No. 11, May 29, 1903. 243 244 THE ATOMIC THEORY. and Epicurus. Then, in lineal succession, came the Roman, Lucretius, who gave to the doctrine the most complete statement of all. In the thought of these men the universe was made up of empty space in which swam innumerable atoms. These were inconceivably small, hard particles of matter, indivisible and indestructible, of various shapes and sizes, and continually in motion. From their movements and combinations all sensible matter was derived. Except that the theory was purely qualitative and nonmathematical in form it was curiously like the molecular hypothesis of modern physics, only with an absolute vacuum where an intermediary ether is now assumed. This notion of a vacuum was repellant to many minds; to conceive of amass of matter so small that there could be none smaller was unrea- sonable; and hence there arose the interminable controversy between plenists and atomists which has continued to our own day. It is, however, essentially a metaphysical controversy, and some writers have ascribed it to a peculiar distinction between two classes of minds. The arithmetical thinker deals primarily with number, which is, in its nature, discontinuous, and to him a material disconti- nuity offers no difficulties. The geometer, on the other hand, has to do with continuous magnitudes, and a limited divisibility of anything in space is not easy for him to conceive. But be this as it may, the controversy was one of words rather than of realities, and its intrica- cies have little interest for the scientific student of to-day. It is always easier to reason about things as we imagine they ought to be, than about things as they really are, and the latter procedure became practicable only after experimental science was pretty far advanced. The Greeks were deficient in physical knowledge, and, therefore, their speculations remained speculations only, mere intellectual gymnastics of no direct utility to mankind. They sought to determine the nature of things by the exercise of reason alone, whereas science, as we under- stand it, being less confident, seeks mainly to coordinate evidence and to discover the general statement which shall embrace the largest possible number of observed relations. The man of science may use the metaphysical method as a tool, but he does so with the limitations of definite, verifiable knowledge always in view. Intellectual stimu- lants may be used temperately, but they need not be discarded altogether. From the time of Lucretius until the seventeenth century of our era the atomistic hypothesis received little serious attention. The philosophy of Aristotle governed all the schools of Europe, and scho- lastic quibblings took the place of real investigation. All scholarship lay under bondage to one master mind, and it was not until Galileo let fall his weights from the leaning tower of Pisa that the spell of the Stagirite was broken. Experimental science now came to the fore, and it was seen that even Aristotelian logic must verify its premises. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 945 The authority of evidence began to replace the authority of the schools. Early in the seventeenth century the atomic philosophy of Epicurus yas revived by Gassendi, who was soon followed by Boyle, by New- ton, and by many others. One other important step was taken also. Boyle, in his Sceptical Chymist, gave the first scientific definition of an element, a conception which was more fully developed by Lavoisier later, but which received its complete modern form only after Davy had decomposed the alkalies and shown the true nature of chlorine, Without this preliminary work of Boyle and Lavoisier, Dalton’s theory would hardly have been possible. An elementary atom can be given no real definition unless we have some notion of an element to begin with. But the strongest impulse came from Newton, who accepted atomism in clear and unmistakable terms. Coming before Newton, Descartes had rejected the atomic hypothe- sis, holding that there could be no vacuum in the universe and mak- ing matter essentially synonymous with extension. True, Descartes, in his famous theory of vortices, imagined whirling particles of various degrees of fineness; but they were not atoms as atoms and molecules are now conceived. It may be dangerous to pick out land- marks in history and to assert that such and such a movement began at such and such a time. Nevertheless, we may fairly say that the turning point in physical philosophy was Newton’s discovery of gravi- tation, for that indicated mass as the fundamental property of matter. For any given portion of matter which we can segregate and identify extension is variable and mass is constant; when that conclusion was established the dominance of atomism became inevitable. Boyle, Newton, and Lavoisier were legitimate precursors of Dalton, but whether Boscovich should be so considered is more than doubtful. His points of force were too abstract a conception to admit of direct application in the solution of real problems. Dalton certainly owed nothing to Boscovich, and would just as surely have developed his theory had the brilliant Dalmatian never written a line. To Boyle and Newton the atomic hypothesis was a question of natural philosophy alone, for in their day chemistry as a quantita- tive science had hardly begun to exist. Attempts were soon made, however, to give it chemical application, and the first of these which I have been able to find was due to Emanuel Swedenborg. This phi- losopher, whose reputation as a man of science has been overshadowed by his fame as a seer and theologian, published in 1721 a pamphlet upon chemistry, which is now more easily accessible in an English translation of relatively recent date.“ It consists of chapters from a larger unpublished work, and really amounts to nothing more than a “Some Specimens of a Work on the Principles of Chemistry, with other Treatises. London, 1847. Originally published at Amsterdam, in Latin, 246 THE ATOMIC THEORY. sort of atomic geometry. From geometric groupings of small, con- crete atoms the properties of different substances are deduced, but in a way which is more curious than instructive.. Between the theory and the facts there is no obvious relation. The book was absolutely without influence upon chemical thought or discovery, and therefore it has escaped general notice. It is the prototype of a class of specu- lative treatises, considerable in number, some of them recent, and all of them futile. They represent efforts which were premature and for which the fundamental support of experimental knowledge was lacking. In 1775 Dr. Bryan Higgins, of London, published the prospectus of a course of lectures upon chemistry, in which the atomic hypothesis was strongly emphasized. It was still, however, only a hypothesis, quite as ineffectual as Swedenborg’s attempt, and it led to nothing. Dr. Higgins recognized seven elements—earth, water, alkali, acid, air, phlogiston, and light—each one consisting of ‘atoms homogeneal,” these being ‘‘impenetrable, immutable in figure, inconvertible,” and all ‘‘olobular, or nearly so.” He speculated upon the attractions and repulsions between these bodies, but he seems to have solved no prob- lem and to have suggested no research. William Higgins, on the other hand, whose work appeared in 1789, showed more insight into the requirements of true science and had some notions concerning definite and multiple proportions. His conception of atomic union to form molecules was fairly clear, but the distinct statement of a quan- titative law was just beyond his reach. In 1814, however, when Dal- ton’s discoveries were widely known and accepted, Higgins published a reclamation of priority.“ In this, with much bitterness, he claims to have completely anticipated Dalton, a claim which no modern reader has been able to allow. In Robert Angus Smith’s Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory,’ the work of Bryan and William Higgins is quite thoroughly discussed, and therefore we need not consider the matter any more fully now. We see that atomic theories were receiving the attention of chemists long before Dalton’s time, although none of them went much beyond the speculative stage or was given serviceable form. They were dim foreshadowings of science; nothing more. In order that ‘a new thought shall be acceptable, certain prerequisite conditions must be fulfilled. If the ground is not prepared, the seed can not be fruitful; if men are not ready, no harvest will be reaped. Only when the time is ripe, only when long lines of evidence have begun to converge, can a new theory command attention. Dalton’s «Experiments and Observations on the Atomic Theory and Electrical Phenomena. By Williams Higgins, esq., ete. Dublin, 1814. 6 Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, second series, vol. 13, 1856. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 947 opportunity came at the right moment, and he knew how to use it well. Elements had been defined; the constancy of matter was established; pneumatic chemistry was well developed, and great numbers of quan- titative analyses awaited interpretation. The foundations were ready for the master builder, and Dalton was the man. His theory could at once be tested by the accumulated data, and when that had been done it was found to be worthy of acceptance. It is not my purpose to discuss in detail the processes of Dalton’s mind. The story is told in his own notebooks, which have been given to the public by Roscoe and Harden,” and it has been sufliciently dis- cussed by others. We now know that Dalton was thoroughly imbued with the corpuscular ideas of Newton and that, when studying the dif- fusion of gases, he was led to the belief that the atoms of different substances must be different in size. Upon applying this hypothesis to chemical problems he discovered that these differences were in one sense measurable and that to every element a single, definite, com- bining number, the relative weight of its atom, could be assigned. From this, the law of definite proportions logically followed, for fractions of atoms were inadmissible; and the law of multiple propor- tions, which Dalton worked out experimentally, completed the gen- eralization. The conception that all combination must take place in fixed proportions was not new, and, indeed, despite the objections of Berthollet, was generally assumed; but the atomic theory gave a rea- son for the law and made it intelligible. The idea of multiple propor- tions had also occurred, although incompletely, to others; but the determination of atomic weights was altogether original and novel. The new atomic theory, which figured chemical union. as a juxtaposi- tion of atoms, coordinated all of these relations and gave to chemistry for the first time an absolutely general quantitative basis. The tables of Richter and Fischer, who preceded Dalton, dealt only with special vases of combination, but they established regularities which rendered sasier the acceptance of the new and broader teachings. The earlier atomic speculations were all purely qualitative and incapable of exact application to specific problems; Dalton created a working tool of extraordinary power and usefulness. Between the atom of Lucretius and the Daltonian atom the kinship is very remote. Dalton was not a learned man, in the sense of mere erudition, but perhaps his limitations did him no harm. Too much learning is some- times in the way, and clogs the flight of that imagination by which the greatest discoveries are made. The man who could not see the forest because of the trees was a good type of that scholarship which never «A New View of the Origin of Dalton’s Atomic Theory, etc. By Sir Henry E, Roseoe and Arthur Harden. London, 1896. See also Debus, in Zeits. Physikal. Chem., Bd. 20, p. 359, and a rejoinder by Roscoe and Harden in Bd. 22, p. 241. suit IMB e 1/77 248 THE ATOMIC THEORY. not generalize. In some ways, doubtless, Dalton was narrow, and he failed to recognize the improvements which other men soon intro- duced into his system. The chemical symbols which he proposed were soon supplanted by the better formule invented by Berzelius, and his views upon the densities of gases were set aside by the more exact work of Gay Lussac, which Dalton never fully appreciated. As an experimenter he was crude and excelled by several of his contempo- raries; his tables of atomic weights, or rather equivalents, were only rough approximations to the true values. These defects, however, are only spots upon the sun and in no wise diminish his glory. Dal- ton transformed an art into science, and his influence upon chemistry was never greater than it is to-day. The truth of this statement will appear when we trace, step by step, the development of chemical doc- trine. The guiding clue, from first to last, is Dalton’s atomic theory. Although Dalton first announced his theory in 1803, the publication of his ‘‘system” in 1808 marks the culmination of his labors. The memorable controversy between Proust and Berthollet had by this time exhausted its force, and nearly all chemists were satisfied that the law of definite or constant proportions must be true. The idea of multiple proportions was also easily accepted; and as for the combin- ing numbers, they, after various revisions, came generally into use. The atomic conception, however, made its way more slowly, for the fear of metaphysics still governed many acute minds. Davy especially was late in yielding to it, but in time even his conversion was effected. Thomson, as we have already noted, was the earliest and most enthu- siastic disciple of the new system, and Wollaston, although cautiously preferring the term ‘‘ equivalent” to that of atomic weight, made useful contributions to the theory. These names mark the childhood of the doctrine before its vigorous growth had thoroughly begun. The development of the atomic theory followed two distinct lines, the one chemical, the other physical, in direction. On the chemical side the leader was Berzelius, who began in 1811 the publication of his colossal researches upon definite proportions. At first he seems to have been influenced by Richter rather than by Dalton, but that bias was only temporary. For more than thirty years Berzelius continued these labors, inventing symbols, establishing formule, and determining atomic weights. He, above all other men, made the atomic theory applicable to general use, a universal tool suited to practical purposes. Turner, Penny, Erdmann, and others did noble work of the same order, but Berzelius overshadowed them all. Throughout his long vareer he was almost the dictator of chemistry. It was on the physical side, however, that the theory of Dalton was most profoundly modified. First came the researches of Gay Lussac, who, in 1808, showed that combination between gases always took place in simple relations by volume, and also that all gaseous densities were proportional either to the combining weights of the several sub- THE ATOMIC THEORY. 249 stances, or to rational multiples thereof. In 1511 Avogadro general- ized the new evidence and brought forward the great law which is now known by his name. Equal volumes of gases, under like condi- tions of temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. Mass and volume were thus covered by one simple expression, and both were connected with the weights of the fundamental atoms. Avogadro, moreover, distinguished clearly between atoms and mole- cules, a distinction which is of profound importance to chemistry, although it is not always properly appreciated by students of physics. The molecule of to-day, which is usually, but not always, a cluster of atoms, is identical with the atom of the pre-Daltonian philosophers; while the chemical unit represents a new order of divisibility which the ancients could never have imagined. A molecule of water was easily conceived by them, but its decomposition into smaller and simpler particles-of oxygen and hydrogen, the chemical atoms, was far beyond the range of their knowledge. That the distinction is not always borne in mind by physicists is illustrated by the fact that in Clerk Maxwell’s article *‘Atom,” in the Encyclopedia Britannica, Dalton is not even mentioned, and the phenomena there selected for discussion are molecular only. Maxwell was surely not ignorant of the difference between atoms and molecules, but his knowledge had not reached the point of com- plete realization. His thought was of molecules, and so Maxwell unconsciously neglected the real subject of his chapter—the atom. Of late years many essays upon the atomic theory have been written from the physical side, and few of them have been free from this par- ticular ambiguity. At first a similar error was committed by chem- ists, who paid small attention to Avogadro’s law, and so the latter failed to exert much influence upon chemical thought until more than forty years after its promulgation. The relation discovered by Dulong and Petit in 1819, that the specific heat of a metal was inversely pro- portional to its atomic weight, was more speedily accepted; but even this law did not receive its full application until many years later. To apply either of these laws to chemical theory involved a clearer discrimination between atomic weights and equivalents than was pos- sible at the beginning. A long period of doubt and controversy was to work itself out before the full force of the physical evidence could be appreciated. Mitscherlich’s researches upon isomorphism were more fortunate, and gave immediate help in the determination of atomic weights and the settlement of formule. For the moment we need only note that the chemical atom was the underlying conception by means of which all these lines of testimony were to be unified. From Dalton and Gay-Lussac to Frankland and Cannizzaro was a time of fermentation, discussion, and discovery. In chemistry, con- trary to the saying of the preacher, there were many new things under the sun, and some of the discoveries were most suggestive. First, it 950 THE ATOMIC THEORY. was found that certain groups of atoms could be transferred from com- pound to compound, almost as if they were veritable elements; and radicles, such as ammonium, cyanogen, and benzoyl, were generally recognized. I say ‘‘ groups of atoms” advisedly, for as such they were regarded, and they could hardly have been interpreted otherwise. Then came the discovery of isomerism; of the fact that two substances could be strikingly different, and yet composed of the same elements in exactly the same proportions. This was only explicable upon the supposition that the atoms were differently arranged within the iso- meric molecules, and it led investigators more and more to the study of chemical or molecular structure. Without the atomic theory the phenomena would have been hopelessly bewildering; with its aid they were easy to understand and fertile in suggestions for research. Still another link in the chain of chemical reasoning was forged by Dumas when he proved that the hydrogen of organic compounds was often replaceable, atom for atom, by chlorine. Sometimes the replacement was complete, sometimes it was only partial, and the latter cases were the most significant. In acetic acid, for example, one, two, or three fourths of the hydrogen could be successively replaced, but the last fourth was permanently retained. Hydrogen, then, was combined in acetic acid in two different ways, one part yielding its place to chlo- rine, the other being unaffected. This behavior was soon found to be by no means exceptional: indeed, it was very common, and it opened a new line of attack upon the problems of chemical constitution. The existence of radicles, the formation of isomers, and the substitution of one element by another were facts which strengthened the atomic theory and seemed to be incapable of reasonable interpretation upon other terms. Their connection with one another, however, was not well understood, and wearisome discussions preceded their coordina- tion under one general law. With the tedious controversies which distracted chenists between 1830 and 1850 we have nothing now to do; they were important in their day, but they do not come within the scope of the present argu- ment. Theory after theory was advanced, prospered for a time, and then decayed, and chemical literature is crowded with their fossil remains. Each one, doubtless, indicated an advance in knowledge; but each one also exaggerated the importance of some special set of relations and so overshot the mark. During this period, however. Faraday discovered the law of electrolysis which is now known by his name, and the chemical equivalents were thereby given another exten : sionof meaning. The electro-chemical theories of Berzelius had fallen to the ground, but Faraday’s law came as a permanent addition to the physical side of chemistry. During the sixth decade of the nineteenth century two important forward steps were taken. ‘The kinetic theory of gases gave new force THE ATOMIC THEORY. 951 to Avogadro’s law, and made its complete recognition by chemists necessary. Atoms, molecules, equivalents, and atomic weights needed to be more sharply defined, and in this work many chemists shared. Berzelius had proposed a system of atomic weights which differed, except in the value taken for its base, but little from the one now in use. This was abandoned for a table devised by Gmelin, in which the laws of Avogadro and of Dulong and Petit were almost if not entirely ignored. Laurent and Gerhardt attempted to reform the system, but it was left for Cannizzaro, in 1858, to succeed. By doubling some of the currently accepted atomic weights order was introduced into the prevailing chaos, and the chemical constants were brought into har- mony with the physical laws. The modern atomic weights and our present chemical notation may be dated from this time, even though the preliminary anticipations of them were neither few nor incon- spicuous. The second great step forward was accomplished through the labors of several men. Frankland and Kekulé were foremost among them, but Couper, Odling, Williamson, Wurtz, and Hofmann all contributed their share to the upbuilding of a new chemistry of which the doctrine of valency was the corner stone. A new property of the chemical atom was brought to light, and structural or rational formule became possible. Each atom was shown to have a fixed capacity for union with other atoms, a capacity which could be given numerical expression, and from this discovery important consequences followed. An atom of hydrogen unites with one other atom only; the atom of oxygen may combine with two; that of nitrogen with three or five; while ‘arbon has capacity for four. All unions of atoms to atoms within a molecule are governed by conditions of this order, and the limitations thus imposed determine the possibilities of combination in a given class of compounds. In organic chemistry the conception of valency has been most fruitful, and it has shown the prophetic power which is characteristic of all good theories. It explains radicles and isomers; it predicts whole classes of compounds in advance of their actual dis- covery; and it has guided economic investigations from which creat industries have sprung. The former partial theories regarding chem- ical constitution fell into their proper places under the new generali- zation, for that was broad enough to comprehend them all. All con- stitutional chemistry depends upon this property of the atoms, and any other adequate foundation for it would be difficult to find. I have said that the discovery of valency explained the phenomena of isomerism. Indeed, it enabled chemists to foresee the existence of new isomers and it established the conditions under which such com- pounds could exist. And yet, in one direction at least, its power was limited and substances were found which the theory could not interpret. Tartaric acid, for example, exists in two modifications, differing in Dye THE ATOMIC THEORY. crystalline form and in their action upon polarized light. One acid was dextrorotatory, the other levorotatory, while a mixture of the two in equal proportions was neutral to the polarized beam, and gave no rotation at all. Their crystals exhibited a similar difference in the arrangement of certain planes, one set being right-handed, the other left-handed; and each crystal resembled its isomer like a reflection in amirror, alike, but reversed. Fora long time this physical isomerism, as it was called, remained inexplicable, for the rules of valency gave to both molecules the same structure and offered no hint as to the cause of the difference. Structural formule, however, said nothing of the arrangement of the atoms in tridimensional space and it was soon suspected that the root of the difficulty was here. The mere linking of the atoms with one another could be represented in a single plane, but that was obviously an imperfect symbolism. In 1874 van’t Hoff and Le Bel, working independently of each other, suggested a solution of the problem. One simple assumption was enough; merely that the quadrivalent carbon atom was essentially a tetrahedron or, more precisely, that its four units of chemical attrac- tion were exerted from a common center in the direction of four tetra- hedral angles. Atoms of that kind could be built up into structures in which right-handedness and left-handedness of arrangement appeared, provided only that each one was united with four other atoms or groups all different in nature. Stereochemistry was born, the anom- alies vanished, and many new substances showing optical and crystal- line properties analogous to those of tartaric acid were soon prepared. The theory of van’t Hoff and Le Bel was fertile, and therefore it was justified; it interpreted another set of phenomena, but in order to do so something like atomic form had first to be assumed. It was only ¢ new extension of Dalton’s atomic theory, but it has suggested a future development of extraordinary significance. If we can determine, not merely the linking of the atoms, but also their arrangement in space, we should be able, sooner or later, to establish a connection between chemical composition and crystalline form. The architecture of the molecule and the architecture of the crystal must surely in some way be related. But the problem is exceedingly complex, and we may have to wait many years before we reach its solution. The atomic theory still has room to grow. Let us now turn back in time and consider another phase of our subject. In 1815 Prout suggested that the atomic weights of all the elements were even multiples of that of hydrogen. It was only a speculation on the part of Prout, and yet it led to important conse- quences, for it opened a discussion upon the nature of the chemical elements, and it pointed to hydrogen as the primal matter of the uni- verse. Prout’s: hypothesis, therefore, became a subject of controversy. It found many supporters and also many antagonists; but, fortunately, THE ATOMIC THEORY. 25 one aspect of it was capable of experimental investigation. Some of the most exact and elaborate determinations of atomic weight have been made with the direct purpose of testing the truth or falsity of Prout’s speculation, and science thereby has been notably enriched. The marvelous researches of Stas, for instance, had this specific object in view. The verdict was finally unfavorable to Prout. At least, the best measurements fail to support his idea; but it still has advoeates who believe that the experimental data are vitiated by unknown errors, and that future investigations will reverse the decision. In science there is no court of last appeal. Prout’s hypothesis, then, stimulated the determination of atomic weights, and so helped us to a more accurate knowledge of them. It also led to a search for other relations between these constants, and thus paved the way for important discoveries. Ddébereiner, Kremers, Dumas, Pettenkofer, Cooke, and many other chemists published memoirs upon this theme, but not one of them was general or con- clusive.“ Groups of elements were compared and relations were brought to light, but an exhaustive study of the question was hardly possible until after Cannizzaro had revised the atomic weights and indicated their proper values. In 1865 Newlands presented before the London Chemical Society a communication upon the law of octaves, in which he showed that the elements, when arranged in the order of their atomic weights, exhibited a certain regular recurrence of properties. Unfortunately, his views were not given serious attention, and even met with ridicule, but they contained the germ of the great truth. It was reserved for the Rus- sian, Mendeléeff, four years later, to-completely formulate the famous periodic law. | Mendeléeff arranged the elements in tabular form, still following the order of their atomic weights. A periodic variation of their properties, including the property of valency, at once became evident; and although the scheme was, and still is, open to some criticism, its importance could hardly be denied. In the table certain gaps appeared, presumably belonging to unknown elements, and for three of these some remarkable predictions were made. The hypothetical elements were described by Mendeléeff, their atomic weights were assigned, and their physical properties foretold, and in due time the prophecies were verified. The three metals—gallium, scandium, and germanium—have since been discovered, and they correspond very closely with Mendeléeff’s anticipations. His general conclusion was that all of the physical properties of the chemical elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights, and this conclusion, I think, is no «A very full account of these attempts is given in Venable’s book, The Develop- ment of the Periodic Law, published at Easton, Pa., in 1896. 954 THE ATOMIC THEORY. longer seriously doubted. The curves of atomic volumes and melting points which Lothar Meyer afterwards constructed give strong sup- port to this view. The periodic system, then, gives to the numbers discovered by Dalton a much more profound significance than he ever imagined, and is destined to connect a great mass of physical data in one general law. That law we now see, ‘‘as in a glass, darkly;” its complete mathemat- ical expression is yet to be found, but I believe that it will be fully developed within the near future. We may have aspiral curve to deal with, as in the schemes proposed by Stoney or by Crookes, or else a vibratory expression like that suggested by Emerson Reynolds in his presidential address before the Chemical Society last year; but in some form the periodicity of the elements must be recognized, and one set of relations will connect them all. In the arrangement proposed by Reynolds the inert gases, the elements of zero valency, appear at the nodes of a vibrating curve—a circumstance which gives this method of presentation a peculiar force; but for the consideration of physical properties the curves drawn by Lothar Meyer seem likely to be the most useful. In one respect, however, the periodic system is still defective—it fails to take ade- quately into account the numerical relations between the atomic weights, a phase of the problem which should not be ignored. Such relations exist; some of them have been indicated by your distinguished fellow-member, Doctor Wilde; and, elusive as they may seem to be, they are surely not meaningless. The final law must cover the entire ground, and then atomic weights, physical properties, and valency will be completely correlated. Prout’s hypothesis is discredited, and yet it may prove to be a crude first approximation to some deeper truth, as the probability calculations of Mallet“ and of Strutt? would seem to indicate. The approaches of the atomic weights to whole numbers are too close and too frequent to be regarded as purely acci- dental. But this is aside from our main question. The real point to note is that the physical properties of the elements are all interde- pendent, and that the fundamental constants are the atomic masses. Do I seem to exaggerate? Then look for a moment at the present condition of physical chemistry, and see how moderate my statements really are. We have not only the laws already mentioned, of Avo- gadro, of Dulong and Petit, of Faraday and of Mendeléeff, but also a multitude of relations connecting the physical constants of bodies with their chemical character. Even the wave lengths of the spectral lines are related to the atomic weights of the several elements, as has been shown by the researches of Runge and his colleagues, of Rummel,’ @Phil. Trans., vol. 171, 1881, p. 1003. b Phil. Mag. (6), 1, p. 311. €Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. 10, Part. I, p. 75. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 955 and of Marshall Watts.“ If we try to study the specific gravity of solids or liquids, the only clews to regularity are furnished by the atomic ratios. Atomic and molecular volumes give us the only approximations to anything like order. Similarly, we speak of atomic and molecular refraction, of molecular rotation for polarized light, of molecular conductivity, and the like. In Trouton’s law the latent heat of vaporization of any liquid becomes a function of the molecular weight. And, finally, all thermochemical measurements are meaning- less until they have been stated in terms of gram molecular weights; then system begins to appear. Chaos rules until the atomic or molec- ular weight is taken into account; with that considered, the reign of order begins. Even to the study of solutions the same conditions apply. Sub- stances in solution exert pressure, and in this respect they closely resemble gases. Van’t Hoff has shown that equal volumes of solu- tions, having under like conditions equal osmotic pressures, contain equal numbers of molecules, and thus Avogadro’s gas law is curiously paralleled. The two laws are even equivalent in their anomalies. The abnormal density of a gas is explained by its dissociation, and the variations from van’t Hoff’s law are explicable in the same way. The theory of ionic or electrolytic dissociation, proposec by Arrhenius, shows that certain substances, when dissolved, are split up into their ions, and through this conception the analogy between gases and solutions is made absolutely complete. The ions, however, are atoms or groups of atoms, and just as Avogadro’s law is applied to the deter- mination of molecular weights among gases, so van’t Hoff’s rules enable us to measure the molecular weights of substances in solution. The atom, the molecule, and the molecular weight enter into all of these new generalizations. In short, if we take the atomic theory out of chemistry we shall have little left but a dust heap of unrelated facts. I have now indicated briefly, and in outline only, the influence of the atomic theory upon the development of chemical thought. Details have been purposely omitted; the salient facts are enough for my pur- pose, and they make, at least for chemists, an exceedingly strong case. The convergence of the testimony is remarkable, and when we add to the chemical evidence that which is offered by physics, the theory becomes overwhelmingly strong. This side of the question I can not attempt to discuss, but I may in passing just refer to Professor Riicker’s presidential address before the British Association in 1901, which covers the ground admirably. The atomic theory has had no better vindication. And yet from time to time we are told that the theory has outlived its usefulness, and that it is now a hindrance rather than a help to «Phil. Mag. (6), 5, 203. 256 THE ATOMIC THEORY. science. Some of the objectors are quite dogmatic in their utterances; some only seek to eyade the theory without going to the extreme of an absolute denial, and still others, more timid, assume an apologetic tone, as if the atom were something like a poor relation—to be recog- nized and tolerated, but not to be encouraged too far. Now, caution is a good thing if it is not allowed to degenerate into indecision; when that happens mental obscurity is the result. In science we must have intellectual resting places; something to serve as a foundation for our thinking; something concrete and tangible in form. No theory is immune against hypercriticism; none is absolute and final. With these considerations borne in mind we may ask whether a doctrine is sery- iceable or not and we can use it without fear. When we say that matter, as we know it, behaves as if it were made up of very small, discrete particles we do not lose ourselves in metaphysics, and we have a definite conception which can be applied to the correlation of evt- dence and the solution of problems. Objections count for nothing against it until something better is offered in its stead—a condition which the critics of the atomic theory have so far failed to fulfill. They give us no real substitute for it, no other working tool, and so their objections, which are too often metaphysical in character, com- mand little serious attention. Criticism is useful just so far as it helps to clarify our thinking; when it becomes a mere agent of destruction it loses force. Broadly speaking, then, the modern critics of the atomic theory have shaken it but little. Still, some serious attempts have been made toward forming an alternative system of chemistry, oF at least a system in which the atom shall not avowedly appear. The most serious and perhaps the most elaborate of these devices was that brought forward in 1866 by Sir Benjamin Brodie“ in his Calculus of Chemical Opera- tions, which he defended later (1880) in a little book entitled Ideal Chemistry. In this curious investigation Brodie tries to avoid hypotheses and to represent chemical acts as operations upon the unit of space by which weights are generated. This notion is alittle difficult to grasp, but Brodie’s procedure was perfectly legitimate. His one fundamental assumption is that hydrogen is so generated by a single operation, and upon this he erects a system of symbols which, treated mathematically, lead to some remarkable conclusions. For instance, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrogen, and phosphorus become com- pounds of hydrogen with as many unknown or ‘‘ideal” elements, which no actual analysis has yet identified. That is, the known phe- nomena of chemistry seem to be less simply interpreted by Brodie’s calculus than in our commonly accepted theories, and certain classes of phenomena are not considered at all. It is true that Brodie never completed his work, but it is not easy to see how his notation and @ Phil Trans., 1866. A second part in 1877. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 957 reasoning could have accounted for isomerism, much less for the facts which stereochemistry seeks to explain. Just here we find the prime difficulty of all attempts to evade the atomic theory. Up to a certain point we can easily dispense with it, for we can start with the fact that every element has a definite com- bining number, and then, without any assumptions as to the ultimate meaning of these constants we can show that other constants are intimately connected with them. So far we can ignore the origin of the so-called atomic weight; but the moment we encounter the facts of isomerism or chemical structure, and of the partial substitution of one element by another, our troubles begin. The atomic theory con- nects all of these data together and gives the mind a simple reason for the relations which are observed. We can not be satisfied with mere equations; our thought will seek for that which lies behind them; and so the antitheorist fails to accomplish his purpose because he leaves the human mind out of account. The reasoning instrument has its own laws and requirements, and they, as well as the empirical observations of science, must be satisfied. Even in astronomy the law of gravitation is not enough; men are continually striving to ascertain its cause, and no number of failures can prevent them from trying again and yet again to penetrate into the heart of the mystery. In the atomic theory the same tendency is at work, and the very nature of the atom itself, that thing which we can neither see nor handle, has become a legitimate subject for our questionings. Shall we, having gone so far, assume that we can go no farther? ‘All roads lead to Rome.” If we accept the atomic theory, we sooner, or later find ourselves speculating about the reality of the atom, and at last we come face to face with the old, old problem of the unity or diversity of matter. We can, if we choose, employ the theory as a working tool only and shut our ears to these profounder questions, but it is not easy to do so. What is the chemical atom? Is all matter ultimately one substance? We may be unable to solve either problem, and yet we can examine the evidence and see which way it points. I think that all philosophical chemists are now of the belief that the elements are not absolutely distinct and separate entities. In favor of their elementary nature we have only negative evidence, the mere fact that with our present resources we are unable to decompose them into simpler forms. On that side of the argument there is nothing more. Onthe other hand, we see that the elements are bound together by the most intimate relations, so much so that unknown elements can be accurately described in advance of their discovery, and facts like these call for an explanation. Something belonging to the elements in common seems to underlie them all. If, however, we study the atomic weights, we are forced to observe that the elements do not 258 THE ATOMIC THEORY. shade into one another continuously, but that they vary by leaps which are sometimes relatively large, and sometimes quite small. To Mendeléeff this irregular discontinuity isan argument against the unity of matter, or rather an indication that the periodic law lends no sup- port to the belief; but such a conclusion isunnecessary. If the funda- mental matter, the ‘‘ protyle,” as Crookes has called it, is itself discon- tinuous and atomic in structure, the same property must be shown in all of its aggregations, and so the difficulties seen by Mendeléeff dis- appear. The chemical atoms become clusters of smaller particles, whose relative magnitudes are as yet unknown. That bodies smaller than atoms really exist is the conclusion reached by J. J. Thomson“ from his researches upon the ionization of gases. According to him, this phenomenon *‘ consists in the detachment from the atom of a negative ion,” this being *‘ the same for all gases.” He regards ‘‘the atom as containing a large number of smaller bodies,” which he calls ‘‘corpuscles,” and these are equal to one another. ‘‘In the normal atom this assemblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrically neutral.” It must be borne in mind that these conclu- sions are drawn by Thomson from the study of one class of phenomena, and it is of course possible that they may not be finally sustained. Their value to us at the present moment lies in their suggestiveness and in the curious way in which they reenforce other arguments of similar purport. The possibility that the chemical atoms can be actually broken down into smaller particles of one and the same kind is, to say the least, startling, but it can not be disregarded. The evi- dence obtained by Thomson is, so far as it goes, positive, and it is entitled to receive due weight in all discussions of our present problem. It is the first direct testimony that we have been able to obtain, all previous evidence being either negative or circumstantial. It may be misinterpreted, but it is not to be pushed aside. In direct line with the inferences of Thomson are the results obtained by Rutherford and Soddy in their researches upon radio-activity. Here, again, we have a subject so new that all opinions concerning it must be held open to revision, but, so far as we have yet gone, the evidence seems to point in one way. Rutherford and Soddy? have studied especially the emanations given off by thorium, and conclude that from this element a new body is continually generated in which the radio-activity steadily decays. This loss of emanative power is in some sort of equilibrium with the rate of its formation. When tho- rium js ‘‘de-emanated,” it slowly regains its emanative power. The emanation is a ‘*chemically inert gas, analogous in nature to the mem- bers of the argon family.” The final conclusion is that radio-activity may be *‘ considered as a manifestation of subatomic chemical change.” “Phil. Mag. (5), 48, p. 547. Also Popular Science Monthly, August, 1901. b Phil. Mag. (6), 4, pp. 395, 581. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 259 This word *‘ subatomic” is one of ominous import. It implies atomic complexity, and it also suggests something more. The property of ‘adio-activity is most strikingly exhibited by the metals radium, tho- rium, and uranium; and these have the highest atomic weights of any elements known. If the elements are complex, these are the most complex, and therefore, presumably, the most unstable. Are they in the act of breaking down? Is there a degradation of matter compar- able with the dissipation of energy? We can ask these questions, but we may have to wait long for a reply. There is, however, another side to the shield, and the universe gives us glimpses of a generative process, an elementary evolution. The truth or falsity of the nebular hypothesis is still an open ques- tion. It is a plausible hypothesis, however, and commands many strong arguments in its favor. We can see the nebule and prove them to be clouds. of incandescent gas; we can trace a progressive development of suns and systems, and at the end of the series we have the habitable planet wpon which we dwell. The nebular hypothesis accounts for the observed condition of things, and is therefore by most men regarded as satisfactory. But this is not all of the story. Chemically speaking, the nebule are exceedingly simple in composition; the whiter and hotter stars are a little more complex; then come stars like our sun, and finally the finished planets, with their many chemical elements and their myriads of compounds. Here again we have evi- dence bearing upon our problem, evidence which led me,” more than thirty years ago, to suggest that the evolution of planets from nebule had been accompanied by an evolution of the elements themselves. This thought, stated in a reversed form, has since been developed and amplified by Lockyer, and it is doubtless familiar to you all. In the development of the heavenly bodies we seem to see the growth of the elements; do we, in the phenomena of radio-activity, witness their decay? This is a startling, possibly a rash, speculation, but it rests upon evidence which must be considered and weighed. We have, then, various lines of convergent testimony, and there are more which I might have cited, all pointing to the conclusion that the chemical atoms are complex, and that elemental matter, in the last analysis, is not of many kinds. That there is but one fundamental substance is not proved; and yet the probability in favor of such an assumption must be conceded. Assuming it to be true, what, then, is the nature of the Daltonian atom? To the chemist the simplest answer to this question is that fur- nished by the researches of J. J. Thomson, to which reference has already been made. A cluster of smaller particles or corpuscles satis- fies the conditions that chemistry imposes on the problem, their ulti- mate nature being left out of account. For chemical purposes we eo fo. a**yvolution and the spectroscope,’’ Popular Science Monthly, January, 18 260 THE ATOMIC THEORY. need not inquire whether the corpuscles are divisible or indivisible, although for other lines of investigation this question may be perti- nent. But, no matter how far we may push our analysis, we must always see that something still lies beyond us and realize that nature has no assignable boundaries. That which philosophers call ‘‘ the absolute” or ‘*the unconditioned” is forever out of our reach. Through many theories men have sought to get back a little farther. Among these Lord Kelvin’s theory of vortex atoms is perhaps the most conspicuous and certainly the best known. It presupposes an ideal perfect fluid, continuous, homogeneous, and incompressible; portions of this in rotation form the vortex rings, which, when once set in motion by some creative power, move on indestructibly forever. These rings may be single or linked or knotted together, and they are the material atoms. The assumed permanence of the atom is thus accounted for and given at least a mathematical validity, but we have already seen that the chemical units may not be quite so simple. The ultimate corpuscles, to use J. J. Thomson’s words, may be vortex rings; the chemical atom is much more complex. On this theory chemical union has been explained by supposing that vortices are assembled in rotation about one another, forming groups which are permanent under certain conditions and yet are capable of being broken down. The vortex ring is eternal; its groupings are transi- tory. This is a plausible and fascinating theory; if only we can imagine the ideal perfect fluid and apply to it the laws of motion; that done, all else follows. Unfortunately, however, the fundamental conception is difficult to grasp and still more difficult to apply. So far it has done little or nothing for chemistry; it has brought forth no discoveries nor stimulated chemical research; we can only say that it does not seem to be imcompatible with what we think we know. In a certain way it unifies the two opposing conceptions of atomism and plenism, and this may be, after all, its chief merit. But there are later theories than that of Kelvin, and some of them are most daring. For instance, Professor Larmor regards electricity as atomic in its nature, and supposes that there are two kinds of atoms— positive and negative electrons. These electrons are regarded as centers of strain in the ether, and matter is thought to consist of clusters of electrons in orbital motion round one another. Still more recently Prof. Osborne Reynolds, in his Rede lecture,” has offered us an even more startling solution of our problem. He replaces the con- ventional ether by a granular medium, generally homogeneous, closely packed, and having a density ten thousand times that of water. Here and there the medium is strained, producing what Reynolds calls ** singular surfaces of misfit” between the normally piled grains and @On an Inversion of Ideas as to the Structure of the Universe. Cambridge, 1903. The Rede lecture, delivered June 10, 1902. THE ATOMIC THEORY. 261 their partially displaced neighbors. These surfaces are wave-like in character and constitute what we recognize as ordinary matter. Where they exist there is a local deficiency of mass, so that matter is less dense than its surroundings; and this, as Reynolds has said, is a complete inversion of the ideas which we now hold. Matter is measured by the absence of the mass which is needed to complete a normal piling of the grains in the medium. In other words, it might be defined as the defect of the universe. The ‘singular surfaces” already mentioned are molecules, which may cohere, but can not pass through one another, and they preserve their individuality. Possibly I may misapprehend this theory, for it has been published in amost concise form, and the reasoning upon which it rests is not given in detail. I can not criticise it, but I may offer some sugges- tions. If matter consists of waves in a universal medium, how does chemical union take place? Shall we conceive of hydrogen as repre- sented by one set of waves and nitrogen as represented by another, the two differing only in amplitude? If so, when they combine to form ammonia there should be eitber a superposition of one set upon the other, or else a complex system might be found showing interfer- ence phenomena. But would not the latter supposition imply a destruction of matter as matter is defined by the theory? Could one such wave coalesce with or neutralize another? ‘To conceive of a union of waves without interference is not easy, but the facts of chemical combination must be taken into account. When we remember that compounds exist containing hundreds of atoms within the molecule, we begin to realize the difficulties which a complete theory of matter must overcome. Chemical and physical evidence must be taken together; neither can solve the problem alone. At present the simplest concep- tion for the mind to grasp is that of an aggregation of particles. Beyond this all is confusion, and mathematical devices can help us only a little. In speaking thus I assign no limit to the revelations of the future; some theory, now before the world, may prove its right to existence and survive; but none such, as yet, can be taken as defi- nitely established. The theory which stands the test of time will not be a figment of the imagination; it must be an expression of observed realties. But enough of speculation; let me, before I close, say a few words of a more practical character. Dalton’s statue stands in Manchester, a fitting tribute to his fame. But it is something which is finished; something on which no more can be done; something to be seen only by the few. As a local memorial it serves a worthy purpose, but Dalton’s true monument is in the set of constants which he discovered, and which are in daily use by all chemists throughout the world. Here is something that is not finished; and here Dalton’s memory can be still further honored, by good work, good research, honest efforts to increase our knowledge. 262 THE ATOMIC THEORY. We have seen that the atomic weights are the fundamental constants of all exact chemistry, and that they are almost as important also to physics; but the mathematical law which must connect them is still unknown. Every discovery along the line of Dalton’s theory is another stone added to his monument, and many such discoveries are yet to be made. What, now, is needed? First, every atomic weight should be determined with the utmost accuracy, and what Stas did for a few elements ought to be done for all. This work has more than theo- retical significance; its practical bearings are many, but it can not be done to the best advantage along established lines. So far the investi- gators have been a mob of individuals; they need to be organized into an army. Collective work, cooperative research, is now demanded, and the men who have hitherto toiled separately should learn to pull together. Ten men, working on a common plan, in touch with one another, can accomplish more in a given time than a hundred solitaries. The prin- ciples at issue are well understood; the methods of research are well established; but the organizing power has not yet appeared. Shall this be a great institution for research, able to take up the problems which are too large for individuals to handle, or a voluntary cooper- ation between men who are unselfishly inclined to attempt the work ? This question I can not answer; doubtless it will solve itself in time; but Iam sure that a method of collective investigation will be found sooner or later, and that then the advance of exact knowledge will be more rapid than ever before. When the atomic weights are all accu- rately known, the problem of the nature of the elements will be near its solution. Some of the wealth which chemistry has created might well be expended for this purpose. Who will establisha Dalton labo- ratory for research, and so give the work which he started a permanent home 4 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY.¢@ By Gusravr LE Bon. SECTION 1. Purpose of this paper. In 1902 we published a paper on the dissociation of matter, in which were detailed the results of certain experiments. Continuing the investigations on this subject, pursued for some years past, we resumed our experiments, and these have finally shown that the phenomenon of radio-activity, that is to say, the dissociation of atoms, at first supposed to be peculiar to certain exceptional bodies, such as uranium and radium, is, on the contrary, a general property of matter, and consequently one of the most widely diffused phenomena of nature. The aptitude of bodies to become disaggregated, emitting effluvia analogous to the cathodic rays, and, like them, capable of traversing material substances and generating X rays, is universal. Light impinging upon any substance whatever, the burning of a lamp, chemical reactions of very diverse characters, an electric discharge, etc., may cause these efHuvia. The bodies designated as radio-active substances, such as radium, only show in a higher degree a phenome- non which all matter possesses in some degree. Srorion 2.— Phenomena observed during the dissociation of matter. The radio-activity of matter, its dissociation, is always manifested by the emission into space of effluvia having a velocity comparable to that of light and possessing qualities analogous to those of cathodic ‘ays, notably the quality of producing X rays as soon as they encoun- ter an obstacle. Numerous experiments have definitely shown the source of the vari- ous radio-active emissions. Whether they come from the cathode of a Crookes tube, from the radiation of a metal under the action of light, or from the radiation of bodies spontaneously radio-active, such as uranium, thorium, etc., these effluvia are of the same nature. They : : . eC 5 : undergo the same magnetic deflection; the relation—— of their charge ; dt to their mass is the same. Their velocity alone varies, but is always very great. «Translated and condensed from the Revue Scientifique, 4th series, Vol. XX, Nos. 16, 17, and 18. sm 1903— 18 263 264 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. The cathodic rays are charged with electricity, yet can traverse thin metallic plates connected with the earth without losing their charge. Whenever they impinge upon an obstacle they immediately give rise to those peculiar radiations called X rays, which differ from the ‘athodie rays in that they are not deflected by a magnet and traverse thick metallic plates capable of averting those rays. Cathodic rays and X rays produce electricity upon all bodies, whether gaseous or solid, which they meet. They consequently ren- der the air a conductor of electricity. By measuring the deflection of the cathodic rays by an electric field and by a magnetic field, we may estimate the velocity of the particles composing them, and the relation _ of their charge ¢ to their mass 77. The velocity found equals a third of that of light. If m expresses the electric charge in coulombs, we obtain 10* for the relation ©.“ In electrolysis the relation for hydrogen is 10°, one thousand times smaller. The charge ¢ being the same, the mass of the cathodic par- ticle would be one one-thousandth that of the atom of hydrogen, the smallest of known atoms. The ordinary atom would then be disso- ciated into 1,000 parts to form the cathodic particle. In place of a Crookes tube let us now use a substance spontaneously very radio-active—thorium or radium, for example. We again find most of the preceding phenomena with simple quantitative variations. For example, we find more rays charged with negative electricity in the Crookes tubes than in the radium emanations which are specially charged with positive electricity; but the nature of the phenomena observed in the two cases appears to be identical. Radio-active bodies emit three different kinds of radiation, which may be designated by the letters a, f, and y. The a radiations are but slightly penetrating, are charged with positive electricity, and form the greatest part of the emitted rays. It is under their influence that the air becomes a conductor of electricity. They appear to be formed by the projection of particles about the size of a hydrogen atom—that is to say, one thousand times greater than the particles of the # radiations; their velocity is about one-tenth that of light. They can not be deflected except by a very powerful magnet. ; The f radiations are similar in all respects to the cathodic rays of a Crookes tube. Like them they are charged with negative electricity, “This relation varies according to different observers between 1.55 by 107 and 1.84 by 10° (in electro-magnetic units). If we adopt the latter figure we see that, it rep- resents the enormous charge of 184 millions of coulombs per gramme of cathodic matter. In electrolysis the charge of a gramme of hydrogen amounts to only 96,000 coulombs. INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. 265 and may also be deflected by a magnet, but in the opposite direction from that taken by the @ radiations. They are the ones that produce the photographic effects. They must be very penetrating.“ Their velocity, according to Kaufmann, must be nearly that of light. The y radiations are not deflected by a magnetic field and are proba- bly similar to X rays and, like them, very penetrating. Their velocity, according to Blondlot, must be exactly that of light; that is to say, 300,000 kilometers per second. Besides these various kinds of radiations which have, as we shall see in a future paragraph, none of the properties of matter, radio- active bodies emit, in an infinitely small quantity, an emanation hav- ing the character of a gas, which can be condensed by means of liquid air at a temperature of —150° and is made up, according to Ramsay, of helium. It gives to bodies with which it comes in contact a tempo- rary radio-activity. The product of the condensation, whose proper- ties are shown by the action of the electrometer, is invisible and imponderable, but it can be dissolved in certain acids, and on eyvapo- rating the solution the radio-activity is obtained, unchanged, in the residue. The effluvia of radio-active bodies have very active physiological properties that have already been studied by many observers. Con- centrated radium, even when incased by a metallic envelope, burns the skin. It paralyzes bacteria. Induced radio-activity, discovered by Rutherford, is that phe- nomenon by virtue of which radio-active bodies, especially in solution, communicate for some time their radio-activity to surrounding bodies, either insulating or conducting. It seems quite evident that in this case we are dealing with material substances, since induced radio- activity is not effected through glass and mica, and may be carried to a distance from radio-active bodies. On blowing the disengaged par- ticles through a coiled tube and projecting them upon any body what- ever, the latter soon acquires a temporary radio-activity. It is by induced radio-activity that is produced the phosphorescence of sulphide of zinc inclosed in a glass receiver communicating by a large tube with another receiver containing a solution of radium. Bis- muth plunged for some days in a solution of nitrate of radium finally, for the same reason, becomes phosphorescent. All radio-active bodies are more active in solution than in a solid state, but then they lose their phosphorescence and can only induce it by their emanations. “In this, as Rutherford says, they do not resemble the cathodic rays, since the latter, as Lenard has shown, will hardly traverse metallic layers no thicker than one one-hundredth of a millimeter. It is probable, rather, that the penetration of metals is due to the X rays that always accompany these radiations or that are at least always engendered by them, 266 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. It seems probable that the property possessed by radio-active ema- nations of condensing the vapor of water is due to material particles carried along by their radiating force, especially if we consider these particles as electrified. This is a property common to all dusts, as can be easily shown by the following well-known experiment: A glass receiver containing water in «state of ebullition communicates, by glass tubes, with two other receivers, one filled with ordinary air taken from the room, the other with air deprived of its dust by simple filtration through cotton wool. The water vapor entering the receiver contain- ing the dust-laden air immediately condenses into a thick fog, while that entering the other receiver remains transparent. SECTION 3.—Intra-atomic OPCES asas rectal Orme 7) “ener Ua : / , d dy When radio-active bodies were discovered physicists did not take the pains to measure the amount of energy liberated during their disso- ciation, but vainly sought and still continue to seek some external source from which these bodies might derive that energy. It is, in fact, considered as an absolutely fundamental principle that matter can only give back in some form or other energy it has previously received. Now, since all physicists are to-day unanimous in affirming that the products of all kinds of radio-activity are similar; and since, on the other hand, the energy necessary for the emitting into space effluvia having the velocity that the radio-active particles possess is immensely superior to that we are able to produce by the various forces at our disposal, is it not evident that it is not outside of matter but within matter itself that we must seek for the source of the energy expended ? This liberated energy is the consequence of intra-atomic reactions which we shall shortly consider and which differ essentially from the extra-atomic reactions that come under the domain of chemistry, even if in no other way, by the enormous magnitude of the effects produced. If this is so—and it is not possible to conceive that it should be otherwise—we are immediately led to look upon the atoms that make up matter as immense reservoirs of energy. They may manifest this energy without borrowing from without, since it exists within them- selves where it was accumulated at the time of their formation. What are the fundamental characteristics of this hitherto ignored energy which we may call simply intra-atomic energy 4 It differs from all others with which we are acquainted by its pro- digious power. If, instead of dissociating only a few millionths of a milligram of matter, as we do now, we could succeed in dissociating some kilograms, we would have, as we shall show, a source of energy compared with which all the motors combined now driven by coal would present an insignificant total, It is because of the amount of INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. 267 this energy that the radio-active phenomena show such intensity. It is this which causes the emission of particles endowed with an immense velocity, phosphorescence and the production of an enormous quantity of electricity, out of proportion to that which we can maintain wpon insulated bodies. The great velocity of the particles discharged into space under the influence of the energy liberated in the atom would be of itself a proof that we are in the presence of an entirely new force. It is only in vibrations of the ether that a velocity comparable to this has hitherto been observed, and there we readily explain it by the almost perfect elasticity of the medium. No analogous explanation can be invoked for the projections of the particles. X rays also are one of the indirect manifestations of intra-atomic energy, a new stage of its manifestation. A form of energy may be declared new when it is differentiated by its fundamental characters from all those previously known. We do not yet know all the possible transformations of this new mode of energy, but we are already convinced as to its origin. We know that it comes from matter, since we can not produce it without matter. We know also that when it is once formed it is no longer matter, since it has lost all material characters, and that it can not again become matter by any process. Before an assemblage of facts as conclusive and clear as these, it seems impossible to admit any hypothesis other than this: Here is an entirely new mode of energy having no relation to any of those hitherto observed. The origin of intra-atomic energy is not entirely inexplicable if we admit, with astronomers, that the condensation of a nebula sufficed, by itself alone, to produce the considerable temperature possessed by the sun. It may be conceived that an analogous condensation of the ether may have generated the energies contained in the atom. We may roughly compare the latter to a sphere in which a nonliquefiable gas was compressed by some billions of atmospheres at the time of the origin of the world. SEcTION 4.— Power of the intra-atom ic forces— Matter considered as an ECNLOPTTIHOUS condensation of energy. GREAT AMOUNT OF INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. The great energy manifested in radio-active phenomena has pro- foundly impressed physicists, and for a long time past they have been seeking its origin. One of them recently observed that the complete dissociation of a gram of radium would produce sifficient energy to transport the entire English fleet to the summit of Mont Blanc. 2968 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. Let us try to state with some exactitude the amount of force con- densed in a small quantity of any matter whatever. The various methods employed for measuring the velocity of the radio-active par- ticles have always given about the same results. This velocity is nearly that of light for certain radio-active emissions and about one- third of that for the particles in a Crookes tube. Let us take the lowest of these velocities—about 100,000 kilometers per second—and try, by taking this for a base, to calculate the energy. that would be required to completely dissociate one gram of any matter whatever. The work performed by a body in motion being equal to half the product of its mass with the square of its velocity, an elementary cal- culation gives at once the power which would be manifested by the particles of this gram of matter in case they were endowed with the supposed velocity. It would be equal to about 6,800,000 horse- power. This amount of energy would suffice to move, ona level road, afreight train having a length of a little more than four and one-fourth times the circumference of the globe. To move such a train by means of coal would require 2,830,000 kilograms, which, at 24 francs a ton, would cost about 68,000 franes. These figures, so vast as at first to seem improbable, depend upon the enormous velocity by which the particles are impelled, a velocity which we can not approach by any known mechanical means. In the factor mV” the mass of 1 gram is certainly very small; but as its velocity is immense, the effects produced must likewise be immense. Now, all the velocities which we can produce are almost as nothing compared with those of the particles of dissociated matter. We can scarcely exceed 1 kilometer per second by the means at our disposal, while the velocity of the radio-active particles is 100,000 times greater. Hence the tremendous effects produced. Rutherford has said that the energy manifested in radio-active phe- nomena is ‘* perhaps a million times greater than that produced by the various known reactions of molecular forces.” He also remarks—and he is, as far as I know, the first physicist who has decided to make such a statement—that ‘‘since the radio-active elements do not differ from the other chemical elements by any of their chemical characters, there is no reason to think that the enormous reserve of energy they possess is peculiar to them alone. It seems probable, then, that atomic energy is general and of equal force in all bodies.” “ This is the thesis that I have constantly defended and upon which I have for a long time based my contention concerning the existence of a new form of energy surpassing in force all we have hitherto known. Shall we some day succeed in easily liberating this colossal force that lies within the atoms? No one can tell. Neither could one have @ Philosophical Magazine, May, 1903, p. 590. INTRA-ATOMIU ENERGY, 269 told in the time of Galvani that the energy which was used with diffi- culty to twitch the legs of a frog and attract small fragments of paper would one day set in motion enormous railway trains. Perhaps it will always be beyond our powers to completely dissoci- ate the atom, because the difficulty would probably increase as disso- ciation advances, yet to dissociate a very small part would suftice. If, as physicists still claim, matter, instead of being an immense reservoir of energy, can only restore the energy communicated to it by some means or other—heat, for example—it is evident that in order to produce the dissociation of matter there would be necessary an expenditure of work exactly equal to that which the results of the dissociation would perform, conformably to one of the fundamental principles of thermo-dynamics. It can not, however, be longer held that the energy exhibited by the dissociated atom comes from without; it must be borrowed from the enormous reserve that it possesses. Besides, even if it were merely an agent in the transformation of energy, the importance of dissociation would still remain, since we can produce it by agents that are to-day absolutely free to all and unutilized, such as light.“ MATTER CONSIDERED AS AN ENORMOUS CONDENSATION OF ENERGY. The indisputable fact that the atom is a reservoir of energy leads immediately, in my opinion, to the hypothesis that matter is com- posed only of condensed energy of a special mode, whence result its weight, its form, and its fixity. It is to energy thus considered that we give the name of matter. Some ancient facts, quite anterior to the discovery of the cathodic rays, already pointed to this idea. Take, for example, the quantity of electricity extracted from bodies by electrolysis. A gram of a substance such as hydrogen contains a charge of 96,000 coulombs. The electricity must be there in a state of very considerable condensa- tion, since by no means at our disposal can we make an insulated body of the size we have mentioned hold more than a very small fraction of this charge. Joubert has observed that the quantity of electricity con- tained in a cubic centimeter of hydrogen would suffice to charge a sphere as large as the earth with a potential of 6,000 volts. In my opinion electricity is only one of the manifestations of spe- cial energy contained in the atoms. It is the state of prodigious con- densation of this energy that permits the generation of the enormous “In a recent work (On ether and gravitational matter through infinite space) Lord Kelyin expresses himself as follows: ‘‘The mechanical value of a cubic kilometer of solar light is equal to 412 kilogram meters, equivalent to the work of a horsepower for five and one-half seconds. This result may give some idea of the actual total of the mechanical energy of the luminous vibrations and of the forces contained in our atmosphere.”’ 270 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. quantity of electricity that the atom can produce, only a part of which, very probably, appears in ordinary electrolysis. This is not an hypothesis, since, in the radio-activity manifested by simple bodies, the quantity of electricity liberated for a given weight of matter is considerably larger than in electrolysis. In all the ordinary operations to which we submit matter—fusion, vaporization, etc., and in all chemical operations—we communicate to it an additional amount of energy, which apparently augments the movements of rotation or vibration of the atoms, but we do not touch their structure, and that is why matter so easily resumes its primitive state, as we see it do, for example, when we allow a liquefied body to cool. Section 5.—TZhe transition between the ponderable and the cmpon- derable. Current ideas as to the distinction between the ponderable and the im- ponderable.-—Science formerly classified the various phenomena of nature by placing them in clearly separated groups, between which there appeared to be no connection. These distinctions existed in all branches of knowledge. The discovery of the laws of evolution occasioned the disappearance from the natural sciences of the divisions that had previously seemed insuperable barriers, and from the protoplasm of primitive creatures up to man the chain is to-day almost uninterrupted. Missing links are restored every day, and we now see how changes have been effected in the course of time from the most simple to the most com- plex beings. Physics has followed a similar road, but all the chasms that separate its different branches have not yet been spanned. It has slowly got rid of the fluids that formerly embarrassed it. It has discovered the relations between the different forces and now admits that they all are but varied manifestations of something indestructible—energy. Thus it has established the serial permanence of phenomena, has shown the existence of continuity where only discontinuity formerly appeared. The law of the conservation of energy is in reality only a simple state- ment of this continuity. In order to establish continuity throughout, physies has still an enormous step to take. It still maintains that there is a deep gulf between the ponderable and the imponderable; that energy and matter are sharply separated, matter and ether no less So. In the present state of scientific thought two ideas are current that should be considered apart; first, matter can not itself create energy; second, the imponderable ether is entirely distinct from ponderable matter—that is to say, it has no analogy with it. INTRA-ATOMIO ENERGY. Ot ah The foundations on which these ideas were established seemed to be so solid that they would defy the inroads of time. We shall, how- ever, endeavor to show that new facts tend to successfully undermine them. The transformation of matter into energy.—A material system isolated from all external action can not spontaneously generate energy. If we suppose it to be endowed with an internal energy, chemical or other-’ wise, its quantity of energy will remain invariable as long as the system is subject only to internal action. This is one of the great principles of thermo-dynamics. All past scientific observations seemed to entirely confirm this idea, that no substance can produce energy without having first borrowed it from without. All thermo-chemistry is based on the principle that **the heat disengaged or absorbed in the decomposition of a body is exactly equal, and contrary in sign to that which it has been necessary to employ for its transformation.” To cause the disappearance of this sharp separation we have just noted it is necessary to succeed in transforming matter into energy without furnishing anything from without. Now it is just this spon- taneous transformation that is shown us by all the experiments I have cited on the radio-activity of matter. The spontaneous produc- tion of energy thus shown, so at variance with current scientific ideas, has much embarrassed physicists, who have tried in vain to discover, outside of the matter affected, the origin of the energy manifested by it. We have seen that the explanation becomes very simple as soon as we consent to admit, in accordance with the clearest evidence, that matter contains a reserve of energy which it can partially lose, either spontaneously or under slight exciting influences. It may doubtless be said that it is not really matter that is transformed into energy, but merely an intra-atomic energy that is given out. Yet, as this energy of intra-atomic origin can not be generated without the final disappear- ance of matter, we are justified in saying that this is just what would happen if matter were transformed into energy. To state this more fully it would first be necessary to understand the intimate nature of matter and energy, which no one thus far has been able to do. The transition between the ponderable and the imponderable Proper- ties of the substance intermediate between matter and ether.—We have now reached the second of the propositions above enunciated as one of the great scientific dogmas of the present day, namely, that the ponder- able and the imponderable, that is to say, matter and ether, are abso- lutely distinct, and that there is no connection between them. In order to prove that this is not the case, we must show that the effluvia generated by all bodies during their dissociation consist of a substance having characters intermediate between those of ether and those of matter. PA? INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. During many years physicists have held that the particles emitted in the phenomena of radio-activity were merely fragments of atoms, doubtless charged with electricity, but nevertheless always formed of matter. This opinion might seem to be confirmed by the fact that radio- active emissions are often accompanied by a projection of material particles. In a Crookes tube the emission of solid particles from the cathode is so considerable that they metallize plates exposed to their projection. Similar deportation of matter is likewise observed in most electric phenomena, notably when electricity having a sufficiently high poten- tial passes between two electrodes. The spectrum of the electric sparks then formed always shows the lines characteristic of the metals of which the electrodes are formed. After repeated discharges between a ballof gold and one of silver, we find silver on the gold ball and gold onthe silver one. With currents of high frequency Monsieur Oudin showed that electrodes of amalgamated gold, used in air having the ordinary pressure, lose nearly one-tenth of a milligram of their weight per hour. In these yarious cases matter is doubtless carried away by the velocity of the electric molecules, as is the sand of the sea by the violence of the waves. Still another reason seemed to clearly prove the materiality of the rathodic emissions. They can be deflected by the magnetic field; besides, they are charged with electricity, and as electricity had not been known to be transported without material support it was neces- sary to presuppose the existence of such a support: It is true that, in the theory of electrons, it is admitted that the electric atom in motion, wholly free from all matter, behaves exactly like a current and can be deflected by a magnet; but some years ago that theory, unsupported by the discovery since made by Zeemann, had not the considerable extension it has to-day. The kind of matter-dust supposed to form the emissions from the cathode and from radio-active bodies showed very singular charac- teristics for a material substance. According to the experiments of J.J. Thomson, the products of this emission were identical, no matter what might be the body dissociated. The electric charge and the mass being always the same, it was necessary to admit that in different bodies identical elements were found. These supposed material elements had likewise lost all the properties of the matter that gavethem birth. Lenard showed this clearly when he sought to verify one of the ancient hypotheses, according to which the effluvia generated by ultra-violet light impinging upon metals are composed of dust torn from the surface of metals. Taking a body sodium—easily dissociated by light, and which can also be detected in infinitesimal quantities in air by means of the spectroscope, he found INTRA-ATOMIO ENERGY. Wo that the products of dissociation showed no trace of sodium. If, then, the effluvia of radio-active bodies are matter, such matter pos- sesses none of the properties of that from which it was derived. Max Abraham and Kaufmann proved that the dissociated atoms of radio-active phenomena are transformed into something extremely dif- ferent from matter, and which they consider to be composed exclusively of atoms of electricity; that is to say, of what one to-day calls electrons, bodies without weight, which differ essentially from ordinary matter, having no character in common with it except a certain amount of inertia. Inertia is, as is well known, the resistance, whose cause is unknown, that bodies oppose to movement or change of movement. It can be measured and its measure is defined by the term ‘*mass.” Mass, then, is the measure of the inertia of matter, its coefficient of resist- ance tomovement. It has an invariable value for every material body, one which remains invariable throughout all the transformations to which that body may be subjected. Constancy of mass is, as I men- tioned above, one of the fundamental principles ef mechanics and of chemistry. Now, this property possessed by the material atom is also possessed by the electric atom to a certain degree. For some years it has been admitted that electricity is endowed with inertia. It is, indeed, by means of this property that we explain the phenomena of induction and of oscillating discharges. We are ignorant whether that inertia has the same unit of measure as the inertia of matter. Some physi- cists suppose, without, indeed, being able to offer any proof, that the inertia of matter is due to the electrons and is entirely of electro- magnetic origin. It does not seem, however, that we can identify the inertia of mat- ter with that of the electric atom whose mass is, in reality, only an apparent mass, resulting simply from its state of an electrified body in movement. The electric corpuscle seems to have a longitudinal mass (measured by opposition to acceleration in the direction of motion) different from its transversal mass (perpendicular to the direc- tion of motion). It is clear that the properties of an electric atom differ considerably from those of a material atom. What, then, is the constitution of these hypothetical electric atoms emitted by all bodies during radio-activity / The answer to that question will furnish us with exactly the link between the ponderable and the imponderable, for which we are searching. It is evidently impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to define an electric atom, but we can at least characterize it thus: A substance that is neither a solid, a liquid, nor a gas, that has no weight, that traverses obstacles without difficulty, and that has no 974 INTRA-ATOMIO ENERGY. property in common with matter, except a certain inertia, and, what - is more, an inertia varying with the velocity, that is more like ether than matter and forms a transition between them. The formation of effluvia is an incontestable testimony to the trans- formation of the ponderable into the imponderable. This transformation, so contrary to all the precepts laid down by science, is nevertheless one of the most frequent phenomena in nature. It is daily effected under our eyes, but as we formerly possessed no reagent for testing it it was unobserved. Section 6.— The current conception as to atoms. Origin of current ideas concerning the structure of atoms.—Those scientists who follow in foreign journals the experiments and discus- sions of the most eminent physicists of the present day, such as Lord Kelvin, J. J. Thomson, Crookes, Larmor, Lorentz, and many others, have before them a curious spectacle. They see melting away before them, day by day, fundamental scientific conceptions that seemed estab- lished solidly enough to remain forever. Being unable to give, in detail, the steps of this evolution, I will confine myself to stating summarily the researches of which the present theories seem the necessary consequence. Five fundamental discoveries were the origin of the transformation of ideas concerning matter and electricity. These were, first, facts revealed by the study of electrolytic dissociation; second, the discoy- ery of the cathodic rays; third, that of the X-rays; fourth, that of the so-called radio-active bodies, such as uranium and*radium; fifth, the demonstration that radio-activity is not a peculiar property of certain bodies, but is a general property of matter. The oldest of these discoveries, since, indeed, it goes back to Davy— that is to say, to the commencement of the last century—is that of the — dissociation of chemical compounds by an electrical current. Its study was completed later by various physicists, notably by Faraday, and, in our time, by Arrhenius. It led on toward the theory of atomic electricity and the preponderating influence which electric atoms or electrons have in chemical reactions and the properties of bodies. It seemed formerly that electric dissociation could only be obtained from compound bodies, never with simple ones. Yet, as soon as the vathodic rays and radio-activity were discovered, the theory of electric dissociation seemed to explain them very well on the simple condition of admitting that the atoms of a simple body contain, like those of a compound body, electric atoms having contrary signs and susceptible, like them, of separation. The second of these discoveries, that of the cathodic rays, suggested the idea that there might be a state of matter different from any hitherto known; but this idea remained without influence up to the lod INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. DEES) day when Réntgen, examining more closely the Crookes tubes which physicists had been using for more than twenty years without seeing anything new in them, discovered that they gave out peculiar rays, absolutely different from any then known, to which he gave the name of X-rays. By this discovery a quite unforeseen thing, entirely new, since it found no analogy of any kind in known phenomena, was placed before the world of science. The discovery of the radio-activity of uranium followed closely upon that of the X-rays, and had the consequences which I have already stated. It led especially to the admission that the atoms of certain bodies, supposed at first to be exceptional in character, possess the extraordinary property of dissociating themselves, but, as I showed that this property belongs to all bodies, it was necessary to recognize that there exists in matter a special and universal property totally unknown hitherto, and from which it results that the structure of the atom is necessarily very different from that which had for a long time been supposed. Present ideas as to the structure of atoms.—The first origin of our present ideas concerning the structure of atoms was a consequence of Faraday’s discoveries in electrolysis. He proved that the molecules of compound bodies carry a charge of neutral electricity, definite and constant in amount, which becomes dissociated into positive ions and negative ions when solutions of metallic salts are traversed by an electric current. The atom was soon considered as composed of two elements, a material particle and an electric charge which was believed to be combined with it or superposed upon it. In this phase of the evolution of ideas the positive electron and the negative electron are merely two substances to be added to the list of elementary bodies with which they are capable of combining. The idea of the material atom still persists. In the present evolution there is a tendency to go much further. After asking themselves whether this material support of the electron yas really necessary, many physicists have reached the conclusion that itis not. They reject it entirely and consider the atom as wholly con- stituted of an aggregate of electrical corpuscles without any material support. The structure of matter would then be exclusively electrical. This is evidently a considerable step, and by no means all physi- cists have yet taken it. Classical ideas prepossess our minds too completely to be easily got rid of; but, judging from the general ten- dency at the present time, it would seem quite possible that this idea may itself become classical in its turn. As soon as the material atom is generally considered as a simple ageregation of electric corpuscles we are very quickly led to admit that it is only a condensation of energy. 276 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. According to the partisans of the exclusively electric structure of matter, the atom is entirely made up of a certain number of electric vortices. Around a small number of positive electrons there whirl, with dizzy velocity, the negative electrons to the number of a thou- sand, and often more. Taken together they form an atom, which is thus a sort of solar sys- tem in miniature. ‘*The material atom,” says Larmor, **is composed of electrons, and of nothing else.” These electrons, by neutralizing each other, render the atom elee- trically neutral. The latter becomes positive or negative only when it is deprived of electrons of corresponding contrary signs, as is done in electrolysis. All chemical reactions are due to losses or gains in electrons. It will be seen that the old atom of the chemists, formerly considered so simple, is really remarkably complex. It is a veritable siderial system, comprising a sun and planets that gravitate about it. From the architecture of this system are derived the properties of the var- ious atoms, but all have the same fundamental elements. Srotion 7.— “ther the fundamental substance of atoms. The greater part of the phenomena studied by physics—light, heat, radiant electricity, ete.—are considered as produced by vibrations of the ether. Gravitation, from which we derive a knowledge of celestial mechanics and the course of the stars, seems to be still another of its manifestations. The theoretical speculations on the constitution of atoms seem also to demand the ether for a basis. — ; The necessity for the ether has long been realized, because no phe- nomenon would be conceivable without the existence of this medium. Without it there would probably be neither weight, nor light, mor electricity, nor. heat—in a word, nothing of that with which we are acquainted. The universe would be silent and dead, or would manifest itself in a form utterly inconceivable. If we could construct a cham- ber of glass from which the ether was entirely removed, neither heat nor light could traverse it. It would be absolutely black, and probably gravitation would cease to act upon bodies placed within it. They would then lose all their weight. Yet, as soon as we attempt to define the properties of the ether, enormous difficulties appear. They arise, especially, from the fact that, being unable to connect it with anything known, terms of com- parison, and consequently of definition, fail entirely. When the books on physics say, in a few lines, that the ether is an imponderable medium that fills the universe, the first idea that comes into the mind represents it as a kind of gas sufficiently rarefied to be imponderable by the means at our-disposal. It is not difficult to imag- ine such a gas. A. Miller has calculated that if we should diffuse INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. Mw 6 the matter of the sun ‘and the planets that surround it throughout @ space equal to that which separates us from the nearest fixed stars, a cubic myriameter of such matter thus diffused into a gaseous state would scarcely weigh the millionth of a milligram, and would con- sequently be imponderable in our balances. A gas of such tenuity, representing perhaps the primitive state of our nebula, would be a quadrillion times less dense than the vacuum carried to the mil- lionth of an atmosphere in a Crookes tube. Unhappily the constitution of the ether can not be compared in any way with that of a gas. Gases are very compressible, while ether can not be notably compressed. If it were, it could not transmit almost instantaneously the vibrations of light. It is only in fluids theoretically perfect, or, better yet, in solids, that we can find distant analogies with the ether; but we must then imagine a substance having very singular properties. It must have a rigidity surpassing that of steel, for if it did not possess that it would not transmit luminous vibrations at a speed of 300,000 kilometers per second. The most illustrious of our modern physicists, Lord Kelvin, considers ether as ‘‘an elastic solid filling all space.” The elastic solid that forms the ether has very strange properties for a solid, properties which we find in no other. Its extreme rigidity must be associated with an extraordinarily low density—that is to say, so low that its friction is unable to retard the motion of the stars in space. Hein has calculated that if the density of the ether were only a million times less than that of the air of a Crookes tube it would produce a secular alteration of half a second in the average motion of the moon. Such a medium, in spite of its greatly reduced density, would soon remove the atmosphere from the earth. It has been cal- culated that if it had the properties that we attribute toa gas it would acquire by its impact with the surface of planets deprived of atmos- phere, like the moon, a temperature of 38,000°. Finally we reach the idea that the ether is a solid without density or weight, unintelli- gible as such a proposition may seem. In order to explain the phenomena observed we must admit that in this subtance, more rigid than steel, bodies move freely, and we may produce in it, by setting on fire any substance whatever, those pro- digiously rapid vibrations called light—vibrations of such velocity that if we compare them with the speed of a cannon ball the latter seems at rest. With a piece of glass cut in a certain manner we can deflect the luminiferous ether from its course and separate its vibra- tions. It is an agent that we encounter everywhere, that we set into vibration and deflect at will, but which we can never seize. That which is still more astonishing is the magnitude of the forces which the ether is able to transmit. An electromagnet must act across a vacuum by the intermediation of the ether. Now, as Lord Kelvin OS INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. remarks, it acts upon iron at a distance with a force that may amount to 110 kilograms per square centimeter. ** How is it,” says the great physicist, ‘‘that these tremendous forces are developed within the ether and that nevertheless solid bedies are free to moye through this solid?” Wedo not know and we can not tell whether we shall ever know. Wedo not know the actual relations existing between electricity and the ether, although it seems more and more evident that one is derived from the other. Maxwell considers the ether ** as composed of small spheres animated with a very rapid movement of rotation which they transmit from one to another.” Fresnel regarded its elasticity as constant, but its density as variable. Other physicists believe, on the contrary, that its density is constant and its elasticity variable. Most of them think that it is not displaced by the movements of the material systems that traverse it, but passes through the interstices of all molecules as water passes through sand. The physicists are, however, wholly agreed that the ether is a substance entirely different from matter and that it is not subject to the laws of gravitation. It is a substance without weight and imma- terial in the usual sense of that word. It forms the world of the imponderable. If the ether has no weight it must nevertheless have mass, since it presents resistance to movement. This mass is very slight, since the rapidity of the propagation of light is very great. If it were nothing at all, such propagation would be instantaneous. The question of the imponderability of ether, which was discussed for a long time, seems now definitely settled. It was quite recently taken up by Lord Kelvin,“ and, for mathematical reasons, which I can not detail here, he arrives at the conclusion that the ether is formed by a substance in no way under the control of the laws of gravitation— that is to say, imponderable. ** But,” adds he, ‘‘ we have no reason to consider it as absolutely incompressible, and we may admit that a suf- ficient pressure might condense it.” It is probable that from this condensation, effected at the begin- ning of time by a mechanism of which we are entirely ignorant, are derived the atoms which are considered by many physicists, notably Larmor, as nuclei of condensation in the ether having the form of little vortices endowed with an enormous rotatory velocity. ‘* The material molecule,” writes this physicist, ‘‘is formed entirely by the ether, and by nothing else.” ? It is difficult to believe that with such properties the ether is homo- geneous. If it had been so, the worlds could not have been formed. «On the clustering of gravitational matter in any part of the universe. (Philo- sophical Magazine, Jan., 1902.) > Ether and Matter. S8vo. 400 pages. London, 1900. The work treats, however, of ether and matter from a mathematical point of view only. INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. 979 Srecrion 8.—J/ntra-atomic chemical reactions producing the dissociation of matter. In examining the properties of radio-active bodies we reached the conclusion that the radiations they produce come solely from the energy furnished by the atom where it is found in a state of enormous condensation. The radiating particles would then be a product of a disintegration effected in the very interior of the atom. This disintegration, however, necessarily implies a change of equi- librium in the arrangement of the numerous elements that compose anatom. Evidently it is only by passing to other forms of equilibrium that it can lose its energy, and consequently cause radiations. The variations of which it is, then, the seat, differ from those with which chemistry is acquainted by this fundamental particular, that they are intra-atomic, while the ordinary reactions affecting only the architecture of groups of atoms are extra-atomic. Ordinary chemistry can only vary the arrangement of the stones that form an edifice. In the dissociation of atoms the materials of which the edifice is con- structed are themselves changed. We are ignorant of the mechanism by which this atomic disaggre- gation is effected, but it is quite clear that it implies conditions of a special kind necessarily very different from those hitherto studied by chemistry. The quantities of matter involved are infinitely small and the energy liberated is extraordinarily great, which is the opposite of what occurs in our ordinary reactions. We have always maintained“ that there is an analogy between the phenomena observed and those peculiar chemical reactions that pro- duce phosphorescence. These reactions take place between bodies of which one, in infinitesimal proportions to the other, probably acts by commencing a dissociation. Sulphate of quinine, for example, is not radio-active. By allowing it to become hydrated after desiccation it shows radio-activity as long as the hydration lasts. Mercury and tin present but slight traces of radio-activity under the influence of light, but by adding to the first of these bodies a small portion of the second its radio-activity soon becomes very intense.” “See especially Comptes rendus de l’ Académie des Sciences, April, 1900, p. 892, and Revue Scientifique, April, 1900, p. 452. bLa variabilité des especes chimiques (Revue Scientifique, December 22, 1900). In the bulbs of incandescent lamps it is noted that the incandescence is no longer produced if the proportion of oxide of cerium added to the oxide of thorium is less than 1 per cent. Armstrong and Auer admit that the incandescence is due to an oscillatory oxidation—that is to say, one that is alternately produced and extin- guished. When oxidated the cerium might combine with thorium, when there would soon be decomposition, then reoxidation and combination, and so on. These reac- tions, produced millions of times a second, occasion the luminous oscillations of the ether which produce incandescence. The theory is very much open to discussion, and I reproduce it here only to show that the idea of reactions that are set up and discontinued millions of times a second, and consequently very different from all those known, seems very acceptable to eminent chemists. Syn 1903=—=19 280 INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. The idea that radio-activity originates ina peculiar chemical process has rallied to its support several eminent physicists. Notably, it has been adopted and defended by Rutherford. ‘*Radio-activity,” says he, ‘‘is due to a succession of chemical changes in which new types of radio-active matter are continually formed. It is a process of equilibrium in which the cost of the pro- duction of new radio-activity is balanced by the loss of the radio- activity already produced. The radio-activity is maintained by the continual production of new quantities of matter possessing tempo- rary radio-activity. ‘*A radio-active body is, for that very reason, one which is being transformed. Radio-activity is the expression of its incessant loss. Its change is necessarily an atomic disaggregation. The atoms which have lost something are, by that fact alone, new atoms.” “ Although the quantity of energy radiated by the atoms that are undergoing a commencement of disaggregation may be relatively very great, the loss of material substance that occurs in these reac- tions is very slight, precisely because of the enormous condensation of energy that is contained in the atom. Professor Becquerel has estimated that 1 gram of radium loses 1 milligram of matter in a thou- sand millions of years. Professor Curie contents himself with one million years. Still more modest, Professor Rutherford speaks only of some thousands of years, and Professor Crookes of hundreds of years. These figures, the first of which are quite fantastic, are reduced more and more as more accurate experiments are made. According to certain experiments of my own, 1 gram would last one hundred years, which is just the figure given by Professor Crookes. The matter can only be absolutely settled by repeated experiments. Yet even if we accept the figure that Professor Rutherford gives of some thousands of years for the duration of 1 gram of radium, it would suffice to prove that if uranium, thorium, and radium had existed with their radio-active properties in the geological epochs they would long ago have disappeared. This again supports our theory that rapid spontaneous radio-activity appeared only after the bodies became engaged in certain chemical combinations capable of affecting the stability of their atoms, combinations which we may succeed in reproducing. What is the nature of these combinations? Of this we are yet ignorant, but the various examples cited in my preceding papers? prove that there exists a whole series of reactions (hydration of various substances, decomposition of water, decomposition of carbide of calcium, etc.), capable of causing atomic dissociation, and which « Philosophical Magazine, February, 1903. > Revue Scientifique, April, 1900, p. 892, and November 15, 1902, p. 621. INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. 281 have not been taken into account by chemists because their balances, the most essential means for testing, are not sufficiently sensitive to show the changes that occur. It is evident that we do not yet know the mechanism of the intra- atomic reactions that produce radio-activity, but we do already know some of the conditions capable of producing this phenomenon toa certain degree. In chemistry it is not necessary to know all the con- ditions of a reaction, but often only a small number of them, in order to cause that reaction to appear. Chemical News, June 12, 1903, p. 281. [See also present Smithsonian Report, p. 241.] INTRA-ATOMIC ENERGY. 293 own axes and about the sun. According to the new ideas concerning the composition of atoms, we are authorized to suppose that each of them was formed in a similar manner, and, in spite of its minute size, represents a veritable solar system. Yet our nebula, like those which still continue to illuminate the night, necessarily came from something. In the present state of science we can only suggest the ether as a possible source from which this something arose, and that is why all investigations lead us back to considering it as the fundamental element in the universe. The worlds were born in it and they will die in it. We are ignorant how an atom came to be formed and why it ends by slowly disappearing; but we at least know that a similar evolution is taking place in the worlds that surround us, since we can observe them going through all the phases of evolution from the nebula to the cooled star, passing through the stage of incandescent suns similar to our own. The transformations of the inorganic world now appear to be as certain as those of organized beings. The atom and conse- quently matter do not escape from this sovereign and mysterious law which rules over the birth, growth, and death of the innumerable stars which people our firmament. It is in these atomic systems, which were ignored for so long a time because of their extreme minuteness, that we must doubtless look for the explanation of some of the mysteries that surround us. The infi- nitely little may perhaps contain the secrets of the infinitely great. It is not only from a purely theoretical point of view that it is nec- essary to thoroughly study the atomic systems and the tremendous energies that work within them. Science may be on the eve of cap- turing these energies whose existence was unsuspected and thus ren- der unnecessary the mining of coal. The provision of combustibles that the terrestrial strata contain is rapidly becoming exhausted, and if this reservoir of energy fails, manufactures, the essential element of civilization, are destined to perish. Without coal, indeed, railroads and steamboats would be stopped, factories closed, and electric lights extinguished. The man of science who finds the means of economically liberating the forces that matter contains will almost instantaneously change the face of the world. An illimitable source of energy being gratuitously at the disposal of man, he would not have to procure it by severe labor. The poor would be the equals of the rich, and the social question would be no longer agitated, THE ELECTRIC FURNACE.¢ By J. Wrieur. There are few inventions in the electrical field which have benetited the chemist and metallurgist more than that comprised under the gen- eral title of ‘* electric furnace.” Up to, comparatively speaking, a few years ago the highest attainable temperature by any known artificial means was 1,800° C., or, possibly, with exceptional facilities and the exercise of great care, as high a temperature as 2,000° C. may, in some cases, have been attained, though the exact limit is questionable; cer- tainly it does not rise much above the latter figure. Thanks, how- ever, to the indefatigable researches of Moissan, Siemens, Borchers, Cowles, and some other investigators, we now possess a means for the artificial production of temperatures far above this limit, which enable us to fuse and otherwise treat commercially such hitherto refractory substances as chromium, platinum, carbon, and even the once inde- structible crystalline form of that element, the diamond. Generally speaking, electric furnaces may be divided under two main headings, namely, those in which the heating effect is produced by the electric are established between two carbon or other electrodes connected with the source of current, commonly known as are fur- naces; and those in which the heating effect is produced by the pas- sage of the current through a resistance, which either forms part and parcel of the furnace proper, or is constituted, by a suitably conduct- ing train, of the material to be treated in the furnace. The principle of this latter type is analogous to that involved in the heating to incandescence of the ordinary electric-lamp filament, and such fur- naces are, as a Class, known as resistance furnaces. The earlier electric furnaces naturally assumed an experimental- form, and of these that devised by Moissan, the celebrated chemist and investigator, is probably the simplest. It is an are furnace, and consists of two chalk blocks bored out at their centers to receive a carbon crucible, which incloses the center or hearth of the furnace proper. Into this cavity pass two massive carbon electrodes, through openings provided for them in the walls of the structure, which is June, 1903. SM 1903 20 mae 296 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. the carbon rods are provided, exterior to the furnace, and the are established between their inner extremities when the current is turned on plays over the center of the crucible, heating its contents. A furnace of this type, though its capacity is limited to a single charge of the crucible at each operation, has nevertheless proved itself of extreme utility in laboratory practice, and is a very efficient source of heat in that the hearth or center of activity is entirely sur- rounded by refractory, nonconducting walls. Very little heat is, consequently, lost by diffusion or radiation. A somewhat more elaborate modification of Moissan’s original fur- nace has been devised by Messrs. Ducretet & Lejeune, of Paris, and is shown in fig. 1. It consists of a refractory chamber R, built of fire brick or some other suitable material, and provided with an opening A, through which the substances to be treated may be introduced. C C are carbon rods supported in massive tubular clamps TT, which are water-jacketed to keep down their temperature to a safe limit. Bisa varbon or magnesia crucible, forming the hearth of the furnace and containing a charge of the material to be treated, while W is a remoy- able window or inspection opening, fitted with ruby glass, through which operations requiring only a moderate heat can be watched while in progress. When utilized for higher temperatures, this glass slide is replaced by a slab of refractory material, such as fire brick. The carbons CC project through the walls of the furnace at right angles to each other, and the necessary separation of their inner extremities for the establishment of the are takes place at a point just above the mouth of the crucible B,as shown. A system of tubes leads into the interior of the chamber R, and serves, when required, for the introduction of special gases with which it may be necessary to cause the contents of the crucible to enter into chemical combination. A horseshoe permanent magnet M, manipulated at the exterior, exerts a repellant foree upon the are, directing it down into the crucible as desired, after the manner of a blowpipe. Sir William Siemens was the first to apply the electric are furnace to commercial operations, and his apparatus and experiments were described in a paper read by him before the Society of Telegraph TEE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 297 Engineers. According to this astute investigator, who scems to have, in a measure, grasped the conditions and general principles necessary to the successful operation of an are furnace—no mean conception, when one considers the general lack of knowledge on the subject which prevailed at the time (over twenty years ago)—the advantages in favor of the electric furnace as a source of heat are that, theoretic- ally, the heat obtainable is unlimited; fusion is effected in a perfectly neutral atmosphere; the operation can be carried on in a laboratory, without much preparation, and under the eye of the operator; and that the limit of heat practically obtainable with the use of ordinary refractory materials is very high, because in the electric furnace the fusing material is at a higher temperature than the crucible, whereas in ordinary fusion the temperature of the crucible exceeds that of the material fused within it. The general principle of the early Siemens arc furnace is represented in fig. 2, in which B is a refractory crucible of plumbago, magnesia, lime, or other suitable material, which may be varied according: to the nature of the substance to be dealt with. It is supported at the center of a cylinder or jacket J, and is packed around with broken charcoal, or a similarly poor conductor of heat. Being thus isolated, as it were, from the sur- rounding atmosphere, it retains its heat, and very little is lost by diffusion. The negative electrode consists of a massive carbon rod C passing vertically through the center of the lid of the crucible and free to move vertically therein, though the clearance opening is, for obvious reasons, very small. The rod © is suspended from the lower end of a copper strap S, which conducts the current from it, being attached at its upper end to the curved extremity of a horizontal beam A. The other side of the beam is provided with an adjustable weight W, and carries, suspended from its extremity by a hinged joint, a hollow soft-iron cylinder ¢, forming the core of the solenoid E. P is a dash-pot arrangement in which the cylinder works, the tendency of E being to raise it out of P against the counteracting force of the weight W, thus lowering the negative > electrode into the crucible. The solenoid winding is connected as a shunt across the two electrodes. The positive electrode F, which may be of iron, platinum, or carbon, consists of a rod of one or the other of these materials passing up through the center of the base of the crucible. The furnace was originally designed by Siemens for the 298 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. fusion of refractory metals and their ores; consequently, once the action is started, electrical contact is established between the lower electrode F and the semimetallic mass in the crucible, and the are con- tinues to play between the surface of the mass and the movable carbon rod C. As the current through the furnace increases, that through the shunt winding of the solenoid diminishes, and the weight W coming into play causes its end of the beam to descend, thereby raising the negative electrode C and restoring equilibrium. The Willson furnace is essentially a modification of Siemens’s orig- inal form, the solenoid regulation of the upper movable carbon being replaced by a worm and hand wheel, while the furnace is made contin- uous in operation by the provision of a tapping hole for drawing off the molten products. This type of furnace was employed in the man- ufacture of calcium carbide, which, when drawn off in a molten state, is much purer than the ingot or broken-lump form, in which the greater bulk of that commodity is placed on the market. The Parks carbide furnace, de- vised by W. P. Parks, of Chicago, is of the arc variety and provides for the production of calcium carbide in the molten state. It is repre- sented in fig. 3 and consists of a vertical cylindrical structure F of refractory material, provided with a carbon hearth C, which at the same time acts as the negative elec- trode. 1t has an annular channel a cut in its upper surface, which latter is flush with the inner floor of F. This channel collects the molten carbide formed, and it drains down, to be ultimately drawn off at A. The upper, positive, electrode B consists of a massive, hollow carbon cylinder, in the lower half of which, or the portion inside the furnace F, are cut radial slots s s, which subdivide the electrode and tend to set up a circle of ares around the space bounded by the hearth. TT are gas-supply pipes, ending in hydrocarbon burners inside of B, which primarily heat the ‘aw material as it passes down the hollow center of the electrode. The feeding is effected from a hopper H by an Archimedean screw working in the casing D. An electrolytic furnace, utilized in the separation of aluminum from a mixture of purified alumina and cryolite, is that adopted in what is known as the Herault process. which is being worked by the British Fic. 3. THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 299 Aluminium Company, of Foyers, New Brunswick, and one or two metallurgical firms on the Continent. It consists of an outer iron casing or container F (fig. 4) resting on an insulating base. This container is lined with massive carbon plates, cemented together with tar or suitable conducting material, and so arranged as to form at the center a recess or hearth H, an outlet 0, from the bottom leading out to the exterior of the furnace, and pro- viding for drawing off the molten metal. A series of copper pins ¢ ¢, driven into the iron walls of the container, serve as a2 means of terminal connection to the carbon blocks, which constitute one electrode of the furnace, while the other, C, consists of a number of carbon plates, placed face to face, like the leaves of a book, the spaces between being filled in with some good electrical con- ductor, such as sheet copper. The composite electrode thus built up is mounted in a frame E, by means of which it can be raised or low- ered as required, and terminal con- nection is secured by means of an encircling clamp T. The electrode C passes through a clearance opening in the lid L of the furnace, which consists of graphite plates; openings pp are also provided for the intro- duction of the raw material (alumina and cryolite), thereby making the furnace continuous in operation. The furnace is charged with puri- fied alumina and cryolite, as already indicated, and, the electrode C having been lowered, the action is started. The heat thus set up, combined with the electrolytic action of the current, results in the setting free of metallic aluminum, while oxygen gas is evolved at the positive or varbon electrode and enters into combination with it, forming the gases monoxide and dioxide of carbon. The molten aluminum collects at the bottom of the hearth and is tapped off through the outlet 0, fresh material being fed in and the height of the electrode C regulated as the operation proceeds. The King furnace is also of the are variety and is utilized in the manufacture of carbide in ingot form. It consists of a fire-brick chamber, through the roof of which passes vertically the upper adjustable electrode. The lower, fixed, electrode is carried by a small truck or trolley, which runs along rails at the base of the structure and acts the part of crucible or hearth. The lime and carbon are fed into it down lateral.channels in the walls of the furnace and are caused to combine by the heat of the are set up. The upper electrode is gradu- ally raised as the raw material is fed in, until, at a certain point, the Fia. 4. 300 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. truck becomes filled with a block or mass of calcium carbide and is then wheeled out of the furnace to discharge its load. While fusion is in progress a slight reciprocating motion is given to the truck, which serves to shake the charge well down and introduce fresh por- tions of it into the path of the are proper. The Chavarria-Contardo arc furnace for the manufacture of calcium carbide pos- sesses several novel points. Its general principle is represented diagrammatically in fie. 5, where ee are the electrodes, run- ning parallel to one another and slightly above the axis of the channel or trough T, which forms the hearth; ¢ ¢ are thin graphite plates, built up to form a roof- shaped structure, which becomes itself intensely hot when the furnace is active. The raw material is fed in at A, and, pass- ing over the upper surfaces of ¢ c, receives a preliminary heating of no mean degree; it then passes down, taking the course indicated by the dotted lines, under the electrodes ¢ ¢ and into the trough T, where it is subjected to the most intense reflected heat of the arc. The molten carbide formed is drawn off by way of the outlet o. The disposal of the gases, especially carbon monoxide, resulting from the reactions in a carbide furnace has long -been a stumbling block to the manufacturer in that any attempt at modifying the furnace to this end resulted in undesira- ble complications and increased prime cost. This has been, in a measure, overcome in the Frélich are furnace for carbide manufac- ture, invented by Dr. Oscar Fré- lich, of Streglitz,Germany. The Fia. 5. general arrangement is shown in fig. 6 and consists of a cylin- | drieal iron crucible F, mounted s-ll on standards S, and tapering at its base to a central discharge orifice. LELLAAAL ASV OGSL AEG FE MMMM TELE hd, SS A lining of fire clay L protects the cylindrical wall, while the inner surface of the conical base is covered by the carbon electrode C. The remaining electrode consists of the massive carbon cylinder B, which is hollow, and depends, with its lower edge just over the dis- charge orifice, the are taking place between the two edges of the FIG. 6. THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 3801 earbons. Tubes TT lead from the upper portion of the carbon cylin- der B to the annular chamber R, just outside and inclosing the space bounded by the lower electrode C. The gases of combustion pass up the center of B, which acts as a flue, and down by way of the tubes T T to R, where they mingle with air, admitted through perforations in the casing, and are consumed, the final products passing out through the discharge pipe P. The raw material is fed into the mouth of the furnace around the central electrode, and, passing through the annular arcing region at the bottom, where it becomes converted into carbide, falls onto the adjustable conical table D. This is provided with a lip around its lower edge and is mounted on a stem s, which, gearing with the lever /, permits of its being raised or lowered according as the operation of the furnace is intermittent or continuous. The Denbergh furnace for the manufacture of sulphuric and phos- phoric acids, and also ‘* water-glass,” or sodium ortho-silicate, is shown in fig. 7. It consists of an ordinary fire-brick structure F, linedat 7 with arefractory material impervious to the gases produced in the reactions, an outlet for which gases is provided © at o. The body of the furnace is contracted below, as shown, and the outlet R for the fused products is led up within the walls themselves, from the point of lowest level to another point of higher level, which defines the depth of converted ma- terial contained within the furnace. The lid L carries a charge inlet 7 and a hopper H, the feeding being secured mechanically by a reciprocating movement communicated to the piston p, which works in a cylinder c, carrying a definite quantity before it at each stroke. The electrodes E E are of carbon, passing through terminal sockets in which they are capable of motion in a direction corresponding with their axes, which permits of feeding as they wear away, whilst the sockets, in turn, are mounted in a species of swivel joint, which allows the angle of inclination, and consequently the height of the arc, to be varied at will. Koller’s are furnace is of a simple description. It consists of a longitudinal chamber, with massive carbon blocks projecting through the end walls. A series of carbon blocks, supported in line with the terminal electrodes, are arranged along the chamber at regular inter- rals, their number varying according to the voltage. The are is thus split up into series, and a number of heated regions are secured in the center of the mass of raw material which is packed around the blocks. 302 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE, The Henriveux furnace, for the manufacture of glass, consists of three steps or slabs of refractory material, forming a species of cascade, the mixture to be fused being fed from a hopper onto the top step, whence it descends by gravity over the remainder. The heat from a powerful are is directed upon each of the three steps, and the mass, in passing through the series of three, emerges finally in a molten state, and is collected in a suitable receptacle at the bottom, where it is main- tained in a state of fusion by a gas or coke fire. It is said to bea very wasteful process in that a considerable quantity of the heat developed in the ares is lost or dissipated without performing useful work. Passing now to resistance fur- naces, Borchers’s is typical of that class in which a core, form- : ing part of the furnace itself, is ] IG heated by the passage of the cur- AMM] MOMMA OHOH_ ABW ent through it, and imparts its ara heat to the surrounding mass of material contained in the furnace. It is represented in fig. 8, and consists of a block B of refractory material, through the center of which passes an opening R, forming the crucible or center of activity into which is fed the material to be treated. This space R is bridged by a thin carbon rod c, which is attached at its extremities to two massive carbon electrodes C C, passing through the walls of the furnace and fed with current through the large metal clamps M. These massive electrodes serve to conduct the current without undue heating to the smaller rod ¢, through which it passes in turn, rais- ing it to a very high temperature, owing to the resistance offered to its passage by a conductor of considerably smaller cross section, and forming, as it were, a central, heated axis to the material con- tained in the crucible. It thus diffuses its heat throughout the mass from its center outwards. The Gibbs resistance furnace is based on the Borchers prin- FIG. 9. ciple, a carbon rod, or rods, of small section being supported between massive carbon blocks set in cast-iron sockets let into the brickwork. The novelty of this invention, however, lies in the position of the small resistance rods. These are located above the furnace charge and do not come into actual contact with it at all, the heat being communicated by reflection from the domed roof. The Acheson furnace for the manufacture of carborundum is a somewhat rudimentary device, in that it is built up and pulled down again for each charge of raw material dealt with. It is represented in diagram by fig. 9, in which F is a rough fire-brick structure, through THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 303 the end walls of which project the electrodes C C, consisting of com- posite bundles of carbon rods set in massive metal clamps M. The’ space between the two electrodes is bridged by a conducting path of coke A, which constitutes the distinct core of the furnace, and rele- gates it to the class of which Borchers’s furnace is a typical example. This core is packed round with the raw material N, consisting of coke, sand, sawdust, and common salt. The process of conversion is said to be far from economical. A resistance furnace, based upon the fundamental principle of the Nernst lamp, has been devised by Doctors Nernst and Glaser. The resistance, or heater, is cylindrical, electrical connection with it at the top and bottom being secured by an annular packing of some con- ducting oxide held in place by iron clamps and bolts. The hollow cylinder is surrounded by a jacket of oxide loosely packed between it and an outer cylindrical sheath, an arrangement which prevents undue waste of heat. The heating cylinder, which consists of a mix- ture of magnesia, calcium carbonate, alumina, and silica, is closed by a lid, and the substance to be treated is either packed directly into it or contained in a crucible located within it. In the former case the cylinder is protected internally by an additional lining of pure mag- nesia, coated with graphite to give it an initial conductivity. The Cowles furnace, again, is typical of that class of resistance fur- nace in which the path of high resistance consists of the material to be treated and does not form part of the furnace proper. The Cowles furnace first made its appearance in 1884, and takes several forms, all more or less similar in general principle, but differing in such details as affect the class of work for which they are intended. In its simplest form it consists of an oblong fire-brick structure, provided with a lid, in which are one or more vent holes to permit the escape of the gases generated. Massive carbon electrodes are intro- duced horizontally through the two ends of the furnace, electrical connection with them being secured, in an early form, by a species of tubular gland through which each electrode passed and which was filled with copper shot. In passing to and fro through these glands the carbon rods set up a kind of rolling friction with the shot, and fairly good electrical contact was thus established between them. A preliminary lining of granular charcoal was given to the furnace, which, being a bad conductor of heat, prevented undue loss due from radiation and diffusion. Inside this lining, again, was packed the par- tially conducting mass to be heated, forming a chain between the two carbon electrodes. When the current was turned on this mass became heated by the passage of the current through it, after the manner of the carbon filament in the ordinary incandescent lamp. 304 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. In a later form (fig. 10) of the Cowles furnace charging funnels F F were introduced through apertures in the lid, while the hearth sloped from either end to the center, at the lowest point of which was provided an outlet 0 for drawing off the molten products. C C are the carbon electrodes; G, the glands containing the shot; and c¢, the lining of non- conducting charcoal. The funnels F, by a judicious feeding process, cea provided a means of keeping the resist- c ance of the column of material fairly uni- form at all points, thus Insuring an even distribution of heat Fie. 10. throughout the mass. The Cowles furnace for the treatment of zinc ores was also of the resistance type, and is represented by fig. 11, where R is a long cyl- inder of fire clay, mounted in a brickwork setting and surrounded by a jacket of some refractory material J, which is also a bad conductor of heat. The inner end of the cylinder R is effectually closed by a flanged disk of carbon C, which also constitutes one electrode of the furnace, the other taking the form of a plumbago crucible P, the con- vex base of which fits into the outer extremity of the cylinder R and forms a remoyable seal. Further, by way of an aperture « in the wall of the crucible, the metallic zine passes over into it by distillation and is collected therein, a chimney or outlet ¢ serving to carry off the gases and fumes produced. The charge of broken zine ore is, as before, spread evenly along the cylinder, ‘ so as to form a semiconducting chain between the two electrodes. The Cowles furnace for the manufacture of aluminum alloys partook of the nature of Bor- chers’s furnace, although it had not, strictly speaking, a continu- ous resistance core of its own. Two massive tubular electrodes, Fig. 11. provided with a means for manual adjustment, carried close-fitting cores of smaller section, which inclined to one another and actually met, forming a conducting core of high resistance at a point in the center of the furnace immediately under the aperture of the feeding hopper. These smaller electrodes, together with the raw material fed on to them at the point of meeting, formed a conducting link of high resistance between the main electrodes, and the heating effect of the current was thus localized and confined to the point at which it was most needed, namely, at the feeding center of the cavity. A circular form of resistance furnace, devised by M. it. Conley THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 305 and intended mainly for the reduction of iron ores or the manufacture of steel, consists of a cylindrical fire-brick structure, the inner wall of which is contracted to form a narrow opening at about two-thirds of its depth to the hearth proper, which lies below. At the contraction is introduced a circular set of electrodes of segmental form, made of the usual compressed carbon mixture, and isolated from one another by intervening segments or pillars of fire brick. The electrode segments constitute an even number, and are con- nected alternately to the positive and negative poles of the source of current. Means of adjustment are provided which allow the segments to be fed radi- ally as they wearaway. A similar circle of segmental electrodes surrounds the central portion of the furnace proper, or crucible, which is located below the contraction and provided with an outlet for drawing off the molten metal as ites forms. By a suitable manipulation of - the current and connections to the fur- nace it is possible with this device to secure a combination of heated zones or paths through the mass of material under treatment, the position of which can be varied at will, so as to penetrate to all parts and secure a homogeneous and uniform fusion. The Readman-Parker furnace for the manufacture of phosphorus was invented independently by these two gentlemen in 1888, and they subsequently combined their ideas to form a community of interests. It consists of the usual fire-brick structure F, fig. 12, and feeding hopper H, the furnace being hermetically sealed in order to exclude atmosphericair. A discharge flue A carries off the gases and vapors formed during the process, and the interior of the chamber is contracted at its lower portion, as shown, to form a hearth. Mutiple electrodes EK E are employed, facing one another in two rows, passing through the side walls of the structure, while smaller electrodes ¢ e, below them, Fig, 13. which can be brought into closer prox- imity, are employed to start the current flow. These are subsequently withdrawn, and the action, which resembles that of a resistance fur- nace with a conducting path formed of the material under treatment, is maintained between the main electrodes E E. The ingot carbide furnace recently patented by Mr. Parker should have a decided future before it. The principle of its construction is represented in sectional plan in fig. 13, in which R is a cylindrical 306 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. retort or crucible lined throughout with carbon C, forming one elec- trode, the other being a massive carbon block of rectangular section B, which is supported at the center of the retort, and is of such dimensions that its corners approach very closely to the inner carbon walls of that vessel. The raw material is fed in at hoppers on either side of B, their position being indicated by the circles a and 6. While working the crucible and its contents revolve, thus constantly bring- ing fresh portions of the mass within the zone of activity, while by a ‘aretully proportioned train of gearing the electrode B is gradually raised at such a rate that its lower extremity is always immersed at a constant depth in the mass under treatment, while an ingot of finished ‘arbide is gradually built up beneath it in the erucible. A series of patents have been recently granted in the United States on electric furnaces for the manufacture of such comminuted products as pigments, abrasives, oxides, refined metals, and a miscellaneous collection of similar character. The general arrangement consists of an are or resistance furnace, with which is combined an air blast device, playing either immediately onto the furnace contents or upon the vapors arising from it. An ex- ample will serve to demonstrate the general principle involved. Fig. 14 represents a furnace of this description, devised by C. S$. Lomax and patented as recently as March, 1902. Itis intended for the manufac- Fig. 14, ture of the various commercial oxides of lead and tin. A refractory block F has a narrow channel ¢ cut in its upper surface; this constitutes the hearth of the furnace, and is of uniform cross section for about the center third of its length. At each extremity it merges into a deeper and wider wedge-shaped cavity, in either of which is placed, vertically, an electrode; Tis a main, supply- ing cold or heated air to the discharge jets ¢ ¢, which are set at such an angle that the air emerging from them is projected downward into the central trough or channel; L is a cover or screen which collects the products and guides them into the chamber R. The mode of procedure is exceedingly simple. The channel <¢, together with its enlarged ends, is filled with the molten lead or tin to be converted; the current is turned on, and that portion of the molten column bounded by the narrow central channel immediately attains a considerable temperature, owing to its smaller cross section. When the required heat has been reached the air blast is brought into play, ‘ausing the finely divided metallic particles to combine with its oxygen, the resulting compound being carried over into the chamber R. This form of furnace is adaptable to making a variety of oxides, the neces- sary changes in chemical combination being brought about by varying the respective temperatures of the air blast and the molten metal. THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 807 Ruthenburg’s electro-magnetic furnace is another practical example of the proverb ‘‘ Necessity is the mother of invention.” One of the purest sources for the extraction of metallic jron is ‘*iron sand” and similar ores, the process of treating which has hitherto been hampered by their finely divided state and consequent clogging of the smelting furnaces. Ruthenburg’s invention has in view the preliminary agglom- eration of this sand, with the object of thus converting it into a form more suitable for the ordinary operation of smelting. His furnace is represented in fig. 15, and consists of two similar cast-iron hoppers H H, hinged together at the point of support «, and into which the iron sand is fed at equal rates. The discharge orifices 00 are opposite to each other, and the distance between them can be varied at will by the handwheel and worm W. The two hoppers con- stitute the electrodes, terminal con- nection with them being secured as shown at ¢ ¢, where the discharge noz- zles are also water jacketed; C C are magnetizing coils encircling the hop- pers and having their windings con- nected either in series with or in shunt across the hoppers. Their office is to magnetize the individual particles of the sand, causing them to adhere together temporarily, and thus assist in forming a self-supporting mass M across the discharge apertures. This mass is subjected to the maximum heating effect, and the semimolten product drops away into the crucible t Va Ae \ t R, placed to receive it. R A novel type of resistance furnace, Fig. 15. patented independently, with some slight variation of detail, by Colby, Ferranti, and Ijellin, is worked on the inductive principle, and consists of an annular or helical channel in a refractory base, filled with a conducting or semiconduct- ing medium, which constitutes the furnace charge, and has a heavy current induced in it by a surrounding coil of many turns, carry- ing an alternating current. The device, in point of fact, acts as the closed circuit secondary of a step-down transformer, and is said to be admirably adapted for the fusing of such metals as platinum, which, if exposed to the atmosphere during the process, as in the ordinary type of furnace, occlude oxygen and other gases in their mass, which lead subsequently to blowholes and other imperfections in the casting. The Kjellin furnace principle has recently been applied to the manufacture of steel at Gysinge, Sweden, with great SUCCESS. 308 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. The experience of late years in the construction and use of electric furnaces trends toward the establishment of the resistance furnace as atype more readily capable of efficient regulation. This is further accentuated by the fact that overheating is, to a considerable extent, possible, and, indeed, prevalent in many types of furnace, especially those of the are variety. Scientists and others unversed in the possi- bilities of the electric furnace as a source of artificial heat hailed its introduction with delight as a means of overcoming many of the diffi- culties previously imposed by the limitations of temperature. In so doing they in many cases overlooked the very simple fact that it is possible to have too much of a good thing, and the consequent tend- ency was to overrate rather than underrate the temperature required for various commercial processes. Experience, however, has exposed this fallacy, and as a natural result we turn to that type of furnace which offers the best means of regula- tion and the absence of excessive variation, viz, the resistance furnace. Here again we are beset with fur- ther difficulties, for if we employ a portion of the charge itself as: high-resistance column, excessive variations creep in, owing to the changeable nature of the column with the reactions taking place within it, whereas if we employ : definite core of small cross section, as in the Borchers class, the capac- ity of the furnace is limited, and Fic. 16. the cost of its upkeep is increased by the very necessary and frequent renewal of the conducting rods. With a view to minimizing these various drawbacks, Mr. H. I. Irvine, of Niagara Falls, has brought out a resistance furnace in which the heated column consists of a fused electrolyte, maintained in a state of fusion by the passage of the current and communicating its heat by radiation and diffusion to the encircling charge which is packed around it. The general construction of this furnace, which was mainly designed for the manufacture of phosphorus, is represented in fig. 16. It con- sists of a refractory structure F, lined with carbon C, and fitted with a domed roof R, in the center of which is a hopper H. Two vertical carbon electrodes B B descend vertically through R to within a short distance of the hearth, whilst a possible variation in the direction of the heating effect is provided by lateral electrodes 6 6, connected with the hearth itself. The action of the furnace is first started through a mass of coke K, which forms a bridge between the electrodes B B, and is subsequently maintained by the fused slag from the furnace charge THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. 309 ‘. which flows down between the electrodes and is maintained at constant level by the overflow outlets 0 0. As pointed out by Mr. Carl Hering, the fire brick or other refrac- tory lining of all furnaces when heated becomes a conductor after the manner of a Nernst lamp glower. Though unavoidable, this is a con- tingency which, with furnaces of the resistance type at least, must be taken into account, in that it increases the total conductivity of the device and necessitates a corresponding increase in the working cur- rent. He further points out that the heat thus communicated is not lost, except in a small degree, consequent upon the decrease in the thickness of the nonconducting walls and the diminution of their heat- conserving qualities. Equally important with the selection of an easily regulated and com- paratively invariable electric furnace, ranks the question of tempera- ture determination. At the enormous temperatures developed in the electric furnace all previously known methods of temperature measure- ment, whether by thermometer or pyrometer, desert us, in that the constituent parts of these various apparatuses will not stand the direct application of such terrific heat. Here again stern necessity has been the means of inspiring investigators to action, with a view to discoy- ering some eflicient method for the measurement or comparison of these high temperatures. Fery’s suggested method for determining the high temperatures usually encountered in electric furnaces consists in a practical applica- tion of Stefan’s law, which is to the effect that the radiation of an absolutely black body is proportional to the fourth power of its abso- lute temperature. Kirchoff has proved that the interior of an inclosure of which the walls are at a uniform temperature is equivalent to an ‘absolutely black body,” i. e., a body which absorbs all the heat imparted to it, giving it out again by radiation, and not by reflection. In this connection, therefore, the interior wall of an electric or other inclosed furnace may be regarded as an absolutely black body, a small aperture in which does not materially affect the conditions governing this definition. Fery’s practical application of this law to the measurement of fur- nace temperatures consists in a species of telescope with a fluorspar objective. This telescope is placed in line with the aperture in the fur- nace wall, and, receiving the heat radiated therefrom, concentrates it upon a small thermo-couple. By an inner diaphragm, regulating the number of rays which reach the thermo-couple, the device is rendered independent of its distance from the furnace wall. The fluorspar objective, by its absorption of radiant heat, reduces the sensitiveness of the arrangement by about 10 per cent; but, notwithstanding this, it has proved of extreme utility, owing to its enormous range and its appleability in such cases as those with which we are dealing at the 310 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE. present moment, where other generally accepted methods are out of the question. The actual temperature is, of course, obtained from a specially prepared table or curve, and is read from the electro-motive force recorded by the thermo-couple. Another, somewhat crude, method of measuring furnace tempera- tures, into which the personal element is liable to enter, causing an error of judgment, consists in a telescope, as before, mounted on a convenient stand and placed in line with a small aperture in the furnace wall. Inside the tube of the telescope is located a small incandescent lamp, which can be energized by one or two battery cells, and the current through it, and an ammeter placed in series with it, regulated by a suitable switch and rheostat. The principle upon which its action depends is that which involves the apparent disappearance of the filament when raised to the same degree of incandescence as the fur- nace lining and viewed against the latter asa background. If the lamp be inactive, the filament appears as a black line; at equal incan- descence it becomes invisible, while if its state of incandescence be above that of the furnace it assumes the appearance of a white line. By regulating, therefore, the current through the lamp until the fila- ment apparently disappears, its temperature is made equivalent to that of the furnace, and the result is read on a specially prepared table. The limit of the apparatus is 3,600° F., so that for electric-furnace work its field of utility is somewhat limited. In the preceding paragraphs the writer has by no means covered the entire field of development of the electric furnace, but has confined himself to a brief description of those examples-which serve as a general type of the class to which they, respectively, belong. The subject is a large one, and its comprehensive study would fill a volume of no mean dimensions, while its importance from a chemical and metallurgical point of view must not be underrated. At the end of the year 1900 the power used in electric furnaces was estimated at 225,000 horsepower, of which 185,000 horsepower were employed in the manufacture of calcium carbide, 27,000 horsepower in the manufacture of aluminum, 11,000 horsepower in that of copper, while carborundum was responsible for the output of some 2,000 horsepower. Any gain, therefore, in the construction or working of electric furnaces, however slight, or apparently worthless, provides food for serious reflection, in that it may be the means of saving large sums of money annually. HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS.¢ By Grorcr H. Gipson. The electric railway is to perform a service for mankind as notable and perhaps ultimately as great as that rendered by its steam-operated precursor. Already it fees the bulk of suburban and short-distance interurban passenger traffic; it carries freight, mail, express, and bag- gage; it operates at speeds reaching 60 miles per hour; its cars are operated on time schedules and dispatched by telephone; its roadbed is often as expensive and heavy of construction as that of the best steam lines; and, what is more interesting to the investor, it pays large divi- dends. At the present time $1,600,000,000 are nominally invested in electric roads in the United States and upon this sum $7,000,000 are paid i in yearly dividends; 300,000 employees receive yearly in wages $250,000,000, and there are 20,000 miles of track on which 60,000 cars are run. In 1899, £0 miles of electric road were built for every mile of steam road constructed. The greatest development of interurban roads has taken place in the ereat agricultural districts of the Middle Western States, where they have grown to a truly surprising extent. It is often said that electric railways have checked the concentration of population in great cities by creating suburban districts, but in the farming regions they have had a still greater effect in building up many small centers of popula- tion. The Union Traction Company, of Indiana, operates 109 miles of interurban track and 54 miles of city track in the gas belt of that State and seryes a population of 350,000. It connects the cities of Ander- son, Marion, Muncie, Indianapolis, and about 20 smaller towns, and traverses 6 of the most prosperous counties of the State. The interur- ban lines are located almost entirely cn private right of way, protected by fences and cattle guards. Tests aave shown that a maximum speed of 58 miles an hour may be reacied and an average speed of 45. miles an hour maintained. Cars are run in each direction every hour, and special cars are furnished for theater parties, excursions, and picnics. The rates of fare are approximately 1 cent a mile. The daily receipts of the interurban lines are said to be $3,000 on an average, but this is Poe ue Ey incre EEL to $8 ,000, and on one occasion was $11,000 in a a Reena: ae permission a the “wieliciees. from The eee M agazine, New York and London, Vol. XXIII, No. 6, September, 1902. Some of the illus- trations and parts of the original article are here omitted. sM L905 21 311 aby HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIO INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. single day. Large additions are contemplated—about doubling the present mileage. Power is generated inacentral station at Anderson, containing three 1,000-kilowatt Westinghouse alternators, and is trans- mitted by 3-phase alternating current at 14,000 volts to 8 substations, which are supplemented by storage batteries. One of the greatest possibilities of the interurban road lies in the development of freight traffic. It is well fitted for the transfer of farm produce and supplies for farmers and for carrying package merchandise, and it can often give great convenience of delivery and the possibility of handling freight economically, especially in small cities. The Chicago, Harvard and Lake Geneva Railway has not only a large freight traffic of its own, but carries on an interchange of busi- ness with steam roads to a greater extent perhaps than any other electric road in the United States. Its southern terminus is at Har- vard, on the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, and at Walworth, 84 miles north of this place, the road crosses the Chicago, Milwau- kee and St. Paul Railway, thence running 2 miles northeast to Lake Geneva, one of Wisconsin’s most popular summer resorts. One-third of the business of the road is in handling freight. Freight cars from the railroads are hauled to sidings on the electric road at a flat rate of $5 per car, and piece freight is transported on a one-rate plan between any two points on the road for 5 cents per 100 pounds, no package being handled for less than 10 cents. A freight motar car with a crew of 2 men carries package freight and hauls from 1 to 4 steam-road freight cars. There are 6 freight sidings along the road, not including the company’s yards. Live-stock shipments are an important part of the business. In summer refrigerator cars are run twice a week over the Chicago and Northwestern Railway for the benefit of creameries situated on the electric road, and last winter 8,000 tons of ice were hauled from Lake Geneva for local use along the line. The company receives $500 per year for hauling mail two trips daily each way. Passenger tickets are sold by the electric road to points on the steam roads and baggage is carried free. The power house is located at Murray and contains two generators of 500 kilowatts each. The equipment consists 10 motor cars and 6 trail cars. The maximum speed is 45 miles per hour. While many electric roads have been constructed cheaply and of light materials, the tendency is more and more toward a substantial type of construction similar to the best steam-railway practice. The Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and Muskegon Railway, recently com- pleted, is equipped with standard 70-pound T-rails laid on a private right of way. The road runs from Grand Rapids to Muskegon, Mich., a distance of 35 miles, with a branch 7 miles long to Grand Haven. It parallels steam roads to both cities, the running time of the electric and steam cars being about the same. The country is well developed HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 313 industrially, containing tin-plate and paper mills, knitting factories, and machine shops. Grand Rapids has a population of 96,000, Muske- gon 26,000, and Grand Haven 5,000. The country near Grand Haven is largely occupied as a summer resort by people from Grand Rapids, Chicago, and Milwaukee. In passing through towns and cities the road uses the overhead-trolley system, for which the cars are equipped with a trolley arm, while upon the inclosed right of way through the country the third-rail system is employed. The third rail is discon- tinued at crossings, the current being carried under the highways by conductors imbedded in pitch in underground conduits. The conductor rail is of 65-pound section and standard composition, and is supported upon reconstructed granite insulators. The power house, located at Fruitport, contains five 250-kilowatt generators, three of which are double-current machines, generating both direct and alternating cur- rents, while two are standard alternators. All are direct-connected to Westinghouse vertical compound engines and are arranged for opera- tion in multiple. Another interesting road running out from Grand Rapids is the Grand Rapids, Holland and Lake Michigan Rapid Railway, extending from Grand Rapids to Holland and there connecting with two short lines to the lake shore. This road traverses a rich farming country, thickly settled by Dutch and Germans, and the two lines to the lake shore reach a favorite summer-resort district. The aggregate length of track of the combined roads is 71 miles, the total distance covered being 45 miles, 19 miles of this comprising the two roads running from Holland to the lake. * * * While electric roads are approaching steam lines in type of con- struction and methods of operation, many of the latter are finding it advantageous to adopt electric traction, especially for short-haul and suburban service. The Quebec, Montmorency and Charlevoix Railway has in this way within two years increased its total yearly capacity and receipts from $44,221 to $73,292. The overhead trolley is used, and the cars are equipped with two 50-horsepower motors and air brakes and are capable of running 45 miles per hour. The total cost of the electrical installation for 30 miles of track, including 6 double- truck cars and a 600-kilowatt alternating-current generating station, was $169,375. On Sundays and holidays the road is used so exten- sively that its resources are fully taxed, and it has been found neces- sary to increase the rolling stock so that, in addition to the regular cars, specials may be run at ten and fifteen minute intervals. It will further be necessary to construct a double track between Quebee and Montmorency. In addition to the electric traftic, steam, freight, and special pilgrimage trains are constantly handled, and no collision or other accident has so far occurred. 314 HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. Another road which has greatly improved its service by adopting electric traction is the Butialo and Lockport Railway. The company operating this road was organized in April, 1898, and leased for ninety- nine years the Lockport Branch of the Erie Railroad, running from Lockport to North Tonawanda, N. Y., and comprising 13} miles of single track. It has since bought 5} miles of road in the streets of Lockport, 74 miles of single track between Buffalo and North Tona- wanda, and a mile of track in Buffalo, making the total length of the line at present 29 miles and giving “erect service from Buffalo to Lockport and Niagara Falls. Power is obtained from the Niagara Falls Power Company, and is transmitted at 10,500 volts to a rotary converter substation located at Lockport, from which it is fed as direct current at 1,500 volts to the trolley wires. * * * A number of roads used chiefly for pleasure riding have been built in southern California, in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. The population is composed largely of wealthy people, who linye sought that part of the country on account of climatic conditions and who patronize the roads liberally. One of the roads from Los Angeles extends to Pasadena, and from there to Echo Mountain and Mount Lowe. Another line runs from Los Angeles to Santa Monica, on the Pacific Ocean. The Los Angeles-Pasadena line was so well patronized the first year that it was necessary to double-track the road. It com- petes with three steam lines, and one of the latter has been compelled to reduce its tiuin service by half, and would reduce it still further if that were not prevented by its franchise. The cars on the Pasadena line are each equipped with two 40-horsepower motors and Standard air brakes, and make a maximum speed of 25 miles per hour. The road to Santa Monica has quadruple equipments of 50-horsepower motors and can maintain a speed of 40 miles per hour. Another road which is being built from Los Angeles 20 miles to Long Beach will have as one of its features a broad boulevard, 184 feet wide, on each side of the track. Perhaps the field of greatest activity in the United States for the construction of high-speed interurban lines has been in northern Ohio and southern Michigan, where there is now a network of highly equipped roads upon which through traffic is being established, offer- ing even such accommodations as parlor and sleeping cars. It is said that a service of this character will shortly be established between Columbus and Cincinnati. The roads utilized will be the Southern Traction Company’s lines from Cincinnati to Dayton; the Dayton- Springfield and Urbana to Springfield; and the Columbus, London and Springfield to Columbus, the service to be established as soon as the latter road is completed. The schedule time between Columbus and Cincinnati will be about six hours. It is also proposed to operate through cars between Cleveland and Cincinnati, the route from Cleve- HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 315 land being over the Cleveland, Elyria and Western, the Cleveland, Ashland and Mansfield, the Mansfield, Galion and Crestline, and the Columbus, Delaware and Marion, roads all either in operation or under construction. A few notes regarding the Cleveland, Elyriaand Western may be of interest, since its power house will be the first railway power station in the United States to be equipped with steam turbines. Two West- inghouse turbines, running at 1,500 revolutions per minute, are to be direct-connected to two 1,000 kilowatt, 2-pole generators, delivering alternating current at 400 volts and 25 cycles per second. Steam will be supplied to the turbines at 150-pounds pressure and 200-degrees superheat, and the exhaust will be under a 28-inch vacuum. The steam consumption is guaranteed not to exceed 10.8 pounds of steam per horsepower-hour; and at one-half load the steam consumption per horsepower is not to increase more than 15 per cent. These turbines are somewhat novel in construction in that the steam is expanded con- secutively in two chambers—that is, the steam first passes through a high-pressure cylinder, then through a reheater, and finally through a low-pressure cylinder. The rotating parts of both the high and low pressure cylinders are upon one shaft, the bearing being placed between the two cylinders. Full load may be carried without super- heat or vacuum. The adoption of steam turbines has increased the possible capacity with the space available in the existing powerhouse from 2,000 to 5,000 kilowatts. Two 300-kilowatt rotary converters are being installed as connecting links between the present direct-current plant and the alternating-current apparatus. The power is transmitted to substations along the road by alternating current at 20,000 volts. Cleveland is the center of an extensive interurban electric-railway system, extending in one direction nearly to Buffalo, N. Y., and in the other to Toledo, Ohio, which is also the terminus of a large number of roads. One of the roads connecting Cleveland and Toledo is the Toledo, Fremont and Norwalk, about 60 miles in length and controlled by the Lake Shore Electric Company. The powerhouse at Fremont, about the middle of the line, contains four alternating-current gen- erators, direct-connected to 1,750-horsepower Westinghouse steam engines. Current is transmitted at 16,000 volts to six substations, which are combined with passenger and freight stations in order to cut down the cost of attendance. The high-tension transmission wires are carried upon the poles supporting the trolly brackets. The road- bed, partly upon private right of way and partly upon public turnpike, is constructed for speeds exceeding 40 miles per hour. In preparing for a through service between Cleveland and Toledo, a series of experi- ments are being made by the Lake Shore Electric Company with a view of determining the most desirable motors for the traffic. A cross-country schedule of 35 to 40 miles per hour has been established 316 HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. and a speed of over 60 miles per hour has been maintained for short distances. Some of the cars are fitted with four 100-horsepower elec- tric motors. The cars now in service on the Toledo, Fremont and Norwalk are equipped with 75-horsepower Westinghouse motors. That part of the Lake Shore Electric Company’s line between Cleve- land and Norwalk is entirely on private right of way and is rock bal- lasted and laid with 75-pound T-rails. This company is making an especial effort to develop freight traffic in fruit and dairy products. Passenger mileage books are sold for $12.50 per 1,000 miles, and local fares are about one-half of those charged by steam roads. Toledo and Detroit are connected by a series of electric roads, one of the most completely equipped of which is the Toledo and Monroe Railway, having 18 miles of single track laid with 70-pound T-rails and ballasted with broken limestone. The equipment consists of ordi- nary passenger cars, chair cars, combined passenger and baggage cars, and freight cars. The passenger cars are 40 feet long and a regular schedule speed of 80 miles per hour, including stops, is maintained. The powerhouse contains two 400-kilowatt Westinghouse 3-phase alternators, and a substation contains a 200-kilowatt rotary converter. The long distance transmission is at 15,000 volts, the wires being car- ried on 45-foot pine poles set 6 feet in the ground and surrounded by concrete, so that no guy wires are necessary. ‘The same poles support the double trolley wire. One of the oldest high-speed roads in America is the Detroit, Ypsil- antiand Ann Arbor Railway. As originally constructed this road had a length of 50 miles, 40 miles between Detroit and Ann Arbor, with a branch line of 10 miles to Saline. The line has recently been consider- ably extended, now reaching to Jackson, Mich., where it connects with other interurban roads. It is composed of single track through- out. The equipment consists of 20 cars, each provided with four 50-horsepower motors and quick-acting air brakes. The motors can all be thrown in series for slow speed through cities. A regular half- hour service is maintained, with an occasional fifteen-minute service, and all cars are dispatched by telephone, telephone stations being located at turn-outs. The most remarkable effect of this road has been the development of an enormous passenger traffic. During the first year 4,000 passengers were carried per day, against 200 previ- ously carried per day by the steam road passing through the same towns. The fare for 40 miles is 50 cents, while the fare charged by the steam roads for the same distance is $1.12. A 1,000-mile mileage book is sold for 1 cent per mile. The average fare per passenger is 15.9 cents. Many houses are being built in the small towns along the route and market gardening is rapidly developing in the country trav- ersed. Freight service is given twice a day and express packages are Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Gibson. PLATE I. fYEST CHESTER: ERACTION C TYPES OF MODERN AMERICAN CARS FOR HEAVY ELECTRIC-RAILWAY SERVICE. At the top is a 40-foot express car, weighing 25,000 pounds, open from end to end for load; diagonal doors to take in long pieces; speed, 33 miles. Next comes a 40-foot trolley car with baggage compartment, Providence and Fall River branch of New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad; weighs 45,000 pounds; seats 28 passengers. Below that isa 41-foot 25,000 pound car with 9-foot smoking compartment, intended for ayerage speed of 20 miles. At the bottom is a semiconyertible parlor trolley car for the Butfalo railway, 41 feet 8 inches long, 31,000 pounds. All by the J. G. Brill Company. Smithsonian Report, 1903——Gibson. PLATE II. FIG. 1.—LOCOMOTIVE FOR THE BUFFALO AND LOCKPORT RAILWAY, GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY. Willoughby ASHTABULA cv¢ Bass Lake oer U G 5) eae 3 [esa] -— West Ph.) He. “Rocky River Bi aes is Middlefield S. |Dovei c 7 b> Pit ie SprinksVe Vy \ NN 6 \SChagrin Falls & Spencer xx Fig. 2.—MaApP SHOWING (BY HEAvy LINES) THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC RAILWAYS ABOUT CLEVELAND, OHIO. HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. St earried in the baggage compartments of the passenger cars. When the line was first opened, more freight was offered tban could be car- ried, although the rates were two-thirds more than those asked by the steam-railroad company. Extending north from Detroit 73 miles to Port Huron, Mich., and comprising in all 110 miles of single track exclusive of sidings, are the lines of the Rapid Railway Company, another early pioneer in the elec- tric interurban railway field. This road is an excellent illustration of the great advances in the building of electric roads made possible by high-tension power transmission. All power is generated at a main station at New Baltimore and transmitted in either direction by alter- nating currents at 16,500 volts. The power house is equipped with all the latest improvements in the way of coal and ash handling thachin- ery, mechanical draft, economizers, etc., and contains three 1,000- horsepower Westinghouse steam engines, all direct-connected to 3-phase generators. There are five rotary-converter substations— two north of, two south of, and one at the power house. This rail- way passes through a rich agricultural country and at its middle part through a noted summer-resort district, which is rapidly being built up in consequence of the transportation facilities furnished by the elec- tric line. About the same fares are charged as upon the Detroit, Ypsi- lanti and Ann Arbor road, and arrangements have been made for an extensive freight traftic in fruit, fish, vegetables, groceries, and gen- eral merchandise. It is said that 50 per cent of the lighter trade going to Detroit is now carried by the electric road. The cars are run on train dispatchers’ orders, telephone stations being placed at all sidings. After leaving the city limits of Detroit there are no grade crossings, and the track is thoroughly well laid and ballasted. One of the branches of the road closely follows the shore of Lake St. Clair, and the north- ern part of the road follows the St. Clair River, passing through many fishing, hunting, and boating resorts. Hourly service is given regularly over the whole line, and cars are operated at shorter intervals between points where traffic is dense. The schedule time for the cars is 27 miles per hour, including stops, and between stations the speed reaches 45 miles per hour. * * * In the State of Michigan there are 24 interurban lines actually in operation, and franchises have been asked for 47 more. The great activity in building electric roads in this territory is due, perhaps more than to anything else, to the fact that it was here that a number of the earliest and most successful roads in the country were constructed, thus bringing the possibilities of electric traction before the eyes of business men and capitalists. While the Middle West has been the scene of the most active electric ‘ailway building in the United States, considerable progress has been 318 HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. made in some of the more thickly populated Eastern States. At Hud- son, N. Y., begins a long electric railway system which extends a dis- tance of 105 miles to Warrensburg, near Lake George, running for a great part of the way along the Hudson and through a semimountain- ous country and giving a view of the Catskills and the Berkshire Hills. The first 37 miles is covered by the Albany and Hudson Railway, a small part of which is operated by trolley and the remainder by the third-rail system. Except through city streets, the company owns its own right of way, which is fenced in and laid in a very substantial manner. Both running and conductor rails are of T section and weigh 80 pounds to the yard, the third rail being somewhat lower in carbon than the service rails in order to reduce the electrical resistance. The track has been heavily ballasted and the ties are laid 2 feet center to center, every fifth tie being extended to support the third-rail insulat- ors. The latter are supported 6 inches above the tie and are made of wooden blocks, topped by malleable cast-iron caps or chairs. At all highways and farm crossings the third rail is interrupted, but the con- tinuity of the circuit is not broken. Power is supplied from a hydraulic plant at Stuyvesant Falls, on Kinderhook Creek, about 10 miles north of Hudson, and is transmitted by 8-phase current at 12,000 volts to three substations along the line, where it is transformed to direct current at 600 volts. * * * In view of the high-speed experiments with 3-phase motors that have recently been carried on in Germany, it is gratifying to note that sim- ilar experiments with direct-current motors are shortly to be made in America. The Aurora, Elgin and Chicago Railway las been designed for a continuous maximum speed of 70 miles per hour, and the track is of such substantial character and easy alignment that higher speeds can be attained. The service rails are to weigh 80 pounds to the yard, the track is to be rock ballasted, and all bridges will be of concrete and steel construction. The third rail is to weigh 100 pounds to the yard and is to be supplied with direct current from substations, to which power will be transmitted at 26,000 volts by 3-phase alternating current over aluminum feeders. The schedule speed will be 40 miles per hour, including stops at stations 3 miles apart. Cars are to weigh 40 tons, and are to run at a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour, with a possible 70 miles per hour ona level track and with normal voltage on the third rail. The cars are to be operated either singly or in trains and are to be equipped by the General Electric Company. This paper might seem unduly partial if no mention were made of European roads. However, of high-speed interurban roads in Europe there are extremely few. In Great Britain it can truthfully be said there are no high-speed electric roads at all. The difference between America and Europe with respect to the development of electric trac- tion is very strikingly shown by the following figures: The miles of HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 319 electrically operated railways are, in the whole world outside of the United States, 4.64 per million people; in Germany, the highest of continental countries, 41.8 miles; and in the United States, 276.2 miles. It is said that the new plant of the Manhattan Elevated Rail- way Company, of New York City, which will have a total power of 40,000 kilowatts, equals in capacity the total electric power available for traction purposes in France. The United States has 76 per cent of all the electricity available in the world for traction, 763 per cent of the electric-railway mileage, and 833 per cent of all the trolley cars. A German steam road upon which electric traction has been tried is the Wannsee line, between Berlin and Zehlendorf. Since August, 1900, an electric train has been interspersed in the regular service, a speed of about 25 miles per hour being maintained. The train weighs 193 tons empty and 220 tons loaded, and is composed of ten coaches, the first and last having three motors each, of an aggregate capacity of 975 horsepower. It runs 225 miles per day, the maximum speed being 31 miles per hour. Direct current is used at 750 volts. The efficiency of the power transmission between switchboard and axle was found to be from 70 per cent to 85 per cent. The Government railroad authorities have decided to discontinue the electric service, but the failure of the road has been due more to balf-hearted meas- ures than to any defect in the system. The first installation of a high-speed electric road in Europe was between Diisseldorf and Krefeld,a total distance of 13.6 miles, the longest stretch between stopping places being 10.4 miles. Since the road parallels the steam railway for the greater part of its length, it is considered necessary to maintain a speed of 25 miles per hour on the open stretches. A speed of 87.2 miles per hour has been reached on trial trips. (Pl. 1v.) The road does not pass through the inter- vening towns, but only touches the outskirts. It it double-tracked from Diisseldorf to Oberkassel, the terminus of the Diisseldorf local traffic. Direct current is used at 600 volts pressure,and the cars are mounted upon double trucks, each truck carrying a 40-horsepower motor. The passengers are divided into three classes, the total seating capacity of a car being 34. Three kinds of brakes are used—viz., hand brakes, electric short-circuit brakes, and Standard air-brakes—and each motor car is also equipped with two trolley poles. ‘Trains leave each terminal station every half hour. The road has developed a quite considerable freight and farm service. A road which has attracted considerable attention by its novel and unique features is the suspended railway at Elberfeld-Barmen, where the cars are hung froma single rail without any side guards or sup- ports, so that in going around curves the cars may assume an inclined position. (Pl. v, fig. 1.) Of the 8 miles originally planned, only 44 320 HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. have been built. The speed of the cars is from 123 to 14 miles per hour. The switching construction is highly interesting, but is not con- sidered safe and is used only by empty cars. The Swiss“ roads are very interesting because of the original engi- neering methods which they embody. Most of them are mountain roads and are provided with rack rails. They are largely patronized by tourists and charge very high fares. The road starting at Zermatt and ascending the Gornergrat has a maximum grade of 20 per cent and is composed of curves throughout 30 per cent of its total length, which is 5.7 miles. The entire roadbed was cut from solid rock or built upon projections. The rack system is of the Abt type. The locomotives weigh 103 tons each and are equipped with two motors having an aggregate of 90 horsepower and operating at 500 volts. (Pl. v, fig. 2.) The speed is only 4; miles per hour, and double- reduction gearing is used. In addition to the two spindle brakes, one operated on the rack wheels and the other on the surface wheels, there is an electric brake which comes into action as soon as the speed of 4% miles per hour is exceeded. The motors are of the 3-phase induction type with wound rotors and collector rings, and in coasting they may be used as extra brakes by inserting resistance in the rotor circuit. The longest (25 miles) Swiss 3-phase railway is the Burgdorf-Thun road, opened in 1899. The standard trains weigh 56 tons and have a maximum speed of 225 miles per hour. Current is transmitted at 16,000 volts, which is stepped down, by means of transformers located at an average of 2 miles apart, to 750 volts for distribution to the trolley line. The cars carry four trolleys, two at each end of the car. The equipment consists of two 2-axle locomotives and six 4-axle motor ‘ars, with a number of trailers for passenger and freight traffic. The total power of the locomotives is 300 horsepower. Familiarly known by the convenient abbreviation ‘‘A. E. G.’’ 324 MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIO-RAILWAY TRIALS. Prussian railways, consisting of light rails of 33.4 kilograms per meter (67 pounds per yard), placed partly on wooden sleepers and partly on short iron sleepers, the roadbed consisting mainly of inferior material. Though it accordingly was anticipated at the very outset that the existing permanent way would not be sufficiently resistant for maximum speeds as high as 200 kilometers per hour, it was decided to begin the trials without any rebuilding of the track, apart from some immaterial improvements. After the number of sleepers had been somewhat increased, and the roadbed reenforced with consider- able amounts of broken stone, the track stood perfectly well the strain involved by speeds up to 130 kilometers (80.8 miles) per hour. As, however, in connection with the experiments made in the fall of 1901, serious troubles were experienced for the maximum speeds of 140 to 160 kilometers per hour, a thorough rebuilding of the track was eventually carried out in the course of the summer of 1902. The new rails have a weight of 42 kilograms per meter (about 845 pounds per yard) and a length of 12 meters, being placed on 18 fir sleepers with hard-wood pegs; 15,000 cubic meters broken basalt were used for the roadbed. About 17 kilometers of the track were fitted with guard ‘ails such as used in connection with ordinary railways on bridges, ete. These guard rails, the foot of which is 50 millimeters distant from the main rail, are fixed on cast-iron beds, screwed to every sleeper, this arrangement, in addition to preventing derailments, imparting an extraordinary strength to the whole of the roadbed. (Plate 1.) The overhead line.—TVhe arrangement of the overhead line is shown in plates 1 and 11, the middle of the pole being about 24 meters distant from the middle of the track and the three horizontal wires conduct- ine the 3-phase current being about 1 meter apart. The whole of the line is divided into sections of about 1 kilometer, each of which is provided in the middle with a device for compensating losses in pressure. The neutral point of the system is connected to the earth and to the rails. The suspension point moves aside somewhat as the collector presses against the horizontal wire, a satisfactory and simul- taneous contact between the three horizontal wires and the contact ares being thus possible. This is insured by having the single parts on the outrigger, intended for carrying the insulators, connected by joints. The horizontal wires have a double insulation against earth, and each insulation separately is susceptible of standing the whole of the maximum pressure of 20,000 volts occurring during the service. The wires have cross sections of 100 square millimeters (0.155 square inch) each, the tension between each two wires varying between 10,000 and 12,000 volts. Hard copper wire with a breaking strength as high as 38 kilograms per square millimeter and a conductivity more than 97 per cent of that of chemically pure copper is used; lightning arresters are provided, as well as safety devices in case of a fracture by which the wire is automatically earthed. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Gradenwitz. PLATE lI. THE MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN TRACK. Smithsonian Report, 1903 —Gradenwitz. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—THE SIEMENS & HaLsxe CAR USED IN THE MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN EXPERIMENTS. s re a F at Ee Fig. 2.—THE A. E. G. CAR USED IN THE MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN HIGH-SPEED RUNS. View taken immediately after the successful trials on October 28, 1903, when a speed of 210 kilometers (130.5 miles) an hour was attained. MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RAILWAY TRIALS. 325 The collectors.—The collectors are constructed according to the sys- tem developed by the Siemens & Halske Company on their Gross- Lichterfelde experimental track; they are nearly identical on both cars, differing only as to the details. In the Siemens car they have the form of two masts supported by the cars at either end and moy- able around their vertical axis. These masts consist of two Mannes- mann tubes, each about 200 millimeters in diameter, inserted one into the other. By means of a crank acting on a double-toothed gearing, any desired rotation of the masts may be effected from the motorman’s stand. The sliding rings are attached to an insulated tube. Contact springs, screwed by means of hard-rubber insulators on a special flat iron frame, are fixed to the three sliding rings. Into the insulating tubes and partly into the lower part of the collector, the upper tube is slipped, so as to be readily dismounted after loosening a few screws. This tube bears, at central distances of 1 meter each, three rotating axles for the contact bows proper. The wind pressure against the bow on one side of the rotating axle is balanced by means of a vane attached to the other side of the axle. The Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesell- schaft car is likewise fitted with two groups of three collectors each, one for each phase, which, however, instead of being placed on one common mast, are arranged one behind the other. Both arrangements have so far given full satisfaction, it being impossible to decide which is the more available. Sparking between the overhead wires and the collector bows, as occasionally noted in connection with the earlier experiments, was recently prevented by some slight improvements in the construction of the collectors. One of the most difficult problems, namely, the transmission of high amounts of energy from a stationary conductor to a train running at enormous speeds, has thus been satis- factorily solved. The motor cars.—The two motor cars used with these trials were constructed by Messrs. Van der Zypen & Charlier, Cologne-Deutz, in accordance with the electric apparatus supplied by the two electric firms. The cars, intended for about 50 passengers, are 21 and 22 meters in length, respectively, and correspond as to their dimensions and equipment with the technical regulations of the Association of German Railway Administrations. The body of the car rests by means of two center bolts on two trucks without any special springs. In addition there are on the frames of each truck four steps limiting the lateral oscillation of the body by bearing part of the weight of the ear. Lateral oscillations of the body were moreover observed only for lower speeds, up to 100 kilometers per hour, whereas with higher speeds the run of the cars was perfectly steady, much more so than with ordinary rapid trains. Each of the trucks is fitted with three axles, the external axles bearing the motor, whereas the central ones serve as running axles. The distance between the axles was at the 826 MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RAILWAY TRIALS. beginning 3.8 meters; this has been increased up to 5 meters in con- nection with the recent successful trials. The distance between the centers of each two trucks is 13.3 and 14.3 meters, respectively, and the diameter of the wheel tread 1.25 meters. Two springs are placed against the axle boxes, namely, one plate spring, 1.5 meters in length, above each axle box, these plate springs being in turn maintained at their ends by spiral springs, the tension of which is regulated by means of screws. As the trucks, in connection with the earlier exper- iments, followed any deviation in the direction of the track, the dis- tance of the wheels, as above said, was increased to 5 meters, and the bearing springs placed so as to be visible and connected with one another by compensating levers. The center bolts, which formerly were rigidly fixed to the lower frame, were in the course of the recent reconstruction provided with lateral pegs fitted with springs, so as to prevent any transmission of the oscillations of the body to the frame. The connections of the cars.tz-The connections of the cars are shown in plate 1m. In the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft car, the current is led by means of armored cables from the two groups of col- lectors to the main switch in the machine room and thence by separate conductors to the transformers. The main cut-out switch is operated only after the run is completed, or as an emergency switch in case of disturbances occurring during the run. From the transformers the low-tension conductors lead through the main controller to the motors. The main controller is also placed in the machine room of the car, being easily actuated from each driver’s stand through a steering wheel connected by toothed gearing to an axle traversing the whole length of the car. This controller directs the working current to the motors and through the resistances, and permits forward and reverse running, besides providing for the braking of the car by means of reverse cur- rent. There is in addition a small controller in the driver’s stand, conveying Jow-tension current from the transformer to the motor for operating the air compressor in connection with the compressed-air brake. The connections in the Siemens & Halske car are somewhat different, the high-tension current being first conveyed to one of the two main switches for forward and backward running, which may be controlled from the driver’s stand, and thence to the two large transformers, whence the working current is again conveyed through individual switches toward the motors and the resistances. From the main con- ductors on the roof of the car, part of the current is in addition branched off toward the small transformer placed above the motorman’s stand, and conveyed to the electric motor operating the two air pumps. Two special cranks are provided in the motorman’s stand for actuating the reversing switch and the motor switch, respectively, the working re- sistances being controlled by the driver through a special controlling PLATE III. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Gradenwitz. AI 10014 Ani] to101w puno1ry Eas SOYVAIQ LOJ dmnd ary T dwnd 1978 Ay IT dumd 932 Ay TI TOtULOJSUBL, Ke, a = = Olt J LoULOJSUBAL, [TT wontsed stoAttp iv JaouapuryT ae ssnii UONISOd SIOALIP 7B [OOULAMPUT ILL I 3 LMT : —_—_ I won! ; = a —}+— nae, punoay YOUAMS WOISUA) ULSTET ne punory TVW) *D HOW JO SUOT}VOUUO,) $]0V1U09 SUIPITS S$JOV1UOD SUIPYS {pl 3 IpUS SS SoouRIsisoyy Ea ea is L | SooUNISISOY Al LS10] 070 IT} TI-S1010TT 1) = ’ 1 : SOWRIGQ WY SotTOILMS 43 ty 1010Ur 19d sorod ue EcF 01 OTZ ie Hy SANBAG WY SoyoiAs Aoy dtund «ry SOTOIIMS LOJOTT F9 [eat] ‘S1JO.A OOOT 01 OFE 7) SOYPUAMS L010FT toy duand wy hy He sosnat_ fi bib _sosnat df Qty —" —s neers lneeval rauiroyst{way TTeUTs Laces IOTUIOJSUBI Tod CRA] Lotmroysteay| [eug , [all soled uy STT 01 0¢ Lawn | cMAaa SO TOWMOJSUBA] OSIV'T Boe A 2 Pon Gt J Erwe Ky bhg 2 0) Sosnyy A ty SIM) Suposouu9d0p, " lo ————f- oP SZ IS] a Gign SOTOIUAS Id Soo TAY | 3 us Der | Ss} Suiz1peabsp | d ¢ ae H-$ oq1o41 aogy I’) ‘H ‘8 Jo suonoauuog Aoqor, Mog FA $J0B]U09 SUIPITS sosnyyT b =k roumicy WU “IT I 'T rome punowy SJOB}JUOS SUIPLLG DIAGRAM SHOWING THE CONNECTIONS OF THE SIEMENS & HALSKE AND THE A. E. G. Cars, RESPECTIVELY. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Gradenwitz. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—THE TRUCK; IDENTICAL ON BOTH CARS. Fic. 2.—NORMAL RAILWAY CARRIAGE USED IN TRACTION EXPERIMENTS, NOW BEING MADE BY THE UNION ELEKTRIZITATS GESELLSCHAFT. MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RATILWAY TRIALS. 320 wheel with or without the agency of compressed air. These equip- ments have given satisfactory results with both carriages and proved very effective, affording full protection against the electric current. Transformers.—The main characteristics of the transformers used in each of the cars are as follows: In the transformers of the Siemens & Halske car the effective iron sheets are placed vertically on their small edges and distributed in groups, between which there is space for the passage of air. The secondary coil is well insulated from the iron cores, the coils of the primary winding being placed above it. In the ventilating channel of the iron cores there are protective boxes prolonged as far as the front plates of the casing and expanding into the latter so as to facili- tate the drawing in of the air. le D) PO Seto “Oa0 -—*— - —525— - —— RARER EET IRR SS Mn — aes NN a oH = Rody IN |_| = = S Lr] 3 Co SD = Suspension of the motor on the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits-Gesellschaft car. The transformers in the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits-Gesellschaft car are designed, according to the patents of this company, with three parallel iron cores, the axes of which run longitudinally. Each iron core is provided with a longitudinal slot, through which, as well as between the rectangular cores and the round coil, an air current is allowed to pass. The transformers in both cars have given full satisfaction, the strong air currents proving particularly effective and preventing any considerable heating: effects. The motors.—The motors of the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits-Gesell- schaft car are designed for an output of 250 horsepower each, provided with fork-bar coils. The exciting current has a tension of 4385 volts. The motor cases are fixed on an iron frame supported on both sides of the carriage by plate springs, each of which is fixed on the main bear- ing spring of the car. The motor casings each bear a hollow axle, sm 1903——22 328 MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRICO-RAILWAY TRIALS. slipped over the car axle, on which the armature of the motor is built. The motor is coupled to the wheels of the corresponding axle by means of double arms attached on both ends of the hollow axle and touching the sliding pieces placed on the wheels. The weight of the motor, instead of resting immediately on the axles of the car, is thus sup- ported by bearing springs on the axle boxes of the truck. The motors constructed by the Siemens & Halske Company on the other hand are 6-pole motors, also for outputs of 250 horsepower each, the energy current being conveyed to the rotor at a tension of 1,150 volts by means of three sliding rings. The pressure in the secondary circuit at rest and at first starting is 650 volts. The rotor is provided with closed direct-current bar windings, whereas the stationary part of the motor has rotary-current bar windings. The rotor with its box is pressed strongly on the axle of the car. The stationary part of the motor, inclosed by a double cast-iron casing, rests without any inter- mediate spring on the car-axle bearings. The diameter of the rotor is 780 millimeters, whereas the external diameter of the motor is 1,050 millimeters. Both the direct fixing of the motors on the axles and the suspension by springs on the truck have given full satisfaction in connection with the experiments so far made. In general, the spring suspension seems to be preferable to the rigid suspension of the motor. Lirciters and resistances.—'The exciters and resistances, necessary in starting and in controlling the speed, show also some essential differ- ences in the two carriages. In order to avoid any. abrupt variations in the speed and any excessive sparking in the car, the resistances must be switched off from the circuit quite gradually. In the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft car there are to this effect liquid resistances of the following construction: | The terminal plates of the opened circuits are placed in two reser- voirs in the central machine room of the car. Beside each of the reservoirs there is an electrically driven centrifugal pump, conveying into the upper reservoir a soda solution placed in a box below the carriage. The higher the liquid in the latter the smaller will be the resistance between the electrodes. The height of the liquid is regulated from the driver’s cab by means of a valve. The pumps work perma- nently during the run, the liquid circulating in a tube conduit insuring a permanent cooling (refrigeration). This exciter affords the advan- tage of dispensing with the contacts and cable joints necessary in con- nection with solid exciters. In the Siemens & Halske car, on the other hand, there are metallic resistances, formed of ‘* Kruppine” bands 45 by 2 millimeters in section. These bands are placed by groups in flat boxes fitted outside on the longitudinal wall of the car, below the window. ‘There are in all 29 steps, four being intended for the first inserting and 25 for increasing Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Gradenwitz. PLATE V. THE NIEDERSCHONWEIDE-SPINDLERSFELDE TRACK AND DOUBLE AERIAL SUSPENSION USED IN THE UNION ELEKTRIZITATS GESELLSCHAFT. The scene of a series of independent experiments. MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RAILWAY TRIALS. 329 and regulating the speed of the motors. Below the resistance boxes there are the exciter rollers placed longitudinally and bearing bronze contact pieces; the corresponding contacts are attached to two steel tubes placed one beside the other and isolated from them. In order to avoid any such disturbances as would attend on an abrupt increase in collecting the current, the single contacts are inserted not simul- taneously but successively. The exciting rollers are actuated through a longitudinal spindle traversing the whole of the car, rotated from the driver’s stand by means of a conical toothed gearing. In order to facilitate the handling of this controlling device, there is a compressed- air apparatus assisting the driver in starting and reducing automatically the exciter to its zero position if the current has to be switched off. By means of a special gearing the controlling may be effected also without the aid of compressed air. The trials.—In connection with the trials made in the course of the fall of 1901, speeds as high as 150 kilometers, and even in one case 160 kilometers, were obtained. As, however, rather material oscillations and shocks were experienced even at speeds of 140 kilometers per hour, no further increase of the speed was thought advisable for the moment, the remainder of the ‘year being given up to very valuable measure- ments and records on the consumption of electric energy. The acceleration obtained after starting was different according to the strain the source of power was put to and the performance of the motors. In order to attain speeds of 100 kilometers, starting distances of 2,000 to 3,200 meters, and starting times ranging between 138 and 220 seconds were necessary, these figures corresponding with a mean acceleration as high as 0.13 to 0.20 meters per second. As, however, the motors are capable of supplying for short intervals about 3,000 horsepower, whereas for the above acceleration only 700 to 1,000 horsepower are required, this represents by no means.an upper limit. As regards the braking of the cars, both cars may be stopped either by means of Westinghouse rapid brakes, hand brakes, or using back current; the Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft car is in addition fitted with an electric brake. The Westinghouse and electric brakes may be operated from each motorman’s stand simultaneously, though the braking equipments are independent for either of the trucks. In the case of an air pressure as high as 6 atmospheres in the braking cylinder, two of which are placed on each truck, the pressure on each of the 24 braking shoes arranged on both sides of the wheel is about 6,000 kilograms, the braking shoes thus receiving a total pressure as as high as 144,000 kilograms—156 per cent of the weight of the SATU IAS eave irk After the trials made in the course of 1901, a thorough rebuilding of the track, as above stated, was found necessary. This occupied part of the year 1902, the remainder of which was taken up in the 330 MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RAILWAY TRIALS. continuation of the experiments on the consumption of energy, etc., for speeds up to 130 kilometers. The results of the improvements made last year were shown, in connection with the recent trials, to be most satisfactory and even surprising. The track not only stood easily the strain to which it was put by trials at ever increasing speeds, but the cars would now run with such safety and steadiness as to make the shocks of the rails nearly unnoticeable. The Siemens car was first given a chance to show its possibilities; after reaching speeds as high as 189 kilometers per hour at the end of September last, it was anticipated that resuming the experiments at the beginning of October would lead to the maximum speed of 200 kilometers being finally reached. This was actually the case on Octo- ber 6, the event being watched by a great number of lookers-on. The distance between Marienfelde and Zossen was repeatedly tray- ersed in not more than eight minutes each way, including starting and braking, the maximum speed of 201 kilometers (126 miles) being actually reached on the section Mahlow-Dahlwitz-Rangsdorff, traversed in one and one-half minutes, throughout about 5 kilometers. The mean speed of 175 kilometers per hour would enable the journey between Berlin and Cologne (577 kilometers) to be completed in about three and one-fourth hours, whereas the fastest present trains require fully nine hours. This result, which aroused such sensation in the engineering world, was exceeded on October 23, when 207 kilometers were reached with- out any disturbing factors being noted. The Allgemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft car had meanwhile in turn resumed the experiments, both cars being alternately used in the course of October. In order to ascertain first the working conditions of the car, moderate speeds were used at the beginning, which, how- ever, could rapidly be increased, so that the high-speed car of the All- gemeine Elektrizitiits Gesellschaft on October 28 even slightly exceeded the record made by the Siemens car, reaching the enormous speed of 210 kilometers per hour. Both cars ran so steadily that all those present were highly satisfied. From a car running at such exceedingly high speeds neighboring objects, of course, will disappear from view. Though the motorman would be able to distinguish obstacles on the track, this would be of little use, the braking distance, i. e., the distance from the beginning of braking to the stopping of the train, being 2 kilometers, and 1,600 horsepower having been necessary to obtain the desired speed. Lookers-on could just distinguish the presence of men in the car; before, however, they were able to fix their figure the car had disap- peared from view. Though the track is very straight there elapsed at most one-half minute between the first appearing of the train and its passage and thence to the instant of 1ts disappearance on the horizon. MARIENFELDE-ZOSSEN ELECTRIC-RAILWAY TRIALS. 3381 As the maximum authorized speed has now been reached it is not intended, for the moment being, to drive the speeds up to any higher figures, but to complete the measurements already made by an exten- sive series of records, so as to ascertain fully the working condition of high-speed electric railways. It is thought probable that under existing conditions speeds as high as 230 to 240 kilometers per hour may be obtained without any difficulty, but as no authorization is obtained for the moment this will have to wait for next year. It is thought probable that after the successful results of these trials some railway will be equipped according to the principles ascertained on the military railway so as to allow of these interesting trials being con- tinued on a larger scale. THE BE INNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY—A CHAPTER. IN THE HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOG- RAPHY WITH THE SALTS OF SILVER.¢ By Maj. Gen. J. WarrErHousE, I. A. Photography proper, i. e., the art of delineating images of external objects by the agency of light upon chemically prepared sensitive sur- faces, does not seem to have been seriously thought of, still less prac- ticed, before the end of the eighteenth century. The publication of Wedgwood and Davy’s experiments in 1802 showed not only the possibility of reproducing copies of drawings or paintings on glass, by contact, upon a sensitive surface of paper or leather impregnated with silver nitrate, but also gave the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura on such a surface. The results obtained by them were, however, very imperfect, and photography did not take any practical shape until the time of Niépce, Daguerre, Reade, and Talbot, between the years 1825 and 1840. But long before Wedgwood’s time, and especially during the last two or three decades of the eighteenth century, when the science of chemistry received such rapid develop- ment, considerable attention had been given to the chemical and phys- ical action of light in changing the appearance of many metallic compounds and organic substances, notably the blackening of animal or vegetable tissues by silver nitrate, the darkening of the white sil- ver chloride and other metallic salts, and the darkening or bleaching of many organic dyes and resins, ete. On the other hand, Newton’s discovery of the compound nature of white light gave an impetus to the study of the physical nature and of the chemical and optical prop- erties of light and color which in more recent years has had and must continue to have a very strong influence on the further development and progress of photography. Again, Kepler’s investigations of the optical principles connected with the projection of images of external objects upon a screen by means of lenses, single or combined, and the camera obscura form the basis of modern photographie optics. About three years ago, when looking up some of the earlier chem- ical writers for inquiries of my own relative to the action of light upon «Read before the Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, April 28, 1903, and reprinted, after revision by the author, from The Photographic Journal, London, Vol. XLIII, June, 1903. 333 334 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. silver and its compounds, I commenced collecting material for an investigation into the evolution of photography with the salts of silver. My attention was, however, diverted to the optical side of the ques- tion connected with the history of the camera obscura and the telephoto lens, and the results of those inquiries have been published in the Journal. The publication of the late Mr. R. B. Litchtield’s biography of Tom Wedgewood, the first photographer, which was intended as a centenary memoir of the founder of the art, has renewed my interest in the subject, and the further investigations I have lately made have, I think, thrown quite a new light upon the early history of photography and shown how it was gradually developed from Schulze’s rough experiment with silver nitrate and chalk, and finally brought about, though imperfectly, by Wedgwood and Davy. This retrospect seems the more opportune now that a century has passed since Wedgwood’s work was first made known, and we are about to celebrate the jubilee of our society which, however, was not founded until after the inven- tion of collodion had put photography on a thoroughly practical basis. The main facts in the early history of the progress of photo-chem- istry and optics tending to photography have been noted in- Prof, J. M. Eder’s admirable Ausfithriches Handbuch der Photographie (Part I, 1891), in which I have found many useful references to the sarly writers and literature. 1 know of no English work in which the subject has been treated with the fullness it deserves. And this is the more to be regretted because so much of the early investigation was done by Englishmen and is almost unknown. Robert Hunt’s Researches on Light has no pretensions to be a history, while W. J. Harrison’s History of Photography, though it contains a short sum- mary of the early work, is more devoted to the record of progress in practical photography since 1839. The story of these early experi- ments is, however, an interesting one; and although I can only give a brief and necessarily very incomplete sketch of it, this may serve to draw attention to the subject and incite further inquiry. EARLY NOTICES OF SALTS OF SILVER. Nitrate of silver seems to have been known from very early times. Doctor Vogel infers from Herapath’s statement that silver has been found on linen mummy cloths marked with hieroglyphs that the ancient Egyptians knew of the darkening action of light upon silver nitrate. (W. and T. J. Herapath, Phil. Mag. (iv) 8, 528, and 5, 339.) One of the earliest authentic accounts of it is given by Jabir ibn Hay- yam (commonly known as Geber), who lived about the seventh or eighth century. In the quaint English translations of his works by Richard Russel (1678) we find a clear description of nitric acid (dis- THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. oa0 solutive water) prepared by distillation of a mixture of vitriol of Cyprus (copperas), saltpeter, and alum. By adding sal ammoniac ¢ kind of aqua regia was formed, which he says would dissolve gold, sulphur, and silver. By dissolving calcined silver in its solutive water (nitric acid), and allowing a third part to evaporate, he obtained the nitrate in the form of small fusible stones, like crystal. (Invention of Verity, cap. 2, p. 266.) He also mentions a peculiar celestine or hyacinth color produced by exposing silver to the fumes of acute things—as of vinegar, sal ammoniac, etc. Later on we find a great many references to this silver blue pigment in the writings of the early chemists and painters. In some cases the color was no doubt due to the verdigris formed by the action of strong vinegar on the copper alloy mixed with the silver, but in others it may have been a form of chloride or compound chloride of silver with ammonia and copper of an intense blue color. So that silver chloride may have taken its place in pictorialart very much earlier than is generally supposed. Entzelius, in his De Re Metallica (Frankfort, 1557, p. 17), mentions a plum.col- ored silver ore which, according to Theophrastus, was used as a fine pigment. He also notes the great variety of color shown by the ores of silver. We may pass over Albertus Magnus and the alchemists of the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, whose methods of making nitric acid, silver nitrate, and aqua regia were for the most part derived from Geber. And though they must have been acquainted with silver chloride, they have, so faras I have been able to ascertain, left no record of the action of light upon it or any other silver compound. Littie, indeed, to this effect can be found in the works of the earlier mineralogists and metallurgists of the sixteenth century, who mention several different ores of native silver, but seldom under the name of horn silver, or luna cornea, and it is very difficult to ascertain which of the many translucent ores described by them really was the native chloride. One of the earliest and by far the most important of these writers, Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer), in his De Natura Fossilium, liber 8, written about 1546, mentions silver as producing black lines and dirty- ing the hands; acids also corrode it, tinge it blue, and destroy it. In another passage, in liber LO of the same work, he describes an excellent method of making the blue pigment above referred to by exposing sheets of silver full of small fissures, which should be filled up with mercury, to the vapors of a mixture of sal ammoniae dissolved in the strongest vinegar in a closed yessel buried in the earth or in dung for about twenty days. The best edition of his De Re Metallica and other works, published at Basel in 1657, is a complete treatise on mining and metallurgy, illustrated with many curious pictures of mines and mining machinery. 336 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. In an index at page 702 of this book we find the German equivalents to the Latin names of a number of ores of silver, but there is no men- tion whatever of horn silver, nor have I found any distinct reference to it in the volume. Nor is there any reference to the darkening of these ores by light, though he says of one form of Tyrolean glassy ore (argentum rude rhéticum, probably a sulphide) that from a blue inclining to violet it blackens or is ash colored. FABRICIUS AND OTHERS ON HORN SILVER. In a note to a memoir on Daguerreotype, written about 1839, Arago says (Huvres completes, 7, 466) that ina work by Fabricius (De Rebus Metallicis, 1556) there is a full description of a kind of silver ore called ‘*horned silver,” with the color and transparence of horn, the fusibility and softness of wax. Exposed to light, it passed from a yellowish gray to violet, and by a more prolonged action became almost black; it was natural horn silver. Tissandier (History and Handbook of Photography) makes Fabricius an alchemist and says that he prepared luna cornea by precipitating a solution of silver nitrate with sea salt, and that in his Book of the Metals (1556) he relates that the image projected by a glass lens onto a surface of luna cornea imprinted itself in black and gray according as the parts were completely illuminated or touched only by diffused light. Harrison, in his History, also gives a similar account. Beequerel, Eder, and Fabre have already noted that there is nothing to this effect in the little treatise De Metallicis Rebus ac Nominibus, observationes varie et erudite, ex Schedis Georgii Fabricii: quibus ea potissimum explicantur, que Georgius Agricola preeteriit, com- piled from notes by Georgius Fabricius (Georg Goldschmied) sent by his brother to Kentmann and published in 1566 by Conrad Gesner, of Zurich, ina collection of similar treatises on gems, fossils, minerals, etc. In the chapter on silver (p. 6) Fabricius says: ‘‘ In no metal is there such a great variety of colors as appears in this by some marvel- ous artifice of nature: some ores are translucent, as the red or liver- colored, another is ike a ruby, a third has a horny light (lucem cor- neam) and is very like cornelian (sarda).” Again he says that ‘tthe liver-colored ore is described in his book of metals (in nostra corpore metallico). This also is soft like lead and melts over a candle; poured out on gypsum, on account of its spiritual subtility it is entirely con- sumed. Its thinner particles are translucid like horn, the thinnest like ice.” Ina list of various ores of silver (p. 10) he mentions one (cornei coloris translucidum), translucid with the color of horn, but that is all; not a word about any change of color by exposure to light or otherwise. From the above it seems possible that Fabricius wrote an earlier work on metals, but I have not been able to find any trace of it. From 1553 till his death, in 1571, he was director of the college THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 337 at Meissen, and was the author of several philological, historical, and poetical works (P. Albinus, Meissniche Land-Chronica, p. 322). His treatise on metals, referred to, is not in the least alchemistic. Son of a goldsmith, born and living in the mining districts in Saxony, it is natural that he should have taken an interest in metals. So far as I have been able to gather, the accounts of his observations of the action of light on horn silver, or silver chloride, are quite apocryphal. In G. D. Schreber’s Life of Fabricius (1717) we find several pas- sages showing the friendship that existed between Fabricius and Agri- cola and the help given to the latter by the former in compiling his book, to which the notes by Fabricius were intended as a supplement and were so published in the edition of 1565. In another treatise in the same volume, by Johann Kentmann, describing the minerals of Misnia (Meissen) there is a list of 84 differ- ent ores of silver, and among the yellow ones he describes one as ‘*pellucid like horn, from Marienberg: melts over a candle.” The only distinct early notice of horn silver and of its change of color I have come across is in a little German book by H. Modestin Fachs, mint master at Leipzig, Probier Buchlein (1567). At page 184, in a list of silver ores, he mentions horn silver ore (Horen Silberertz) and says: ‘* It looks just like horn, such as is used for horse combs, and may be cut and impressed like wax; is very rich in silver. Like it, such horn silver is wont also to change to the color of oxidized lead (bley nichter.) ” Johann Mathesius, in his Bergpostilla, or Sarepta (1578), mentions horn-colored silver ore as lately found in the Marienberg mines, trans- parent like the horn of a lantern and fusible over a flame. (This may explain why Agricola does not notice it.) He does note note the change of color on exposure, but in the Meissnische Berg-Chronic: (1590), page 110, Petrus Albinus describes a remarkable white semi- fluid silver ore from St. Georgen, which was said to be like butter- milk when found, but soon hardened in the air, becoming like sand or erit, and its white color changed to brown or rusty. This semifluid ore is also noticed by Albertus Magnus and Agricola, but there is nothing to show it was a chloride. Albinus also mentions horn silver from Marienberg (p. 127) in much the same terms as Mathesius, and, with regard to the variety of colors it assumes, he quotes the extracts from Fabricius, given above, as referring to this ore. In this way the arly knowledge of native horn silver and its lability to change of color seems to have been entirely confined to the mining districts of Saxony. Even in the great work of Aldrovandus, Museum Metallicum (1648), although we find a very full and interesting account of silver and its ores, with many illustrations, nothing definite is said about horn sil- ver. Nor does Father Kircher mention it in his Mundus Subterraneus (1665). 338 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. From the sixteenth century onward the science of chemistry as dis- tinct from alchemy, or the search for the philosopher’s stone and transmutation of metals, began to develop in connection with medicine under the impulse of the teaching of Paracelsus and his followers. Tinctures of gold and silver being considered of high remedial value, attention was paid to the preparation of salts of these metals. It is in a book of this kind, the Basilica Chymica, by Oswald Croll (Frank- fort, 1608), we have perhaps the first distinct mention of the precipita- tion of silver chloride by adding salt water to a solution of silver in aqua fortis. He mentions its fusibility, softness, and capability of being cut by a knife, and calls it, from its horn-like appearance after fusion, ‘‘that unknown luna cornea,” and warns his readers against it being used in combination with lead to prove the transmutation of metals, the falsified lead being apparently turned into silver. He says nothing, however, about any darkening in light. In the translation of Erckern’s book on Assaying, by Sir John Pettus (Fleta Minor, 1683), page 5, he refers to the horny ore of silver as being called so from its transparency, or rather lucidation, like horn, and very rich in silver next to certain glass ores, or sulphides. In the same way, C. KK. Schindler, in Der Geheimbde Miinz Guardein und Berg Probierer (1705), mentions horn ore as a kind of transparent ore like the horn of a lantern and of rich yield. That these horny ores of silver were identical with the luna cornea or horn silver, formed by fusing the precipitated chloride, seems doubtful from the account of them given by J. A. Cramer in his Elementa Artis Docimastice (1739), of which there is an English trans- lation by Dr. Cromwell Mortimer (1764). Horny silver ore is described as semitrdnsparent, of a deeper or lighter yellow or brown color, according to the size of the pieces, looking like resin, easily powdered, and lamellar in structure. When strongly heated it emits sulphurous and arsenical fumes and only contains two-thirds of silver. In the second part of the book he describes the purification of silver by precipitation as chloride with muriatic acid from the solution of the nitrate. If the precipitate is dried and melted and poured out quickly ‘it appears as a body of a light scarlet color, half transparent, pon- derous enough, and so tenacious that it is difficult to reduce it to pow- der, and if you-break it, it seems to be of a fibrous texture within; whence it is called ‘Lune cornua,’? on account of its resembling the horns of animals on the outside.” He, however, says nothing about this substance being darkened by exposure to light, nor of its relation to the horny silver ore. CRONSTEDT AND WOULFE. We find the first distinct recognition of the identity of the true hornertz, or horny silver ore, with the luna cornea, or horn silver, pre- pared by precipitation from the nitrate in Cronstedt’s essay toward a THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 339 system of mineralogy (1758), of which an English translation by von Engestrom and Costa appeared in 1770, and a second edition by Magellan in 1788. He says that the horn silver ore is the scarcest silver ore; it is of a white or pearl color, changeable on the surface, semitransparent, and somewhat ductile when crude and when melted. It can not be decomposed without some admixture of such substances as attract the combined acid of the sea salt. Although he notes the blackening of the glassy ore or sulphide in the air, he does not clearly mention the blackening of the horn silver. In Magellan’s edition the darkening of this ore to a violaceous brown when exposed to the sun’s beams, as happens also to the artificial horn silver, is mentioned in a note. The first definite chemical analysis of crude mineral horn silver compared with the artificially prepared, was made by Peter Woulfe (Phil. Trans., 66, £776, 608). He notes the confusion existing between the horny ores and the glassy ores, containing sulphur and arsenic, and says that Cronstedt and Le Sage asserted that the native horn silver was composed of silver and sea salt only. Woulfe also found some sulphate, amounting to about one-third of the chloride, and in some samples admixture of sulphides. He says nothing about the darkening in light, but mentions a black horn silver. DARKENING ACTION OF SILVER NITRATE. On the other hand, the darkening action of silver nitrate was known much earlier. It is generally said that Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his Compositum de Compositis, but this is not correct. After his description of the preparation of nitric acid, which is very similar to Geber’s, he says: ‘*It dissolves silver and separates it from gold; it calcines mercury and crocus martius; it stains the human skin with a black color difficult to remove.” As given in the texts this latter passage certainly refers to the acid and not to the solution of silver. But there may have been some silver in the acid. In J. B. Porta’s Magia Naturalis (1589) liber 10, caption 20, we find a modification of Geber’s old recipe for making aqua fortis, for part- ing silver from gold, by distilling niter and alum, also for making aqua regia by adding sal ammoniac to the other ingredients, and another for sulphuric acid. In liber 16 he gives a number of methods for secret writing, among others writing on the skin with a solution of silver in aqua fortis, and in liber 20 he gives a method of disguising oneself for some time by applying the same solution over the body. It is curious that he should not have thought of applying the solution to paper. In the well-known work by Caneparius, De Atramentis (1619), deal- ing with the preparation of pigments and inks of various kinds, we might have expected to find mention of the use of a solution of nitrate 340 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. of silver as a sympathetic ink or as an indellible marking ink, but he says nothing of this, though he mentions the use of silver for writing. He gives, however, several recipes for making azure blue pigments from silver, gold, and mercury, which, in the case of silver, all depend on the formation of an impure chloride, or double chloride of silver and copper, by the action of the vapors of vinegar and sal ammoniac upon thin plates of silver inclosed in a tight vessel and left for some time under warm dung or grape husks, etc. There is no mention of any addition of mercury as recommended by Agricola. Angelus Sala, in his Opera Medico-Chymica (1647), mentions the stain- ing of the hands by solution of silver nitrate, but says it has not the strong corrosive action of nitric acid, and when some of the salt was kept in paper for about a year the paper was darkened but not cor- roded. He also notes that powdered lunar caustic (lapis lunaris) exposed to sunshine appeared like the blackest ink; this was after- wards quoted by Kircher. He noticed the same change of color if it was mixed with solution of gold. He gives full instructions for erys- tallizing the solution of lapis lunaris. Sala was the first to recognize ammonia as a separate body. In Glauber’s Opera Chymica (1658) there are several passages relat- ing to the use of nitrate’ of silver solution for staining hard woods like ebony, or for dyeing leather or feathers black, and this is perhaps the first mention of the practical use of it for such purposes. In Christo- pher Packe’s excellent translation of Glauber’s works (1689), Philo- sophical Furnaces, Part II, caption 28, page 26, a method of preparing crystallized silver nitrate is described, and the solubility of the chlo- ride in ammonia is noted as follows: The remaining solution which is not crystallized, you may, in a copper vessel by adding sweet water thereto, precipitate over the fire into a calx and then edulcorate it and dry it and keep it for other use. Or else you may precipitate the same with salt water and so edulcorate and dry it; and you will have a calx which doth melt by a gentle fire and is of a special nature, and in the spirit of urin, of salammoniak, of hartshorn, of amber, of soot, and of hair it doth easily dissolve, and it may be prepared or turned into good medicines as shortly in our treating of the spirit of urin shall be taught. After describing several medicinal preparations of silver, as well as a green oil, made with spirit of sal ammoniae and useful for silvering metals or glass he goes on to mention other uses of silver crystals: Lastly, there be many pretty things more effected (besides the medicinal use) by means of crystal of silver—viz, when you dissolve them in ordinary sweet rainwater you may dye beard, hair, skin, and nails of men or beasts into carnation or pink red, brown, or black, according as you have put more or less thereof in the water, or else according as the hair was more or less wetted therewith, whereby the aspect of man or beast (which sometimes in several occasions may not be contemned) is changed so that they can not be known, THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 341 He says very little about the chloride, and had apparently no idea of the action of light or sunshine in producing the change of color in organic matter by the action of silver nitrate. In the same way Robert Boyle frequently mentions the staining of the skin by solutions of silver or of gold and also the darkening of the chloride in the air, but seems to have had no idea that it was due to the action of light. Thus, in his General History of the Air (1692), page 53, he says: If we precipitate a strong solution of good silver made in aqua fortis with a com- petent quantity of spirit of sea salt we shall have a pouder which at first will be very white; but if the liquor be not poured off, this being exposed for a good while to the air, it would acquire on the surface a dark colour, which perhaps an attentive eye will discern somewhat various, as this or that kind of saltness happens to be predominant in the air. At page 52 he mentions that silver plate exposed to the air in Amster- dam is very readily tarnished, and it is evident that he looked upon the darkening of the chloride as something analogous and due to saltness or impurity in the air. Nicolas Lemery also describes the preparation of a medicinal ** lunar tincture” made by dissolvi ing precipitated silver chloride in spirit of urine and spirit of wine. He says, further, that the precipitate of sil- ver with salt darkens on drying, even in the shade, no doubt on account of a small quantity of copper present. SCHULZE’S OBSERVATIONS. Although the writings of Kunckel and Stahl contain a good deal about the chemistry of the compounds of silver and their reduction by heat and chemical methods, we find no observations of the darkening by light, and the first investigation of this action was made by Johann Heinrich Schulze, who published an account of his experiments in the Acta of the Cesarean Academy for 1727. (A full translation of this paper appeared in this journal for 1898, p. 53.) Though these exper- iments were mentioned by Priestley and other authors, and, as I propose show, in all probability led the way to Wedgwood’s work, they seemed to have entirely dropped out of sight until they were brought forward by Doctor Eder in 1881, in his history of photography pub- lished in the Photo. Correspondenz. Like many valuable discoveries, they originated with the investigation of an accident. Schulze tells us that while experimenting on the preparation of the Bolognian phos- phorus, with a mixture of chalk saturated with some aqua fortis which contained a small quantity of silver, at an open window, he was sur- prised to find the color of the surface changed to a dark purplish red, while the part untouched by the sun’s rays remained unchanged. This curious fact struck him so forcibly that he put aside his original experiments to investigate the cause of the darkening. His friends 342 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. suggested that it was due to heat, but experiment showed it was not so. He then divided the mixture into two parts, one being kept in the dark while the bottle containing the other was put in the hot sun with a thread passed round it about the middle of the part exposed to the sun. After some hours’ exposure the thread was removed, and he was delighted to find that under it the color of the mixture was the same as that in the back part of the bottle, which had not been exposed. The experiment was repeated in various ways, and proved that the change of color depended entirely on the sun’s light, and that heat had nothing to do with it. He then tried experiments in the converse way, i. e., he mixed up the fluid to give it a uniform color, and then covered the greater part of the glass with opaque bodies, or with cut- out words or sentences on paper, leaving only a small portion of the mixture exposed. In this way the words or sentences were accurately and distinctly reproduced on the chalk sediment, and the result was looked upon as a great marvel by ignorant people. Feeling that still further investigation was necessary, and believing that the effects were dependent on the mixture of chalk and aqua fortis, he tried several experiments with fuming spirits of niter and ordinary aqua fortis mixed with chalk, but obtaining no result, he remembered that the aqua fortis he had first used contained some silver, and that the effects must have been due to it, because he had already noticed that solutions of silver in aqua fortis turned dark red after exposure tothe sun. He then repeated his first experiments with an aqua fortis containing more silver, and observed that the color was more distinctly marked than before. He found also that reflected sunlight was capable of producing the same result. He notes that other white substances, such as hartshorn, white magnesia, ceruse of lead, can be used to show the same effect as with the chalk. Even then he seems to have felt that he had not penetrated to the real cause of the phenomenon, and only suggests the use of it as a means of testing the presence of silver in a solution, He evidently had no idea of its photographic possi- bilities. , Although Schulze did not set out with the idea of making photo- graphic copies by means of his silver and chalk mixture, and his cut-out stencils were only used to give a clear demonstration of the action of light, it must be acknowledged that his experiments were distinctly photographic in that he first produces his negative images of the thread, leaving a white line on a dark ground, and then the positive images, dark on a white ground, of his cut-out words and sentences, or in modern parlance his negative, or cliché. There is no doubt that here we have the germ of the photographic idea, and further on I shall endeavor to show how it was taken up in this coun- try and led more or less directly to Wedgwood’s own experiments. THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 343 DU FAY AND HELLOT. In the Memoirs of the French Academy for 1728, page 50, Du Fay has described a method of staining agates by treating them with a solution of silver nitrate, and when dry exposing them to sunshine; the solution, penetrating to different depths in the more or less absorb- ent layers of the stone, produced variegated effects not shown in the original. In some cases the solution was applied witha pen. Du Fay seems, however, to have had no idea of using a stencil, and to have worked, though almost contemporaneously, quite independently of anything done by Schulze, the staining of objects by silver nitrate solutions being, as we have already seen, well known, though the necessity of the objects being exposed to light was not so clearly recognized. - He also used solutions of gold and bismuth, and notes the favorable effect of a certain amount of moisture in strengthening the reduction. Similarly, Hellot, in the same memoirs for 1737, mentions the use of a weak solution of silver nitrate as a sympathetic ink which would show nothing so long as the paper were kept in darkness, but on exposure to the sun darkened and showed the writing in a slaty gray, this effect being due, as Hellot thought, to the action of some sulphur- ous principle in the nitric acid which blackened the silver. This is interesting as, apparently, the first recorded graphic application of silver nitrate to paper. BECCARITS OBSERVATIONS. We have already pointed out the incorrectness of the commonly accepted statement that Georgius Fabricius was the first to publish the fact that luna cornea, or silver chloride, darkened on exposure to light, and, although this darkening must have been constantly observed, it was, even up to Boyle’s time, not attributed to the action of light, but rather tosome effect of the air or sulphurous vapors. That it was due to the action of light was first proved by Jacopo Bartolomeo Bee- earl, of Bologna, in 1757, by a method very similar to Schulze’s with the nitrate. His paper, in the fourth volume of the Commentaries of the Bolognian Academy, deals with the power which light possesses of itself to change not only the colors but likewise the texture of things. Having a suspicion that the change in color of luna cornea, gener- ally attributed to the action of the air, was due to light, he inclosed some in a glass vessel and placed it at some distance in front of the window of a room not very brilliantly lighted. After some time he noticed that the luna cornea on the side toward the window had turned violet, while that on the other side away from the light retained its original color. This showed that there was some influence in light which caused changes of color. To make quite sure, however, he fixed 23 sm L905 344 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. some black paper on the unchanged side of the vessel to see if it would protect the silver salt, and left it again exposed till next day, when, on returning to it, he found that the luna cornea had turned violet every- where except in the parts protected by the paper. From this he con- cluded that the change was due more to the action of the light than of the air, and that the same is probably the case with the fading of the colors of garments, for fullers when dyeing the more costly cloths only consider a dye good if the color remains unchanged after a long exposure in full daylight, though they probably attribute the injury to the effect of the air rather than of light. The remainder of the paper is devoted to experiments by Bonzo on the changes of color of silken ribbons in light. Here, as in the case of Schulze, Beccari’s experiment was more photochemical than photographic. DR. WILLIAM LEWIS'S INVESTIGATIONS. So far it had been recognized that the change of color of silver compounds was due to the action of light, but nothing had been done to show what chemical changes took place during this action or what were the conditions to be fulfilled, and the first to make any investiga- tion in this direction was Dr. William Lewis, M. D., F. R. S., the author of many works on technical chemistry. In his Commercium Philosophicum Technicum, or Philosophical Commerce of Arts (1763), he has given a very full account of his investigations into the cause of the coloration of ivory, bone, wood, or stone treated with solution of silver nitrate and exposed to sunshine. He repeated Schulze’s experi- ments with chalk moistened with solution of silver nitrate, both while wet and after being dried, and notes that the color is produced only on those parts on which the sun shines, and that distinct characters may be exhibited on the mass by intercepting a part of the sun’s light by threads or cut paper. He found that the color thus produced on the chalky mixture was not so deep as it was on bone or ivory and was entirely superficial, so that by shaking up the mixture it again appeared white. By exposing the mixture constantly to light for many weeks and frequently shaking it, he was able to darken it throughout, though weakly. The light of a candle or the ordinary warmth of a fire had no effect, but at a considerable heat the matter became brown, though it did not become black as it did in the sun. He also tried several earthy bodies and found that those which dissolve in acids, the ashes of vegetables, of bones and horns, darkened in the same way as chalk and other mineral calcareous earths. Pow- dered flint remained perfectly uncolored, even after six months’ exposure in the sun. White clay, plaster of Paris, and powdered tale also remained uncolored; and even chalk itself, previously satiated with vitriolic acid so as not to be acted upon by the acid in which the silver was dissolved, was unchanged. He concluded, therefore, that to pro- THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 345 duce a black stain from solution of silver, it was necessary not only that the substance moistened with it should be exposed to the action of solar light, but that it should contain some matter which the nitrous acid might dissolve preferably to the silver which it already held dis- solved. He observes that though this is plainly the case with bones, horns, hair, marble, and other bodies which are stained by the silver solution, there are also some stones, such as ag stance soluble by the acid has not yet discovered itself. (In another place he refers to Du Fay’s experiments with agates already noted.) He goes on to say that this production of a dark color by the action of the sun is not peculiar to solution of silver, or to a combination of this solution with soluble earths, and notes that precipitated nitrate of bismuth and mercurius dulcis, a combination of quicksilver with the marine acid (calomel), suffer a like change, but do not become black like silver. He does not mention the action of light on silver chloride. In the early part of the book he notes also that the solution of gold in aqua regia stains the skin and other animal and vegetable substances purple, the coloring being hastened by exposure to the sun and free air and favored by the presence of moisture. He mentions several other preparations of the muriate of gold combined with sea salt, ate, in which a sub- niter. or sal ammoniac, as well as solutions in ether and volatile oils. He also discusses the staining power of a solution of platinum in aqua regia in the light and finds it much less than that of gold. It gives a brown stain to organic materials dipped in it, but in most cases water’ washes off the stain. CONNECTION BETWEEN SCHULZE AND WEDGWOOD. These very interesting researches are, like the previous ones of Schulze and Beccari, more photochemical than photographic, though they form a noteworthy contribution to the history of silver printing which has hitherto been quite overlooked. They are the more impor- tant because it appears extremely probable that they form the con- necting link between Schulze and Wedgwood, for we find in Dr. Thomas Thomson’s History of Chemistry (Vol. I, p. 266), that at Doe- tor Lewis’s death, in 1781, all the manuscript volumes containing his experiments and collections from other authors which had been com- piled by his assistant, Mr. Chicholm, who had been with him for many vears, were purchased by Mr. Wedgwood, who also took Mr. Chicholm into his own service and put him in charge of his laboratory. Accord- ing to Miss Meteyard (Life of Josiah Wedgwood, 2, p. 465), the name of this assistant was Alexander Chisholm; he had been thirty years with Doctor Lewis, of Kingston-on-Thames, and entered Wedgwood’s service at Etruria as secretary and chemical assistant in 1782, and was for a long time his right-hand man. He died in 1807. From Mr, Litchfield’s **Tom Wedgwood” (p. 5), it appears that Chisholm (or 346 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Chisolm, as Litchfield spells it) had a great deal to do with the educa- tion of young Tom. He was a good chemist, a man of education, and at least something of a classical scholar, and the boy seems to have received much of his scientific and classical training from him, and when at the university corresponded freely with him, chiefly on chem- ical topics. He no doubt also assisted him in his early experiments. This connection of Chisholm, first with Doctor Lewis and the photo- chemical experiments recorded in the Commercium Philosophicum Technicum, and then with the Wedgwoods, throws a good deal of light upon the probable origin of Tom Wedgwood’s photographic experiments, and it is possible that if any of the correspondence between Tom Wedgwood and Chisholm, or any of the latter’s manu- script notes, are still available, some valuable information on the subject may yet be obtainable. DOCTOR PRIESTLEY. In 1772 Dr. Joseph Priestley published his valuable History of Dis- coveries relating to Light, Vision, and Color, and it is interesting to note (p. 378) that he was a believer in the theory that light was a real substance, consisting of particles of matter emitted by luminous bodies, and considered that this view was favored by experiments demonstrat- ing that the color and inward texture of some bodies are changed by exposure to light. He notes Duhamel’s researches on the purple color extracted from a shellfish found in Provence, which is developed by sunshine; also Beceari’s experiments with luna cornea, already mentioned. With regard to this he remarks that it does not appear that Beccarius knew on what ingredient in the composition the change of color depended, and then he fully describes Schulze’s experiments, which prove it to have been the silver. Although Doctor Lewis’s book is mentioned in the list of authorities consulted by Priestley in the preparation of his history, he makes no mention of his chemical investigation of Schulze’s experiment, but- goes on to discuss the further experiments of Bonzius and Beccarius on the action of light on ribbons, etc.; but these do not concern us at present. In connection with Priestley it may be noted that Josiah Wedgwood, the father of Tom, was a subscriber to this book of Priestley’s, and we may agree with Miss Meteyard that it was not unlikely that young Wedgewood would know the book, especially as he was interested in questions bearing on light and heat. Moreover, Mr. Litchfield men- tions (op. cit., p. 19) that while working at the long series of experi- ments described in his two papers of 1791-92 Tom Wedgwood was corresponding with Priestley, who was an intimate friend of the family, and if he were working at photography at the same time it is not improbable that his attention would have been drawn to Schulze’s experiment, even if Chisholm had not already told him of it. THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 347 We next find Schulze’s experiment included by Dr. William Hooper in his Rational Recreations (1774, 4, 143) under the heading ‘** Writing on glass by the rays of the sun.” It was repeated by Halle in 1784 in his Magie, oder die Zauberkriifte der Natur, who mentions writing with sympathetic inks made of solutions of gold or silver, and it appears also in later collections of chemical experiments. Here we have the first distinctly graphic application of Schulze’s experiment, and nothing else of the kind is given by Hooper. For the purpose of this experiment the cut-out stencils (or, as Schiendl calls them, ** nega- tives”) were more suitable than the positive prints or projections used by Wedgwood and Davy. No thought of fixing or of multiplying copies of his light images seems to have occurred to Schulze or to any of those who described his experiment, and, indeed, from the nature of it, it was not likely todo so. In this sense he certainly fell short of the photographic ideal which Davy and Wedgwood undoubtedly had before them. SCHEELE’S OBSERVATIONS. In 1777 Carl Wilhelm Scheele published his well-known observations and experiments on air and fire (Aeris atque Ignis examen chemicum. Upsala and Lips, 1777), of which translations were published in Ger- man, French, and English. He also was a believer in the prevailing theory of light being a body, and that the light of the sun was the same as of a burning candle. He sets himself to prove the presence of an inflammable principle in light (sec. 60), and starts with the blackening of a solution of silver nitrate exposed to the sun on a piece of chalk, noting that reflected white light produces the same effect, but heat does not; then he asks whether this black color should be real silver, and in the following sections describes a series of experi- ments he made to prove it. The most important, photographically, are in section 63, in which he describes how he first of all prepared silver chloride by precipitation with sal ammoniac from solution of the nitrate, washed and dried the precipitate, and exposed it on paper to the sun for two weeks, when the surface of the white powder grew black. The powder was then stirred and the operation repeated several times. He then poured some caustic spirit of sal ammoniac upon the darkened chloride, and found that the ammonia dissolved a quantity of the chloride, though some black powder remained. This was washed and dissolved in pure nitrous acid and was again precipi- tated as luna cornea. Consequently the blackness which the luna cornea acquires from the sun’s light, and likewise the solution of silver poured on chalk, is silver by reduction. In further experiments he showed that during the exposure of luna cornea to light under water the latter takes up muriatic acid, which can be proved by its again precipitating luna cornea in a solution of silver nitrate; also that 348 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. luna cornea, when exposed to light, moistened with nitric acid, does not change color. In section 66 he demonstrates the presence of phlogiston in light, and shows that light itself is not phlogiston by placing in the colored rays of the solar spectrum paper on which some luna cornea had been spread, when it was found that the darkening took place much more rapidly in the violet rays than in the others; i. e., the calx of silver more quickly separates the phlogiston from the violet than from the other rays. He thus shows that light can not be considered as a simple substance or an element. These observations of Scheele’s, scanty as they are, mark a very distinct advance in photo- chemical knowledge, and demonstrate fully the decompositions that take place by the exposure of silver compounds to light, so far as the. imperfect chemical theories of the time allowed. It may be noted that Scheele did not discover the solubility of silver chloride in ammonia, as it apparently was known to some of the alchemists, and, as we have seen, is distinctly mentioned by Glauber and Lemery; also, in 1761, by Marggraf, who describes the preparation of ammonia (spiritum urinosum), and says that he can only say of it that it dissolves luna cornea in the cold. (Chymischer Schriften, pp. 62 and 284.) SENEBIER AND PHOTOMETRY. Scheele’s observations were repeated and developed further by Jean Senebier, but more particularly with reference to the influence of light on vegetation. His book, Mémoires Physico-chymiques sur linfluence de la lumiére solaire pour modifier les .6tres des-trois régnes de la Nature, et surtout ceux du réene végétal (1782), contains a vast num- ber of interesting observations on the disengagement of air or gas from leaves under water in sunshine, on the production and devel- opment of conferv in water, on etiolation and the effects of colored lights and of the different colored rays of the spectrum on the growth of plants. He recognized the greater activity of the violet ray. He preceded Herschel in the examination of the temperature of the differ- ent rays of the spectrum but failed to note the special heating power of the ultra-red rays or the extension of action beyond the violet. In the latter case he placed the chloride in saucers and threw the spectrum on them. Had he used strips of paper he would probably have observed the ultra-violet rays. In many of his experiments he used cut-out masks or shades of metal or other material to cut off the light of the sun from fruit or plants under observation. He, like others of his time, believed that light was a material substance, and also in the existence of phlogiston, so that it is sometimes difficult to translate his meaning into conformity with modern ideas. He investigated the changes of color in various woods by the action of light, using slips of sheet lead as shades, also glazed boxes fitted with various colored glasses or different thicknesses of the same glass. THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 349 He also used colored ribbons or papers in different thicknesses to erad- uate the amount and color of the light falling on the woods, and thus appears to have been the first to use a photometer. He found that the change of color was due to the resinous constituents of the wood and the liability to change depended on the amount of resin present. He does not seem to have made any observations on changes in the solubility of resins after exposure to ight, but apparently recognized that the light brought about an oxidation, and that some resins are bleached while others are darkened. In the fourteenth memoir (Vol. HI, p. 184) he discusses the action of light on mineral substances and, after briefly noting its action on several metallic compounds, he deals, in section 3, page 192, with the compounds of silver, and especially the chloride (luna cornea). He refers to the previous work of Beecari, Meyer, Schulze, and Scheele, and proposes to extend it. Not content with the simple experiment with a cut-out stencil of sheet brass, he instituted a series of photometric observations, by exposing the chloride under a varying number of thicknesses of paper or slips of different woods or of glass. He confirmed Scheele’s experiment with the spectrum and extended it by measuring the length of time it took each ray to darken the chloride, and found that while the more refrangible rays at the blue end only took from fifteen to thirty-five seconds the less refrangible from the yellow to the red required from five and one-half to twenty minutes. Valuable and interesting as Senebier’s observations are as a contri- bution to the science of vegetable physiology, they did not advance photography very much, except in so far as they marked the intro- duction of a system of photometric measurement, which in recent years has been recognized as the only reliable basis of scientific photographic investigation, and perhaps no one has contributed more to this than our esteemed president, Sir William Abney. BERTHOLLET. In the Memoirs of the French Academy for 1785 Berthollet pub- lished some researches on the action of light upon plants, etc., as well as upon silver chloride under water, and attributed the darkening of the silver salt to a partial reduction of the metal caused by the disen- gagement of oxygen loosely combined with it. He explains this as being conformable to a law of affinity under which the adherence of any element increases in proportion as its quantity grows less, and remarks that gold, silver, and mercury are precipitated on animal substances in this medium state between the oxide and the metal. Doctor Eder notes that Berthollet was thus the first to suggest the formation of a subchloride or oxysubchloride by the action of light on silver chloride. Berthollet’s views were afterwards changed more BHIKO) THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. in conformity with Scheele’s observation that hydrochloric acid was found in the water after exposure of the chloride to light. (Essai de Statique Chimique, 1803.) He also found that the blackened chloride dissolved in ammonia as well as the white and was unchanged. There was, therefore, no disengagement of oxygen from the chloride, the gas bubbles noticed being due to air adhering to it. This was further proved by melting some blackened chloride in a retort, as well as by exposing some white chloride to a moderate heat till it blackened before melting. In both cases hydrochloric acid was evolved, but no oxygen. It appears, therefore, that light simply brings about the separation of a portion of the hydrochloric acid combined with the silver, and the same effect can be produced by heat. Another portion of white chloride set in a dark place in a current of air darkened almost as quickly as if light had acted upon it. The air, therefore, had caused the disengagement of part of the hydrochloric acid, which must escape if the chloride blackens, and this result can be brought about in various ways. We may note that Stahl (Anweisung zur Metallurgie, 1720) mentions this remarkable volatility of the precipi- tated chloride and its visible fuming and loss of substance when exposed to a strong current of air. In another work he also notes the darkening and volatilization of luna cornea when heated with access of air, and attributes the change of color to the action of sulphur. Some experiments by the Abbé A. M. Vassali, described in two papers entitled ‘‘ Paralléle de la Lumiére Solaire avec celle du Feu commun,” published in Vol. V of the Memoirs of the Turin Academy (1791-92), may be noticed. He shows that precipitated silver chloride can be darkened, though slowly, by the flame of a lamp as well as by solar rays; also that it could be slightly darkened by the light of the full moon, especially if it were concentrated by a lens. (This result was disputed by subsequent observers.) He concludes, therefore, that the light of the moon is the same as that of a flame or of sunlight, but not so intense. He used the chloride taken moist from a bottle and spread on unsized paper. In the second paper, he describes an experi- ment made to ascertain the loss of weight in the dry chloride after exposure to light, and how on concentrating the sunlight with a lens the chloride was partly reduced to metal. MRS. FULHAME. More closely connected with photography is the work of Mrs. Ful- hame, as described in her book, An Essay on Combustion, with a view to a new Art of Dying and Painting, etc. (1794). She began her experiments in 1780 in making cloths of gold, silver, and other metals by chemical processes. She also prepared maps in which the rivers were shown in silver and the towns, etc., in gold, and it is evident THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. aril from this and from the title of her book that she had an idea of the graphic application of reducing solutions of silver and gold upon silk. It is surprising, therefore, to find that she does not seem to have thought of making patterns on her silken tissues by using stencils. She refers to Doctor Lewis’s experiments, already noticed, and could have got the idea from his account of Schulze’s experiment. There is, however, no mention of it, and she, like her predecessors, treated the question of the reduction of metallic salts or solutions by light almost entirely from its chemical side. Though at fault as regards her ideas of the nature of light, she made a great many very interest- ing experiments on the reduction of gold and silver by chemical proc- esses, as well as by the action of light on pieces of silk treated with solutions of chloride of gold or nitrate of silver. She found that light had little or no action on them when they were carefully dried before exposure, while if they were moistened with water, the metal was very easily reduced. She concluded, therefore, that the presence of water Was necessary to effect the reduction, as it also was in the case of other reducing agents she tried, including hydrogen gas, phosphorus, sul- phur, and some of its volatile compounds, charcoal, acids, etc. The favoring effect of moisture in the case of the reduction of gold and silver by light, had, as we have already seen, been noticed by Du Fay and Lewis, but not investigated as it was by. Mrs. Fulhame. The account of her experiments with light is in the eighth chapter of her book (p. 142), headed ‘*t Reduction of Metals by Light.” She first shows by experiments with strips of silk treated with solutions of nitro-muriate of gold and nitrate of silver, dried and suspended over water and kept in darkness for three months, that water alone has not the power of reducing metals at the ordinary temperature of the air. She then describes a series of parallel experiments with strips of silk treated with solutions of the same salts; (3 and 7) dried in the air and suspended in a window exposed to the sun for about three months, both showing considerable darkening and partial reduction, stronger with the silver than the gold; (4 and 8) dried and suspended in crystal phials over dry carbonate of potash, the phials being sealed with wax and exposed to the sun as before, both strips showing only a very slight reduction on the exposed side of the silk; (5 and 10) the slips after being dipped in the solutions of gold and silver were placed upon china plates and exposed to the sun, being kept wet with water during the exposure. Jn the case of the gold the color soon changed to purple and after an hour the silk was covered with a coating of bright reduced gold. With silver the silk also soon darkened and in four hours had acquired a blackish-gray color, but further exposure was required to show particles of silver on the under side of the silk; (6 and 11) the slips were dipped in alcoholic solutions of the gold and silver salts and ope THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. exposed in the same way on china plates, but kept moist with alcohol. In the case of the gold no change took place in an hour, The experi- ment was interrupted by want of sun, and on subsequent exposure there was a faint change of color and some reduced gold. With silver there was more darkening, up to reddish brown, but no blackening after four days’ exposure. In () a slip of sillk was dipped in alcoholic solu- tion of silver nitrate and after very careful drying in darkness over sulphuric acid in a phial was exposed to light over the acid for about three months without the slightest change of color. From these experiments she concludes: (1) That water is essential to the reduction of metals by light; (2) that light does not reduce metals by giving them phlogiston; nor (3) by fusing and expelling their oxygen; (4) light is a combustible body, for it acts like hydro- gen, phosphorus, sulphur, and charcoal in the reduction of metals, and further, that it is obvious that light reduces metals by decompos- ing water attracting the oxygen, while the hydrogen unites, in its nascent state, to the oxygen of the metal and reduces it, forming at the same time a quantity of water equal to that decomposed. — In chapter 10 she gives an intelligent explanation of the decomposition of water which takes place when silver is precipitated in the metallic form by iron and other metals, the precipitant uniting with the oxygen, while the hydrogen combines with the oxygen of the precipitated metal, forming water, and reduces the metal. These principles are applicable in the same way to the reduction of silver by acid iron solutions, as in the wet collodion process. She also notes the reducing power of gallic, tartaric, and formic acids on metallic salts. In considering her work it must be remembered that chemical science was in a very transitional state at the time she wrote, but it is interesting because it led to further investigation of the action of light on silver compounds by Count Rumford, Ritter, Berthollet, and others. Her little treatise was translated into German by Lentin, and favorably reviewed by Ritter. A very appreciative account of the experiments with light is to be found in Placidus Heinrich’s prize essay, ** Von der Natur und den Eigenschaften des Lichtes” (St. Peters- burg, 1808, p. 106). We find several of her experiments repeated in a little book of chemical recreations (Rational Amusement, by W. M. Toulmin, Calcutta, 1822), among them methods of drawing silver or gold figures of flowers, etc., upon silken ribbons. Many of her obser- vations were confirmed and extended by Count Rumford in a paper entitled ‘*An inquiry concerning the chemical properties that have been attributed to light” (Phil. Trans. R. S., 1798), in which he tried to show that the reduction of the gold or silver on the tissues was produced, not by any chemical combination of the matter of light with such bodies, but merely by the heat which is generated or excited by the light that is absorbed by them. THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. ade BLACK. In Dr. Joseph Black’s Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry (2, 660), he has fully treated of the salts and best known ores of silver and discussed the action of light in changing the color of the chloride and permanently staining organic and mineral substances moistened with the nitrate. His explanation is similar to Doctor Lewis’s, and he says those bodies to which the solution is applied attract the acid from the calcined silver, while at the same time this metal is restored to its metallic state, or made to approach that state, by the action of the light, which expels from the calx a quantity of vital air. This effect of light in this and other similar examples is well known by experience, but it is not clearly understood how it is produced. Of the chloride he says that if perfectly dry and white it will not change its color in air that is also perfectly dry, although accessible to light, and then he discusses Scheele’s and Berthollet’s experiments upon it. These lectures were written before 1796. WILLIAM HERSCHEL AND RITTER. In 1800 William Herschel, following somewhat in the footsteps of Senebier, discovered the heat rays beyond the visible red rays, by means of thermometrical observations, and this discovery was followed in L801 by the almost more important one, so far as photography is concerned, made by J. W. Ritter of the invisible ultra-violet rays and of their strong chemical action upon salts of silver. The first account of these results appears in an extract from a letter from Herren Rit- ter and Béckmann, in Gilbert’s Annalen, Volume VII, 1801, page 527, discussing Herschel’s results. He (Ritter) says: ‘‘On February 22, T also came upon solar rays on the violet side of the color spectrum and beyond it, and indeed proved it by means of horn silver. They reduce even more strongly than the violet light itself, and the extent of these rays is very great.” A further communication was made in the Erlangen Literatur Zeitung, 1801, No. 16, page 121, and a complete account of the investigations was given in a paper read before the Jena Society for the Investigation of Nature, in the spring of L801 (reprinted in the collected works of Ritter, Physisch-Chemisch Abhandlungen, II, 81). It is entitled ‘* Remarks on Herschel’s recent researches on light,” and is a most interesting paper, more so as regards the chemical action of the red and violet ends of the spec- trum than for any photographic application. As the thermometrical method used by Herschel for showing the extension of the spectrum at the red end would have been useless in investigating an extension of the violet end, where changes of tem- perature are not indicated, Ritter, noting Scheele’s observation that horn silver, or muriate of silver, darkened much more rapidly in the 354 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. violet than in any other ray of the spectrum, followed his method. A strip of strong white paper was coated very evenly by means of a brush with precipitated silver chloride finely rubbed down with water into a semifluid magma. When exposed moist in a dark room to the solar spectrum of a prism, it at once quickly darkened at a considerable distance beyond the outer violet, then in the violet itself, and finally showed the weakest action in that part where the blue loses itself in the green. Through the yellow and red and on beyond, the chloride remained white, however long it might be exposed. This experiment, he says, shows the presence of invisible rays beyond the violet in continuation of the visible rays, and possessing the same action, and that, Just as is shown at the red end by the ther- mometer, their maximum action lies beyond the limit of the visible ‘ays and at a considerable distance from them. In the same way as the heating action shown by the thermometer is almost confined to the red end of the spectrum, so the darkening action on the chloride is almost entirely confined to the blue and violet. He remarks that Scheele must have made his observation very casually not to have noticed that in half the spectrum there was no action at all, and it is to be regretted that he overlooked this fact and the physical and chemical phenomena connected with it. He then discusses the chemical nature of the change in the horn silver, which consists of muriatic acid and silver oxide (silver and oxygen). By the blackening of this substance the silver loses its oxy- gen, and, since it can not remain combined with the acid, reverts to the metallic state, appearing black on account of its being finely divided. Consequently what occurred on the blue side of the spectrum was deoxidation, one of the two great processes into which every chemical reaction finally resolves itself. Its opposite is oxidation. Seeing that the deoxidation took place only at the blue end of the spectrum, the question was whether corresponding oxidation took place at the red end. He set himself to prove it by exposing a strip of paper coated with the chloride, but already evenly darkened in the violet or other part of the blue end, so that the red rays fell on the darkened part, comparing it from time to time with a similarly darkened strip. He found that near the red and beyond it there was a place at which the darkened strip became distinctly paler, and it gradually spread till, after a quarter of an hour, the middle of the spectrum had retained its original tint, which became gradually weaker until it almost disappeared at a point beyond the red and then increased again for a short space. From this he argues that the loss of color in the darkened chloride was due to oxidation of the silver, and that therefore the red rays have oxidizing properties, agreeing very closely in gradation with that of the rise and fall of temperature in Herschel’s experiments. THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. ODO Thus the whole prismatic spectrum acquires a new dignity as chem- ical. In white light, both forces, oxidation and the characteristic deoxidation, are in a state of opposite combination. The whole spec- trum is divided into two parts, the sphere of the one toward the red being oxidation, and of the other, toward the blue, deoxidation. Inathird experimenta long, darkened strip of the chloride paper was placed in the spectrum for five or ten minutes, when the outer ends of the strip were found unchanged; but the whole blue and violet side had darkened, the maximum being beyond the visible violet rays, as in the first experiment. The whole of the red end, on the contrary, became lighter, and the maximum bleaching action was, as before, beyond the visible red rays. Similar results were obtained by exposing a strip of the white chloride paper in a bright light and at the same time throw- ing the spectrum upon it. After discussing the relative oxidizing and deoxidizing powers of the two ends of the spectrum and expressing his desire for exact measure- ments of the intensity of the energy of the various rays throughout the spectrum, as well as of its extent, he says that in chemistry it is known that water is the chemical medium in all processes of oxidation and deoxidation by the wet method. By it alone can the oxidizable be oxidized and the oxidized deoxidized, and in both cases decomposition of the water takes place. In the first case the oxygen combines with the oxidizable body and the hydrogen is set free or combines with any oxygen present in a free or combined state to form water anew. In the second case the hydrogen of the water combines with the oxygen of the oxidizable body to form water, while the oxygen formerly com- bined with the hydrogen of the water goes to the oxidizable body present, the deoxidation of which it usually only indirectly brings about. The active agent in the first is therefore oxygen, and in the second is something. which possesses the same strong affinity for oxygen as hydrogen, or is hydrogen itself. He gives as a parallel the decomposition of water by electricity or magnetism. In a later paper he completes the parallel by showing that if the two poles of a voltaic pile are placed in half-blackened silver oxide or chloride the negative pole increases the darkening, while the positive entirely pre- vents it. Perfectly dry horn silver appears to remain perfectly unchanged in sunlight in consequence of the want of water to be decomposed and supply the hydrogen necessary for the reduction. In this theory of the action of water he quite supports the theory put forward by Mrs. Fulhame. The fact that perfectly dry silver chloride exposed in a vacuum remains white has been proved by Sir William Abney. Although it appears from a later paper that Ritter saw how impor- tant his results would be in connection with the action of light on organic bodies, it is curious that he made no similar experiments with 356 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. resinous and other organic substances shown by Senebier to be senst- tive to light. He makes no mention of Senebier; but, had he known of his work, he would probably have done so, as he recognized that all bodies were more or less sensitive to light. Ritter must have been one of the first to recognize the electrical nature of sunlight and the unity of principle in the polarity of ehem- istry, electricity, magnetism, and heat. I can not now dwell upon this aspect of his work, but in the light of modern physico-chemical science it seems worthy of attention. DOCTOR WOLLASTON. The existence of the ultra violet rays was also noticed by Dr. J. H. Wollaston in 1801, about the same time as they were observed by Ritter. In a note to a communication to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., 1802, p. 379), he says: Although what I have above described comprises the whole of the prismatic spec- trum that can be rendered visible, there also pass on each side of it other rays whereof the eye is not sensible. From Doctor Herschel’s experiments (Phil. Trans., 1800) we learn that on one side there are invisible rays occasioning heat that are less refrangible than red light, and on the other I have myself observed (and the same remark has been made by Mr. Ritter) that there are likewise invisible rays of another kind that are more refracted than the violet. It is by their chemical effects alone that the existence of these can be discovered, and by far the most delicate test of their presence is the white muriate of silver. To Scheele, among many valuable discoveries, we are indebted for haying first duly distinguished between radiant heat and light (Traité de l’ Air et du Feu, sees. 56, 57), and to him also we owe the observation that when muriate of silver is exposed to the common prismatic spectrum it is blackened more in the violet than in any other kind of light (see. 66). In repeating this experiment I found that the black- ness extended not only through the space occupied by the violet, but to an equal degree and to about an equal distance beyond the visible spectrum, and that by narrowing the pencil of light received on the prism the discoloration may be made to fall almost entirely beyond the violet. In a subsequent communication to Nicholson’s Journal (Vol. VII, 1804, p. 298), he explains that in the above note he was careful to express the power exerted by the most refrangible rays on muriate of silver in general terms as chemical, not merely from a doubt whether they would in other cases produce a corresponding effect, but because he had at that time made experiments which proyed that the same rays which cause the emission of oxygen by muriate of silver occasion its absorption by the resin usually called gum guaiacum, which turns green by absorption of oxygen when exposed in the air to sunshine, and consequently he objected to Ritter’s designation of the ultra violet rays as disoxidizing. He adopted an ingenious method of obtaining prismatic images for the purpose of his experiments, and in this way must have been one of the first to produce a photograpbic image on silver chloride by means THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Bf of a lens. Over a lens seven inches in Ciameter and about twenty- four and one-fourth inches focus he pasted a circular piece of paper having its radius one-tenth of an inch less than that of the lens, thus leaving a prismatic annulus corresponding in the length of its circumference to a prism twenty-two inches long, so arranged by its circular form that any one of the colors might at pleasure be brought to a focus, or the spectrum could be received on a ring of any diameter required by mere variation of the distance of the lens. At short distances the exterior margin of the spectrum was red and the violet within; at greater distances than the focus the order of the colors was reversed, the violet being on the margin and the red within. With this apparatus he found that the effect on muriate of silver was much accelerated. At cistances short of twenty-two and one-fourth inches a ring was produced, at twenty-two and one-half a circular dark-colored spot, and at about twenty-three inches appeared to be the focus of these rays, as the spot was then smallest; at twenty- three and one-half it was larger, at twenty-four and one-fourth it again became a ring shaded to the center, and at twenty-four and one-half (unless the paper had been wetted) the center remained completely white, though strongly illuminated. He was, however, unable to restore the white color to the muriate after it had once been tinged, however slightly, by exposure to the most refrangible rays. Similar experiments were tried with the gum guaiacum on paper tinged with an alcoholic solution of the gum. THOMAS WEDGWOOD. We now come to Thomas Wedgwood’s experiments. Though they may have been carried out some years before they were published, I have thought it better to discuss them in order of the date of their publication by Davy in 1802. Miss Meteyard mentions (Life of Wedewood, 2, 586) with regard to Thomas Wedgwood’s early work: ‘*His father early in 1774 had used the camera obscura for taking views for the Russian service, and Doctor (Matthew) Turner, of Liverpool, as it was well known, had either invented or brought to tolerable perfection the art of copying prints upon glass by striking off impressions with a colored solution of silver and fixing them on the glass by baking on an iron plate in a heat sufficient to incorporate the solution with the glass. With knowledge thus obtained and observation directed, it amounts to absolute certainty that Thomas Wedgwood, during some of his experiments on the production of light from different bodies by heat and attrition, made certain discoveries which led practically to the first principles of photography.” She goes on to discuss his subsequent experiments with Davy and the difficulty of fixing the images, and falls into the mistake about the two 358 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. early photographs, supposed to be by T. Wedgwood, which were brought before this society in 1863, and are now in the society’s col- lection. Where she got the information about Dr. Matthew Turner’s burnt-in silver prints she does not say, and I have not been able to find any other reference to them. We find, however, that the intimacy between Doctor Turner and the Wedewoods began in 1762, and afterwards that he compounded varnishes, fumigations, bronze powders, and other chemical appliances for Josiah Wedgwood. In a letter from Wedgwood to Bentley, about 1767, he says: ‘*One of the fumigations is a most excellent enamel color—so fine a yellow that I have some hopes of the great work being perfected, and that we shall be able to turn even the dirt under our feet into gold.” Now there is a great deal about glass staining with silver and other yellow enamels in Doctor Lewis’s Philosophical Commerce of the Arts (1763) already noticed, and it is quite possible that Doctor Turner may have used this source of information. There is evidence to show that T. Wedgwood was engaged in experiments on the reduction of silver for the ornamentation of pottery about 1790. Miss Meteyard says (op. cit., ii, 585): ** To solve some problems connected with light he used silver differently prepared, and his obser- vations thereon led to, the invention of what was termed ‘silvered ware,’ namely, a pattern of dead or burnished silver upon a black earthenware body. We first hear of this ware in 1791.” She gives an engraving of a tea tray ornamented with patterns which could easily have been obtained from stencils, and it may be noted that whereas the previous experimenters in this direction had mostly been chemists, young Wedgwood had very strong artistic instincts, and being accustomed to prepare designs for pottery would more natu- rally be led to the pictorial application of the old methods of obtain- ing Images by the reduction of silver salts. There was no discovery of any new principle in this reduction, but the application of it to copying drawings on paper by contact or in the camera was a distinct and marked advance toward practical photography of which the whole credit is undoubtedly due to Wedgwood. We find confirmatory evi- dence that silver pictures were being made about this time in a letter from James Watt to Josiah Wedgwood, written apparently in 1790 or 1791, and beginning thus: ‘‘ Dear Sir: I thank you for your instrue- tions as to the silver pictures, about which when at home I will make some experiments.” There is some doubt about the date of this letter, Mr. Litchfield put- ting it as above (Tom Wedgwood, p. 186), while Miss Meteyard notes it as docketed ‘* Hand Mill—1799” (Group of Englishmen, p.150) and says it was written a few days after Watt visited Etruria, in 1799, on business connected with a hand mill. From correspondence with Leslie, moreover, it seems probable that the early experiments were THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 359 resumed about this date or in 1800. Writing to T. Wedgwood in November, 1800, Leslie mentions an object glass for the solar micro- scope and some painted glass which had been left for him at the Wedgwood House, in York street, St. James square, and Wedgwood came to town about the same time. Davy could not have taken part in these experiments, because he was still at Bristol, but they were old acquaintances, and Davy may have advised him. In Wedgwood’s earlier experiments of 1790 he no doubt had the assistance of Chisholm, who, as we have seen already, knew a good deal about the reduction of silver and other metals by light. Davy mentions in the paper pub- lished in the Journal of the Royal Institution for 1802 that to copy the images formed by means of a camera obscura was Wedgwood’s first object in his researches, and for this purpose he used the nitrate of silver, which was mentioned to him bya friend as a substance very sensible to the influence of light, but the images thus formed in the ‘amera were too faint to produce any effect on the nitrate of silver, and all his numerous experiments to this primary end proved un- successful. From the scanty details of the experiments given by Davy in this paper it is very difficult to ascertain clearly the relative share that Wedgwood and Davy had in producing the results obtained. It is evident from the above that the idea of reproducing the images formed in the camera obscura was Wedgwood’s own, for he had been familiar with the use of it from his youth, and his first experiments were no doubt made with paper washed over with a solution of silver nitrate. For certain subjects, copying paintings on glass, or making delinea- tions of objects partly opaque and partly transparent in texture, such as leaves, or wings of insects, etc., white leather was found preferable to paper, because it was more sensitive, the tanned gelatine no doubt acting as an accelerator. Davy, however, says that in following these processes he found that the images of small objects produced by the solar microscope might be copied without difficulty on paper, but it was necessary that the paper should be but a small distance from the lens. He notes also that the muriate of silver was more sen- sitive than the nitrate and both were more readily acted on when moist than when dry,a fact long known. The advantage of the nitrate was its solubility, but leather or paper could be impregnated with ihe muriate by diffusing it through water and applying it in this form (as Ritter did) or by immersing paper moistened with the solution of the nitrate in very dilute muriatie acid. . In discussing the difficulty of preventing the uncolored parts of the copies or profiles from being acted on by light, even after repeated washings, on account of some of the saline matter still adhering to the white parts of the paper or leather and causing them to darken on exposure to the sun, he says, ‘‘It is probable that both in the case of SM 1905 24. 360 THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. the nitrate and the muriate, a portion of the metallic oxide abandons its acid to enter into union with the animal or vegetable substance, so as to form with it an insoluble compound. — If so, it was not improbable that substances might be found capable of destroying this compound either by simple or compound affinities. He had imagined some experiments on the subject and hoped to publish them later.” In con- clusion he says: ‘‘ Nothing but a method of preventing the unshaded parts of the delineation from being colored by exposure to the day is wanting to render the process as usefulas it is elegant.” From this it is very evident that he fully appreciated the value of the process if only the difficulty of rendering the images permanent could be overcome. It is easy to understand that the want of sensitiveness on the one hand and on the other the difficulty of fixing the images were sufficient to render Wedgwood’s original idea of reproducing objects in the camera quite impracticable with papers prepared with the nitrate or chloride of silver. Davy does not mention having tried any chemical method of fixing beyond repeated washings. In the case of the nitrated papers, washing with warm distilled water should have been sufficient to render the pictures fairly permanent; but it would not answer with the muriate, for which the only method available at the time would be treatment with solution of salt or of ammonia, both of which are unsatisfactory. Davy, being well acquainted with the previous work of Scheele, as is shown by his note in the paper, would have known of the solvent action of ammonia on the unexposed chloride, but, as Berthollet showed, it also attacks the exposed and darkened parts. Robert Hunt says it can be used effectively as a fixmg agent for silver chloride cr nitrate prints, but requires very great care in its use to avoid the solution of the reduced image. With chloride prints on paper prepared as described above, without any free silver, by brush- ing on the chloride (Talbot seems to have been the first to use the method of preparing the muriated paper by double decomposition with excess of silver) | found that the image was weak and only loosely adherent to the paper. After treatment with dilute solution of ammonia the coating dis- solved off, leaving a faint gray image, formed, as Davy describes, by the combination of some of the silver with the organic material of the paper. A 10 per cent solution of common salt did not have the same solyent and clearing action as the ammonia, and the paper dark- ened again readily in the light. The solvent action of hyposulphite of soda on salts of silver was not known till 1819, when Sir John Her- schel first drew attention to it. Under these circumstances one can not be surprised at Davy not following up the subject, he being fully occupied with his Royal Institution lectures, besides investigations and researches of greater importance at the time. He published the results of Wedgwood’s invention with his own observations, as far as THE BEGINNINGS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 361 they went; and had he not done so, it is doubtful whether tnere would have been any record of them at all, and Wedgwood would have lost all the credit that has always been considered justly due to him of being the first to apply the well-known reduction of salts of silver by light to the reproduction of pictures and natural objects either by con- tact or in the camera. Like so many other discoverers, he was before his time, and it must be agreed that there is an immense gap between these imperfect and unsuccessful trials and the brilliant practical results achieved some years later by Daguerre, Reade, and Talbot, with the more sensitive iodide of silver, the use of which, it must be recollected, was rendered possible by Davy’s investigation of Courtois’s discovery of iodine, and Herschel’s, of an efficient and suitable fixing salt. To this ultimate success Wedgwood’s early trials with the camera no doubt contributed as embodying the first idea of practical photog- ‘aphy of natural objects and demonstrating its possibility. At this point I must conclude my sketch. Although during the intermediate period, between Wedgwood, in 1802, and Daguerre and Talbot, in 1839, no marked progress was made in practical photogra- phy, immense strides were made in the chemistry and optics connected with it, so that it was gradually being made possible and practicable. A record of these advances would appropriately form another chapter in this history. > ire ae Bene a a ay ao pei . oa x ¢ = iy. eat , a 4 F “ay AD i fo! Z 4 By) leat a ay i 7] . m Ta La: ft aL! ny, i - ait: ri fis = ee ¢ is a YS | a a - ; - | ¥ \ > 7 * i = ‘ Wy L , a “ L) - 7 ex a 0 om } hy 7 = ae 7 i 7 7 ye is . . %, be ‘ i 3 7 7 t ‘ bar wy > er hie } f =" L 1 = ne a Oy THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY.+¢ By Prof. Caarvres Larworta, LL. D., F. R. S. We stand to-day, gentlemen, at the beginning of a new century. The science of geology, whose devotees we are, is one of the youngest of the great family of the sciences. The years since first it became conscious of its being are but few in number, and its struggle for existence has from the first been incessant. Yet I doubt not that there are many observers familiar with its history who would assert that ‘‘ young as it is in years, it is already old in achievements, and that the roll of its discoveries and the number and extent of its con- quests stand almost unrivaled for their far-reaching influence upon the pbilosophy and the practice of mankind.” But it is neither necessary nor dignified on our part here to-day to advance or even suggest this claim. For it is not our self-esteem which prompts our work, or the applause of the world that cheers us in its pursuit. Rather is it the delight in the work itself which animates our labors; and it is in the sympathy and the appreciation of our fellow-workers that we rejoice when our ain is achieved. To geology and geologists do we stand or fall. That being so, I have asked myself, as your elected representative, whether it would not be good for us, as a united family of geologists met here together at the close of one era and the opening of the next, to take stock, as it were, of the work which geology has already accomplished, and note how we are prepared to face the tasks which the new era will demand of our science and of ourselves. But self-centered though we may be as individual geologists, and self-centered though we may consider our science, we share the com- mon lot of all men, and our science shares the common lot of all the sciences. As individuals we receive from our fellow-men all that makes for our social well-being, and our science owes its very exist- ence, and most of the conditions that make for its progress, to the aid and sympathy afforded by its fellow-sciences. We have, therefore, no right to make this prospect or retrospect in the family privacy of our own science without regard to the feelings «Anniversary address by the president to the Geological Society of London, Feb- ruary 20, 1905. Reprinted from the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. 59, part 2, May 22, 1903, pp. Ixvi-xcix. 363 364 - THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. or the claims of others. (Geology has not only its privileges, but also its duties, and the entire world of science and practice has the right of demanding a justification of the faith that is in us. Nor do I think that it asks two much if it insists upon a categorical answer to the questions, What is this geology of which we are so proud and so confi- dent? What has it done for the mental or material benefit of the human race? and on what grounds does it justify its claim to respect and support as one of the factors in the advance of humanity / Far be it from me to presume to attempt to reply on your behalf to questions of so serious an import. That task must be left in part to the eloquent apologists of our science and in part to the results achieved by the great workers in geology—results that carry the answer with them. But on an occasion like the present I doubt whether we can do anything better or more appropriate to the time than have a quiet but open talk together over the position and rela- tions of our science. ].—GEOLOGY AND ITS FELLOW-SCIENCES. GEOLOGY AND ASTRONOMY. In the words of one of the most devoted adherents of our science, we might say, ‘* without impropriety, that all the physical sciences are included under two great heads—astronomy and geology; the one comprehending all those sciences which teach us the constitution, the motions, the relative places, and the mutual action of the astra, or heavenly bodies, while the other singles out for study the one astrum on which we live, namely, the earth.” This definition, if we may call it so, is one which is not only simple and convenient, but it gives perhaps the broadest and clearest view of the place and mission of geology, regarded from an outside standpoint. And there is a naturalness in this association of geology and astron- omy which can not be ignored. Astronomy concerns itself with the whole of the visible universe, of which our earth forms but a relatively insignificant part; while geology deals with that earth regarded as an individual. Astronomy is the oldest of the sciences, while geology is one of the newest. But the two sciences have this in common—that to both are granted a mag- nificence of outlook and an immensity of grasp denied to all the rest. Yet, compared with other sciences, few perhaps have so small a number of adherents and working members. It may be that this is due to the opinion of the majority both of the past and the present generation that these two sciences seem to demand for their success- ful prosecution an abnegation of emotion and of all human sympathies; their grandest results are not the conquests of the heart, but of the head, wrought out in the cold, dry light of reason. THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 365 It is needless in these days to insist upon the fierce and pained resistance which both have encountered at almost every fresh advance. In spite of the fact that in the end every such advance has proved itself to be a higher stage in the mental or material progress of man- kind at large, there still exists, even at the present time, an instinctive antagonism to astronomy and geology in the minds of many, especially from the sides of literature and of philosophy. The bewildering immensities of space and time with which these two sciences deal, and their insistent claim to be the only authorities that can bring home to the mind of man the awful ideas of infinity and eternity, cause them to be shunned and dreaded by the man of letters, and wring now and again a wail of impotence and sadness from the poet: What be these two shapes high over the sacred fountain, Taller than all the muses, and higher than all the mountain? On these two peaks they stand, ever spreading and heightening. Look in their deep double shadow, the crowned ones all disappearing! These are Astronomy and Geology—terrible Muses! But, while astronomy and geology share almost equally in the vague dread which they inspire in the minds of those who look only at nature from the side of the emotional and the beautiful, they by no means share equally in the admiration instinctively accorded by the average thinking man to the sciences in general. Along the whole range of the concrete sciences there is perhaps not one that has so effectually compelled the respect of men as astronomy. There is not one in whose progress they have taken so keen an interest, or whose conclusions have been so unhesitatingly accepted. On the other hand, every new discovery arrived at by geology appears to have come upon the minds of men with something of the nature of a shock. The conclusions of our science seem rarely or never to have been accepted with pleasure because of their value or their grandeur, but rather to have been adopted with reluctance and regret and because they were found to be irresistible. Yet, after all, this is hardly a matter for astonishment, for it has its root in the origin and the growth of the two sciences themselves. Astronomy had its birth in the childhood of mankind, in the silence and calm of the night, and in the wonder of curiosity and awe. It carried with it from the very first the mystic fascination of the distant and unknown. It was associated in man’s mind with the peaceful hours of rest and of contemplation. It held within it much of the enthusi- asm and elevation of religion, for it lifted man’s eyes upward and heavenward, away from the never-ending struggle in the world below. Geology had none of these attractions.. The world over which early man wandered was to him the theater of a never-ending conflict, in 366 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. which were arrayed against him impassable seas, unscalable moun- tains, gloomy forests peopled by deadly beasts of prey, raging streams and foaming torrents, each and all the haunts of spirits luring him to doom. What wonder, then, that astronomy was one of the first of the sciences to come into being, and that the successive generations of mankind have mingled with an awe of her greatness a tender and respectful appreciation of her work and of her results 4 And it was but natural that geology should be nonexistent until long after most of the other sciences had come into being and some had grown almost to maturity. Even when she at last appeared and thrust herself, as it were, into the established aristocracy of the sciences, she brought with her the stigma of her lowly origin. And to that she added much of the recklessness and assurance of youth and a bewildering absence of respect for the settled conventionalities of opinion and tradition. This is no excuse; but it is in itS way a reason why she is still supposed to be somewhat of a parvenu among the sciences, and is often only listened to with patience because of her powers and her genius. 3ut there is also another reason for the reluctance with which the conclusions of geology are received by men in general, when compared with the reception accorded to those of astronomy, namely, the rela- tive backwardness of the race in its appreciation of the concept of the extension of time as compared with its advanced appreciation of the concept of the extension of space. Note the willingness, and even the welcome, with which any average audience of the present day accepts the statements and sympathizes with the conclusions of an astro- nomical lecturer who demands for his remoter starry distances, it may be, myriads of millions of miles. Compare that reception with the coldness, or at all events the smiling incredulity, of the same audience when a geologist suggests for the development of all the geological formations at the very most a hundred millions of years. But it is not only the popular audience, but also the majority of the men of education und experience, who still feel this curious hesitation and difficulty. And nothing perhaps has so retarded the reception of the higher conclusions of geology among men in general as this instine- tive parsimony of the human mind in matters where time is concerned. Yet, after all, perhaps this is easily accounted for. It has been well said that ‘* the intellectual advancement of men is due to the relatively small effects of individual experiences added to the large effects of the experiences of the antecedent individuals.” The concept of the vast- ness of space has been familiar to mankind for untold ages, and has grown and expanded with the growth of the race. The concept of the immensity of time has entered so little into the intellectual develop- ment of mankind has a whole, and in its grander aspects so recently, that the race is as yet incapable of adequately grasping it. THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 867 The wanderings ef early man from place to place and land to land soon familiarized him with the idea of the extension of space. He had learned by bitter experience, times out of number, that the distant horizon which to the eye bounded the vast canopy of the sky above him was no boundary at all, but shaded away in all directions into a limitless world beyond, whose practical infinity had been proved to him by his own wanderings, and by those of his forefathers generation after generation. Thus the idea of the vastness of space had already become a part of man’s intellectual equipment long before the origin of astronomy itself. And this idea has been deepened, broadened, and strengthened during the successive centuries of progress by the employment of constantly improving instruments of accurate meas- urement, by the invention of the telescope, the discoveries of geogra- phy, and by the application of the higher mathematics to astronomy as a whole. But early man (and, indeed, his successors even down to and beyond the Middle Ages) was miserably provided with the experiences which might bring home to his mind the immensity of time. Early man himself had for his longest trustworthy chronological base line a short seventy years—the span of his own existence—or at most, perhaps, a hundred years, if he included the experience of his parents. Even in classical times all the past was to his experience vague and indefinite. He had, it is true, mythical traditions of heroic ages, golden ages, and the like, but these when summed up were merely the legendary total of the experiences of but a few generations. Bound down as was man’s mind by his anthropomorphic ideas, he naturally assigned to the earth and mankind a correspondingly brief existence; a few gen- erations—a few centuries at the most—must have witnessed its birth; a few generations more must inevitably bring about its death and disap- pearance. Even since the invention of letters and the compilation of accurate historical records the period of time of which man possesses experience, either personally or collectively, is at most a very few thousands of years. It is hopeless to expect, therefore, that for a long period to come the geological concept of the immensity of past time will permeate the minds of the many, or that they will accept the con- clusions of geology, where time is concerned, with the same confidence as that with which they have long since accepted the conclusions of astronomy. But this intellectual backwardness of the race in the matter of the appreciation of the vastness of geological time is not only a stumbing block in the way of the acceptance of the results of geology among the public at large, but also to the workers in other sciences, and even to the students of geology itself. It is well within the memory of many of us how even those holding the most advanced views in other sciences were intensely reluctant to acknowledge the possibility of the oe 2 368 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. existence of man upon the earth for more than a few thousands of years. And among the geologists of the preceding generation the demand of the so-called ‘*uniformitarians” for those vast eons which must be granted if the geological formations were accumulated and deposited at the same rate as corresponding accumulations are brought together at the present day, was only reluctantly conceded by the majority after years of conflict and denial. Even at the present time it is the habit not only of eminent physicists, mathematicians, and chemists, but also of some of our geological authorities, to scout all reasonings that sug- gest a geological antiquity for our globe of more than a few millions of years. Far be it from me to suggest that geologists should be reckless in their drafts upon the bank of time; but nothing whatever is gained, and very much is lost, by persistent niggardliness in this direction. The astronomer, although persuaded of the possible infinity of the universe, is just as careful in estimating the length of his grander base lines of millions of miles as is the geographical surveyor who takes years, it may be, to measure accurately the length of a base line a few miles in extent before he commences the triangulation of a single country. But the consciousness of the astronomer of the practical infinity of his realms gives him a freedom of action in dealing with space which is delightful. In the same way the geologist, who is blest with an assured conviction of the immensity of geological time, moves with an ease and freedom from cause to effect wholly denied to those wanting in this conviction. No doctrine in geology has resulted in such brilliance of discovery as the doctrine cf uniformitarianism, which sets no theoretical bounds either to the efficacy of present causes or to the duration of past time. It is not, however, the eternity of geological time that this doctrine demands, but the assumption of the vast duration of the geological periods of which it has been made up. And if to this assumption the geologist adds the conscientious accuracy of the geodesist and astronomer, and not only takes for pos- sible, but absolutely demonstrates by discovery after discovery the true extent of the wons that have gone to the making of the geological formations, he is certain to foster and eventually to establish in the minds of men a full and adequate conception of the immensity of geo- logical time. GEOLOGY IN PARTICULAR. I have said that the widest definition of geology is that it is that science which, leaving to astronomy the study of the heavenly bodies as a society, devotes itself to the study of the earth as an individual; in other words, that it is a ‘‘geonomy” as contrasted with an ‘fastronomy.” But while this description is justifiable in principle, it is open to the natural objection that it shares this earth-knowledge THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 369 with many other sciences, especially with the science of geography. Perhaps the shortest definition that has been made of our science, and one equally acceptable to its students and to those who view it from the outside, is that geology is the ‘‘science of the structure of the earth. It is in and around that earth structure that all geological ideas center. In working out the solutions of the problems presented by that structure, geology not only finds her own special and peculiar mission, but extends a hand to all her sister sciences. In studying the solid elements of that structure, geology shades through the science of mineralogy into that of chemistry. In the study of the changes which the parts of that structure have undergone and are now undergoing it shades through the science of meteorology into that of physics. In the study of the successive surfaces of that structure it grades into the science of geography. In the study of the stony relics of the vanished beings that once dwelt upon those surfaces it joins hands with the sciences of zoology and botany. In studying the phenomena presented by the sequence and interrelations of the rock formations which go to the building up of that structure, it finds the means of reading the past history of the earth and its living inhabitants—a glory reserved for geology alone. It was not until geologists discovered that the solid earth crust had a structure which was made up of definite parts or ‘‘ formations” capa- ble of individual recognition and description, each showing a special distribution in space and in time, and each marked by characteristic features capable of being compared, contrasted, and reasoned about, that the science of geology attained individuality and became worthy of its name. It was this discovery—inaugurated by Lehmann and Guet- tard about the middle of the eighteenth century, made famous by Werner and his contemporaries toward its close, and established be- yond all dispute by William Smith at the dawn of the next—that gave geology a claim to be regarded as one of the concrete sciences, and placed in her hands the weapons with which she has fought her way onward irresistibly to the conquest of her kingdom. Since the days of William Smith, the careful investigation and mapping out of these geological formations, igneous as well as aqueous, has spread outward from the original centers of investigation with extraordinary rapidity, until at the present day there is hardly : civilized nation that does not possess a government geological survey. The fascinating problems presented by these formations and the light which their solution has thrown upon all that concerns the past development of the earth and of its living inhabitants, have not only attracted hosts of enthusiastic students to the science itself, but have given it a far-reaching interest to countless workers in other branches of knowledge and opinion. As aconsequence, there is hardly a single important intellectual center in the Old World or the New which has 8370 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. not its own geological society, emulative of our own, whose members are either engaged in aiding the advance of that science or profiting by the benefits of that advance. One and all—national surveyors, members of geological societies, sympathizers in other sciences, col- lective bodies or isolated individuals—are united in a catholic free- masonary by their common study of, and interest in, the rocky structure of the earth. I will not attempt the impossible by endeavoring to follow in detail the various stages in the development of geological science, or by trying to distinguish between what is due to the researches of its own students, and what is due to the aids afforded them by the fellow- sciences. But none among us would venture to deny the assertion that no branch of scientific inquiry has profited more than geology from what has been termed the ‘‘consensus of the sciences.” No science has received more ungrudging assistance from other sciences, or has repaid more fully that assistance in kind. Almost every problem attacked by geology has needed the aid of some other branch of knowledge for its solution; almost every advance made by geology has furthered the progress of one or more of its fellow-sciences. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. The discovery of the geological formations themselves may be said to have been essentially the outcome of the early association of geology and mineralogy. The brilliant ideas of Werner, embodied in his so-called *t geognosy,” in which these formations were first identi- fied by their mineral characters, and then followed over their vast geographical extension until they were shown to stand related to the whole of terrestrial nature and of life, had unquestionably their root in mineralogy; and the geological student of the igneous formations is incapable of his task unless he is well acquainted with the latest methods and results of mineralogical science. But the idea of the inevitable association of mineralogy and geology must not be pressed too far, nor should it be allowed to give to the whole of geology that dominant mineralogical color in which it is often erroneously supposed to be steeped. It is impossible to overestimate the advantages which have accrued to the science of geology by its association with miner- alogy. But that association is an alliance and not a conquest. Geol- ogy is not a province of mineralogy, but an empire in its own right, and between it and that of chemistry, mineralogy is, as it were, a kind of buffer kingdom having alliances with both. But if geology owes much to its alliance with mineralogy, mineral- ogy has benefited by that alliance to quite as great an extent. Not only have all the minerals their home and habitat in the rock forma- tions, but the mineralogist owes to the geologist all that he knows of their association and distribution. In no branch of our science has THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. aC mineralogy aided us more than in that of petrology, which has made such marvelous strides during the past generation; but that debt of obligation has been well repaid. To the petrologist is owing the dis- covery of the special association of the minerals in the igneous rocks, their relative order of generation, and their mutual interferences; and following upon this he has made known hosts of unexpected data rich in fascinating problems, opening out a new world of speculation and research both for the mineralogist and for the chemist. GEOLOGY AND BIOLOGY. But if geology owes the first suggestion of the geological forma- tions and their individualization to mineralogy, she has received bene- fits of as long standing and of as great a moment from biology and biologists. The solid foundations of the paleontological side of geology were laid by the continental biologists, ranging from Steno to Cuvier, simultaneously with the discovery and the working out of the order of the geological formations. Nothing in the history of the growth of geology so astonished mankind or so effectually aided in lifting and dispersing the dark cloud of obloquy and neglect which hid from the world the magnitude of the results attained by the early geologists as the demonstration by the biologist that the extinct organic remains collected from the geological formations were iden- tical in structure with creatures living upon the earth at the present day and that all these fossil forms fell naturally into a place in the accepted biological classifications. At every successive stage in the progress of stratigraphy since that time the geologist has been simi- larly indebted to the biologist for the interpretation and classification of his fossils; and when we have respect to the rarity and to the frag- mentary condition of many of these forms, we can not sufficiently express our gratitude to biology for the aid which she has afforded us. But there is no need to claim that geology has repaid the debt. It will be enough if I quote here two short receipts handed in on our behalf, one by the most distinguished biologist of the latter half of the century just closed, and another by the present occupant of his chair. In the words of Huxley, ‘** The doctrine of evolution in biology is a necessary result of the logical application of the principles of the geological doctrine of uniformitarianism to the phenomena of life; Darwin is the natural successor of Hutton and Lyell, and the ‘Origin of Species’ the logical sequence of the ‘Principles of Geology.’” These words were written by him about twenty years since, and his successor, in reviewing from a morphological standpoint a few months ago the work of zoologists accomplished during these twenty years, speaks as follows: The progress through which we have passed has produced revolutionary results; our knowledge of facts has become materially enhanced, and our classifications have ate THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. been to a large extent replaced in clearer and more comprehensive schemes; and we are enabled to-day to deduce with an accuracy proportionate to our increased knowl- edge of fact the nature of the interrelationships of the living beings, which with ourselves inhabit the earth. * * * Satisfactory as is the result, it must be clearly borne in mind that its realization, could not have come about but for a knowledge of the animals of the past. i It is at the present day the habit of some to hint that paleontology, as geologists understand it, is a mere branch of biology, Just as it was the fashion half a century ago to look upon it as a branch of geology. But the proper view, I take it, is to regard it as the common possession of both these sciences. Here, as in so many contests of opinion, the truth lies in the middle. It is undeniable that all the organic remains discovered by the geologist were in their day mem- bers of the great biological chain of life, and have, therefore, their indi- vidual places and relationships in the scheme of biological classification; and that as a consequence the study of their structure and their rela- tionships falls within the province of biology. But it is equally unde- niable that each of these creatures had an existence during a definite range of geological time, and that its fossilized remains occur at a certain horizon in the ascending series of the geological formations. They have thus a geological arrangement and grouping as inevitable and necessary as the biological one. While we grant that the biolo- gist has not only a right but almost an obligation to place in its sys- tematic biological position in his museum an example of every species hitherto discovered by the geologist, it is equally important for the advancement of science in general that the geologist shall have in his museum a stratigraphical grouping and chronological arrangement of fossil species always available for his geological work. There is a phylogenetic grouping by affinity for which the biologist is constantly striving, and to which he is daily more and more approximating; but there is also a chronological grouping by geological position, which for every individual specimen in the paleontological department of a geological museum was practically fixed the day when that specimen was collected from a known stratigraphical horizon. We may rest assured that year by year the stratigraphical classification In our geological museum will become more detailed and more refined. This chronological grouping constitutes a tool with which geology can not possibly dispense. Again and again in the years gone by the apparent sequence and the known paleontology have been in conflict as to the true stratigraphical position of local formations, and in every known case hitherto the paleontological side has scored the victory. But, indeed, if we geclogists were ever to become so benighted as to neglect this detailed sequential classification of the fossils in our museums, the biologists themselves would soon force it upon us for the sake of their own science. Fossils as thus arranged are and can be the only tangible proofs of the chronological order in which the THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 373 various types and forms of life made their successive appearance on the earth; and they are in consequence the clearest and most widely accepted evidences of the doctrine of biological evolution. And, further, the more minutely they are arranged in stratigraphical detail and the greater the number of species, varieties, or mutations which, are arranged under each horizon, the sooner will biologists have at their command the necessary materials enabling them to solve those great outstanding problems that bear upon the laws which have ruled in the origin, variation, and distribution of species. GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. Turning next to the relations between geography and geology, we may say, perhaps, that there are no two sciences more intimately con- nected or more mutually beneficial. I have already referred to the natural claim of some geologists that, logically, geology includes all that is contained in the study of the earth. But it might better, per- haps, be said that geology and geography share much of this collective study between them. Geology deals with the past of the globe and geography with its present—the former having, so to speak, the charge of its history, and the latter of its politics. The surface of the globe is their common limit, and ina way their common property. All that comes above that surface lies within the province of geography; all that comes below that surface lies inside the realm of geology. The surface of the earth is that which, so to speak, divides them and at the same time ** binds them together in indissoluble union.” We may, perhaps, put the case metaphorically. The relationships of the two are rather like that of man and wife. Geography, like a prudent woman, has followed the sage advice of Shakespeare and taken unto her ‘an elder than herself;” but she does not trespass on the domain of her consort, nor could she possibly maintain the respect of her chil- dren were she to flaunt before the world the assertion that she is ‘ta woman with a past.” It is almost superfluous even to hint at the aid afforded by physical geography to physical geology, or to attempt to show how mutually dependent the two have always been one upon the other. At first geol- ogy was looked upon merely as a branch of physical geography. De Saussure, who first gave the name of geology to our science, was him- self in the front rank of the physical geographers of his day. The study of the whole array of terrestrial phenomena described by the physical geographer is, if anything, even more necessary to the edu- cational outfit of the young geologist than the study of mineralogy and chemistry. Without the aid afforded by the study of the present phenomena, which properly fall within the ken of the physical geog- rapher, ‘‘the conquests of Hutton and Lyell would never have been achieved, and the true philosophy of geology would have been impossible.” Sie. THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. Again, every advance made by the geographical surveyor in the accuracy and details of his maps has resulted in a corresponding improvement in geological mapping and surveying. Every advance made by the descriptive geographer in the discovery, delineation, and description of the geographical relief of continental lands or of the depths and deposits of the sea has increased geological knowledge, and has stimulated geological inquiry and discovery in an almost cor- responding ratio. But in this case of geography and geology, as in others, the benefits have certainly been mutual. Broadly speaking, almost the whole of that vast mass of information which geographers now possess respect- ing the work of those agencies which rule upon the dynamical side of physical geography has been wrought out and accumulated by geolo- gists engaged in searching for the causes of geological action in the Cam) past. The grand processes of denudation, erosion, and deposition; the multifarious action of rain, rivers, and ice; the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes, and the rock-making activities of animals and plants were most of them first laboriously investigated by geolo- gists, who welded them into tools for work in their own science and then handed them over bodily for permanent lodgement in the well- tilled storehouse of the physical geographer. As regards the surface of the earth itself, so numberless of late years have grown the visible and certain points of contact between the phenomena previously regarded as proper to the one or the other of the two sciences of geology and physical geography, and so evident to all has become the sequence of geological causes and geographical effects, that many geographers have of late years almost lost con- sciousness eyen of the existence of a possible downward limit to their science. Reveling in the wealth of geological facts and ideas already accumulated and lying ready to their hand, scientific writers have combined with their geographical description of the ‘* forms” of the surface of the earth the geological explanation of their origins in that most interesting branch of knowledge which is sometimes named ‘“eveomorphology.” This is undoubtedly a section of geonomic science which is of great value, and is destined to grow in importance as time goes on. But its study presupposes a preliminary education in which geology and geological causes take perhaps the largest share; and those who would class it merely as a subscience of geography are as wrong as those who class it merely as a subscience of geology. It is the healthy and vigorous child of both. GEOLOGY AND PHYSICS. Here we enter upon more difficult and dubious ground, namely, the relations of geology to the science of physics, especially in the matter of the so-called ‘*hypogene” agencies. The mechanical modes and means of formation of our mineralogical rock sheets have long since THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 375 been recognized and agreed upon, but the mechanical modes and means of their deformation have, many of them, yet to be identified and established. in the matters of cleavage, jointing, and foliation we have advanced, and in the modes and effects of faulting we have already made some headway. But in the grander problems of orogeny, crust warping, and secular elevation and depression we are still very much in the dark. In spite of all the brilliant work which has been done of recent years, we are forced to acknowledge that we are still busied in collecting data upon which to found a philosophic system of crust deformation. Nothing yet formulated in this direction is of sufficient definiteness and breadth of grasp to afford matter from which anything more than suggestive deductions may be drawn by the higher physics and mathematics. But although our materials are as yet too heterogeneous and too complicated to admit satisfactorily of such outside analysis, yet among geologists themselves there is being developed a tendency to assort and interpret them from two extreme points of view, which may per- haps be distinguished as the astronomical and the geonomical. The working theory employed by the many at the one extreme is the collapse theory, which is founded essentially upon the (contraction) hypothesis of the gradual loss of heat of the earth’s interior. This theory starts from the original covering of our globe, and regards the present state of that covering as that of a solid and more or less cooled crust, which warps, folds, and fractures as it follows down upon the slowly contracting, but still intensely heated (and probably solid), nucleus. This crust shows in its structure and in the major forms of the outer surface the combined effects of the radial and tangential deformations due to the contraction and collapse, these deformations being grouped about the remains of the chief irregularities proper to the crust at the time of its original consolidation. The working theory employed by the few at the other extreme is the fold theory, founded essentially on the (undulation) hypothesis that the deformation may be largely due to tidal movements and to the con- stant redistribution of load and resistances. It starts from the known modes of deformation of the rock sheets which make up the present supercrust and of those of its superposed coverings of water and of air. It regards the earth crust as a spherical shell or bridge surrounding and balanced upon a fluid nucleus (probably gas-like), the shell being in astace of general vibration and its parts in a state of regional and local strain. This shell yields harmonically as a whole, and its various parts yield in groups or individually to the several stresses, but always in theoretic units (duads), each made up of two moieties which are the positive and negative equivalents of each other. According to both theories, the type of deformation may be that of undulation, warping, folding, gliding, fracture, or flow, according as SM L903 25 376 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. the magnitude of the stress, the speed of the action, or the relative elasticity of the material may determine. Its development may range in time from that of an instant to that of an won, and its extent from microscopic to hemispheric. According to the first theory, however, the deformation is not theoretically symmetrical, but is consequent upon and has ever been controlled by the salient features of the original earth crust. Accord- ing to the second, the deformation is theoretically symmetrical, and is due to the continual breaking down and readjustment of equilibrium; it isat every stage controlled by the length and direction of the instan- aneous polar and equatorial diameters of the earth, and by the sum- mational and individual deformations already effected. The tendencies of the first theory are to compare all the phenomena of yvieldage with those characteristic of solid bodies and to dwell especially upon the proofs of fracture (with the fault as the central type); to parallel such signs of symmetry as are apparent with that of crystals, and the loxodromic trend lines of the earth’s surface with those of crystalline cleavage. The tendencies of the second theory are to compare the yieldage phenomena with those of flexible bodies (with the fold as the central type), grading on the one hand into those of rigid and on the other into those of liquid bodies, and including all types; to parallel the symmetries with those of wave forms, and to refer the trends to composition, interference, or superposition, as the case may be. In the first theory there is inherent the expectation of continuous accretion and discontinuous collapse; in the second the expectation of rhythmic recurrence of form in space and of movement in time. According to the first theory the locus of the pole of the land hemi- sphere on or about the forty-fifth parallel is an accident of evolution and a survival; according to the second it is a theoretic necessity and a resultant. How much of each of these views is a mere mental expedient, and how much is an expression of fact, must be left for future research to determine. The discovery of the true path lying between the two extremes will form one of the tasks which await the geologists of the coming era. Il.—GEOoLOGY AND PRACTICE. GEOLOGY AND THE USEFUL ARTS. Up to this point I have dealt mainly with the so-called ‘‘ scientific” aspect of geology, regarding it from the inside point of view as an interpreter of nature and a member of the great family of the sciences. But, as I have already hinted, we are bound also to consider it from the outside or ** practical” point of view as being one of the THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. Ser servants of mankind and an associate of the useful arts. Indeed it is wholly impossible to avoid dealing with it from this outside aspect. In the words of Herbert Spencer: Not only are the sciences involved with each other, but they are all inextricably interwoven with the complex web of the arts, and are only conventionally inde- pendent of it. Originally the two were one, and there has been a perpetual inoscula- tion of the two eversince. Science has been supplying art with higher generalizations and more completely qualitative previsions; art has been supplying science with bet- ter materials and more perfect instruments. * * * And all along this interde- pendence has been growing closer, not only between tbe arts and sciences, but among the arts themselves and among the sciences themselves. I have already noted how greatly geology is indebted to her sister sciences, and how in every case the aid which she has been: given has been fully reciprocated and the mutual sympathy broadened and enlarged. Surely there is no need for me to recall how deep and how fundamental are the obligations which geology owes to the arts in general, and to those of mining, engineering, and topographic sur- veying in particular. But it may not be without advantage if we geologists remind ourselves of that which in the absorption of our researches we are sadly prone to forget, namely, the existence of those many links that bind our science to the world of practice, and the vital need there is of strengthening those links by every means in our power. | It is true that the first duty of every science is to move incessantly forward from discovery to discovery along the straight path of un- remitting investigation and research, following truth withersoever it may lead, wholly unbiased by the question as to whether that dis- covery bears any relation whatever to the material wants of mankind. But it is equally true that once a fresh fact has been discovered, or once a new and satisfactory conclusion has been reached, if that fact or that conclusion be of evident benefit to mankind at large, every lover of his science should welcome its utility and do his best to en- courage its use. Here, however, we can not ignore the fact that it is impossible that full use can be made of the results of any science until those to whom such results would be of practical value are educated at least in the principles of that science. And such education has a double value; it is not only of especial advantage to those who intend to make use of the results of the science, but it redounds to the benefit of the science itself, for it trains upa host of sympathetic students all concerned in its advancement. We can not fail to recognize that those sciences—such as chemistry, physics, biology, and the like—which are generally acknowledged to be most intimately bound up with practice, and an education in which is held to be absolutely necessary for success in one or more of 318 THE RELATIONS OF GHOLOGY. the arts or professions, are the sciences which have the greatest num- ber of students and are making the swiftest progress. It is the height of absurdity to imagine that geology can, any more than any other science, possibly restrict its activity to research alone. Rather may we say that the corporate geological organism has three necessary functions—research, practice, and education. So long as all three functions are naturally and healthfully performed, so long will geology live and flourish. Whenever either function remains long unexercised, or falls into disuse, there follows, of necessity, a weakness throughout the entire organism, which must in the end become lethargic and erip- pled, and fall behind in the race. When, on the other hand, all three functions are most vigorously exercised, the progress of the science must be at its swiftest and its surest. And this fact has been well illustrated in the history of our science; for whenever these three functions of geology have been most clearly appreciated and simultaneously energized by its leaders, geol- ogy has shown forth with an especial and peculiar luster, and has won the attention and regard of the world. Those who came from all parts of Europe to attend the lectures of Werner were drawn to him by his conviction that geology was one of the most useful of trainings, not only for the men of the mining and metallurgical world, but also for those who were interested in all that concerns man’s relation to the earth in general. They listened with delight and with profit to the brillant exposition of his far-reaching ideas, not only because they felt the fascination of these ideas, but also because they were impressed by his assurance of their material and intellectual utility. The geological education which they received from him they communicated in their turn to their own pupils, and rapidly spread the benefits and influence of geology far and wide over the economic and intellectual world of their time. But we have even a more striking instance nearer home. I do not think that it is too much to assert that no single geologist whose name adorns*the long roll of the past members of this society secured at one and the same time so far-reaching an influence upon the spread of geological knowledge at large, so sincere a respect for our science from the governments of civilized countries, and so kindly a regard and affection for it from the mass of mankind, as Sir Henry De la Beche. And I take it that all this was due to the fact that he, more than any other British geologist before him or after him, had a clear and well-balanced conception of the three functions of geclogy. He was at once a scientist, a practical man, and an educationalist. No one familiar with his Geology of Devon and Cornwall or with his Geological Observer but will grant that he was, both from the side of research and of theory, a scientist to the backbone. But he was more than a scientist. He was a man whose: life work had convinced THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 379 him that the useful side of geology is as important as the intellectual and, indeed, of the necessity there is for the constant union of science and practice, or, as he puts it himself, **Science and practice are not antagonistic; they are mutual aids.” And mainly, perhaps because of this conviction, he was also a keen educationalist; for, as he himself expresses it, as “‘some reason, right or wrong, is sure to be assigned to every practice, it is most important for those connected with that practice that they should possess the existing knowledge upon which it rests.” De la Beche devoted some of the best years of his life to the task of convincing the Government and the people of this country of the importance of the knowledge of the science and practice of geology and its related sciences to the material and intellectual advancement of the nation. He brought round the Government of the day to his views, and the best minds of his time, from the Prince Consort down- ward, became his enthusiastic supporters. He created the British National Geological Survey, which has proved itself as beneficial to the advance of pure geology as it has to the development of the min- eral resources of the Kingdom, while it has been the prolific parent of similar national geological surveys in almost all countries of the civi- lized world. Ele founded the Museum of Practical Geology as a national home for the collections made by geological research and for the illus- trations of geology in all its practical applications, consecrating the building, even in its title, to that idea of the combination of knowledge and utility which justified the nation in its foundation and its main- tenance. And more, he made that museum, through his genius and his knowledge of men, a living and growing center of instruction in geological science and its useful applications, selecting as the teachers of that special education some of the highest intellects of his day. What other scientific leader of the nineteenth century can show so famous a roll of Leutenants? It is almost invidious to select names from the list. But so long as natural science, pure or applied, shall command the respect of men the names of Thomas Huxley, Lyon Playfair, Edward Frankland, John Perey, Edward Forbes, and Andrew Ramsay will be held in honored memory as those of men whose life work in science, or in practice, or in education, or in all three combined, place them in the front rank of the benefactors of their day and their generation. We might go on to point out how the suecess of De la Beche’s se Meme caused it to outgrow rapidly the limits of its original home, for we are most of us familiar with the fact that while the geological survey and the national geological collections are still retained in the original museum, the educational sections became developed into the Royal School of Mines and eventually into the Royal College of Science, which in its turn practically became the center of that widespread 380 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. ’ scheme of national instruction known as the *‘ science and art depart- ment.” But what especially concerns us here is that these results demonstrate, on the one hand, the naturalness and fertility of De la Beche’s conception of the necessary association of science, prac- tice, and education and, on the other, the far-reaching influence that geology and geologists have had on the extension and invigoration of scientific practice and education in Britain. GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS. It is almost an impertinence to point out to an assemblage of geolo- gists like this the relationships of geology and its applications to the material welfare of our fellow-countrymen; but those of us who are absorbed in the charms of research are now and again tempted to look askance at those who are engaged in advancing geology and the appli- ‘ations of geology from the side of economies. Yet for all that every one of us is well aware that geology is bound up body and soul with the development of the mineral wealth of our land—that mineral wealth by means of which the enterprise of our people has placed our country at the head of the manufacturing and commercial powers of the world. Our science has not only the charge of the working out of all the detailed phenomena, subterranean and superficial, of the great coal fields and iron-ore fields which le at the foundation of our commercial supremacy as a nation, but it works out the characters and fixes the places of all the stony materials of which our cities and towns are built, our humblest dwellings are constructed, and all our roads and railways are made. It deals with the sources and the quantities and characters of our water supplies, whether deep seated or superficial, the nature and distribution of our soils, and indeed with everything which we derive directly from the ground upon which we tread. Thus a knowledge of the principles and applications of geology is indispen- sable to the education of the miner, the mine owner, the prospector, the land agent, the land owner, the agriculturist, the civil engineer, and the military engineer. GEOLOGY AND MAN. It is as true now as it was in the days when Werner first drew his far-reaching inferences before his charmed listeners that in the char- acteristic phenomena and varying distribution of the grand mineral masses of the rock formations almost all that concerns the relative habitability of a land depends. Where the hard, intractable rock formations rise boldly out we have our mountain regions—our uplands and highlands——wild areas of pasture and scanty populations, it is true, but the lands of refuge and of freedom in the past and of health and holiday in the present. Where the soft, easily weathered rock forma- tions spread out in gentle slopes or broad undulations we have the wide THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 881 plains of our great agricultural districts — the lands, it may be, of peace and plenty, but where life is so easy-going and so monotonous that there is little incentive or opportunity to vary the established order of things, and the local country life remains much the same genera- tion after generation. Between these two extremes lie the areas floored by the gently inclined rocks of our great coal fields, the theaters of an incessant and fierce industrial strugele—a struggle that has its reflection and its effects in the restless energy and the determined advance of their inhabitants. What well-read geologist among us is not aware that every variation in the contour of our country, as it rises from the encircling seas that have guarded our freedom, is dependent upon its geology? Where the hard rock formations reach the seaboard, project the bold head- land and its cliffs. Where the soft rocks come down to the shore line, open out the broad bays. Where the highly resistant rocks are lifted up in broad mass and face the wild ocean, we find a shore land of rugged cliffs and wild inlets, inhabited only by a few hardy fishermen. Where the easily yielding rocks have been depressed in mass by geo- logical movements, we have the long withdrawing estuary, alive with the ships of commerce moving to and fro from the busy and populous seaport at its head. Or, turning inland and looking over the general aspect of the country, we recognize everywhere not only the paramount influence of the geological formations and geological conditions on the scenery and the relief of the land, but we trace everywhere the persistent effects of these conditions upon the past and present of the people. All the ‘activities of struggling humanity, in the contest for the bare necessi- ties of existence, for mutual protection, for trade and for progress have been limited and controlled by the natural bounds marked out by the unvarying geological factors. The original sites of almost every city and town, village and hamlet, ancient castle and modern mansion were all determined practically by geological considerations. The sites of the old fortresses were fixed by the places of the more or less inaccessible cliffs and scarps, the position of the villages and hamlets by the abundance of the springs, and the settlement of the lands by the comparative richness of the soils. All down the long stream of history the successive waves of invasion, the ebb and flow of con- quering armies, the tracks of inland trade and communication, from the time of the Roman ways, through the roads of the middle ages and later, down to the main threads of the network of railways of the present day, have all more or less followed the same general courses, courses determined by the geographical phenomena consequent upon the geological structure of the land. It is idle to pursue these matters further or recall how all the variations ‘n scenery and scenic beauty are dependent upon geological . 382 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. causes, or how these causes determine the productiveness or the healthfulness of a district. But it is impossible for us, to whom these matters are as familiar as household words, to conceive that the educa- tion of the geographer, the traveler, the man of commerce, the student of hygiene, the artist, the archzologist, the historian, or even the politician can possibly pretend to completeness unless that education has shown him something of the wealth of facts and ideas that flow even from an elementary acquaintance with a knowledge of these things. Here perhaps we may call to mind the fact that what gives character and especial color to the science of geology is that it is the exponent of the idea of continuous evolution. 1 had almost said the discoverer; for ** he discovers who proves.” | Its widest conclusions are based upon the assumption and proof of the efficacy of small causes to bring about the greatest cumulative effects. There is probably no educational gymnastic more captivating and invigorating than to work out and fully appreciate the quietly cumulative effects of present natural causes the sea waves gnawing away the shore, the slow sinking of mud layer by layer on the sea floor, the quiet burying up of organisms; next to trace these phenomena backward stage by stage through the rock formations that mark the eons of the past, down to the very base of the geological scale: and, thence returning, to climb back step by step up the long ladder of life, and note the successive incoming of the ascending types of the animate creation, rising higher and higher yet in the scale of being to the crown of all—man_ himself—‘: the heir of all the ages.” k The discoveries which geology, in company with archeology and anthropology, has made in aid of the solution of the great problem of the antiquity of man are so revolutionary and so recent that they are practically familiar to all. To one who has gone through a geological training and appreciated its meaning the idea of slow and continuous evolution becomes, as it were, part and parcel of his mental constitution. He naturally carries the same geological methods into the study of humanity in general— always from the developmental point of view, always on the watch for those simple natural causes that may have been capable of bringing about the present known effects, and always in the hope of discovering a slow and natural evolution. It is in this way that he studies the races of mankind, the growth and relations of languages, the forms and distributions of beliefs, the trends of political practice and opinion, the origin and expansion of commerce. He is watching and indeed, as it were, assisting in the development of a living thing grow- ing up before his mental eyes. His interest is excited, his curiosity piqued, and his emotions stirred; and while his imagination is allowed full play, it is always safely confined within the logical bounds of induction, deduction, and verification. THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 383 Surely some kind of knowledge and training of this kind is much to be desired for the ordinary man of education and leisure, the lit- erary man, the arts man, the mathematician. Only by some means of this kind does it seem possible to restore the loss of balance due to the self-absorptive and introspective tendency of much of the so-called culture of the present day. Only by some means of this kind can one attain to the needed breadth of outlook and freedom of opinion as respects all that concerns the relation of man and nature. III].—GroLoecy and EDUCATION. We have seen that a knowledge of geology is indispensable to the complete education of the miner, the prospector, the civil engineer, and the military engineer, and that a first-hand acquaintance with at least its elements is eminently desirable for the agriculturist, the geographer, the traveler, and the biologist. Many may even be will- ing to admit that the literdry man and the man of culture would be the better for knowing something of its principles and its conclusions. But as geologists it is our bounden duty to go much further than this, and urge upon the educationalists of the day the necessity of affording the rising generation such a full opportunity of instruction in that kind of knowledge, of which geology is the keystone, as shall enable our youth to understand and appreciate the more important phenomena of the world at large and the bearing of these upon their own life and surroundings. Nothing, however, is further from my intention than to suggest that all the youth of the country shall be instructed in the science of geology as such or that geology shall be introduced as a special sub- ject of education except into the higher classes of schools, colleges, and universities. But what I have in my mind is that geology is the center of that group of knowledges which are sometimes collectively referred to as ‘*nature knowledge” and their study as ‘‘nature study.” The more advanced educationalists have long since suggested and even strongly advocated instruction in nature study for all our youth; but, alas, they are not yet agreed as to what ‘* nature study ” shall include or how it shall be taught. At the one extreme are those who apparently would embrace within it instruction in and explanation of all such con- crete facts and phenomena as can be brought before the notice of the youthful pupil so as to direct his attention to external nature in general. At the other extreme are those to whom this dwelling upon facts and phenomena appears to be repugnant, if we may judge from the fol- lowing extract, which I take froma recently published book catalogue: ‘To those who are striving to make nature study more vital and attractive by revealing a vast realm of nature outside the realm of science and a world of ideas above and beyond the world of facts the 384 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. pages following, giving the titles of books dealing with nature and nature studies, are dedicated.” As geologists, however, we should presume, I take it, that education in nature study is, in the words of Huxley, ‘‘education in that diligent, patient, loving study of all the aspects of nature the results of which constitute exact knowledge or science.” EDUCATION IN EARTH KNOWLEDGE. However that may be, this at all events is clear: The branch of nature knowledge with which geology and geologists have to do is that which Huxley terms ‘‘erdkunde, or earth knowledge, or geology in its etymological sense.” So impressed was Huxley with the general need for instruction in this kind of earth knowledge that he practi- cally founded for its study the educational subject. which he named ‘‘physiography.” Yet physiography has come to embrace much that truly belongs to astronomy; and, indeed, a very large proportion of the subject of physiography, as taught in many schools and colleges in Britain at the present day, is essentially astronomical. But here we have to bear in mind that of the two great divisions of nature that of the outside universe which is proper to astronomy concerns indi- vidual men but indirectly. The other half of nature, if we may call it so—the world upon which we live and amidst whose phenomena we move and have our being—is always with us and around us, and its conscious systematic study, which we call ‘‘earth knowledge,” is, in truth, only a methodizing and an extension of the unconscious and unsystematic study that we call ‘*experience,” which we are always making from the earliest dawn of our consciousness to the final dark- ness of old age. This is the kind of nature knowledge—namely, earth knowledge proper, or, in other wortls, ‘‘ geonomy ” as contrasted with ‘astronomy ”—of which our youth has the greatest need, and it is instruction in this which it is one of the missions of geology to claim for the rising generation. The day has not yet arrived when it will be possible to define pre- cisely what should be taught under the head of this earth knowledge. But what I would understand by it is that it should embrace instruc- tion which would direct the attention of the scholar not only to the natural phenomena of the world at large, but also to those particular phenomena of the world immediately around him. In its general inter- pretation its central plane would be the surface of the earth, and from this it would pass upward by proper stages to consider the distribution of all the phenomena, organic and inorganic, above that surface; out- ward to the study of the meaning and interaction of these phenomena; downward to the study of their history, and onward to the study of their evolution. The teaching of this earth knowledge could begin in the elementary classes of schools, be continued in rising grades through the higher THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 385 classes, and thence extended to the universities. Speaking theoretic- ally, in its earliest stages it should be as simple as possible and cover the ground which is familiar to daily experience or which is funda- mental to several of the natural sciences. In its higher stages it should become more specialized and include the facts and principles common to the special group of sciences which will become of value to the scholar in his later studies or in hisafter life. In the university it might finally be restricted to the perfect knowledge of that one science which the scholar has selected for his specialty and as much of the fellow sciences as has an intimate bearing upon the science which he selects as his own. At every stage a broad foundation should be laid for the superstructure to be erected in the next stage of advance. But, speaking practically, it is impossible at the present day to lay down any general rules as to the order in which the subjects dealt with under the head of geonomy should be taken up or as to the way in which those subjects should be individually treated. For while it is quite true that the aim should be to instruct in those generalities which are common to many or all of the sciences, we should most strictly guard ourselves from falling into the error implied by many of the text-book writers:on physiography, who start with an opening chapter on matter, energy, gravity, and the like—generalities in their essence as yet hardly capable of conception even by the highest intel- lects. And while it is quite true that the most vivid and lasting means of education is by experiments and deductions carried out by the pupil himself, we should as carefully avoid the equally fatal error of imag- ining that instruction in a single experimental science, such as chem- istry and physics, can do more for the pupil than give him a glimpse of a corner of nature. It is sometimes suggested that instruction in earth knowledge should commence with the simplest facts and deductions and lead up, stage by stage, to the highest philosophical conceptions and generalizations. ‘But this is not the way in which any branch of knowledge has grown and developed in the past. The human mind is so constituted that it can often appreciate the broadest generalizations in some directions before it can interest itself in the most elementary facts and draw the simplest conclusions in others. What must be done is to ascertain from the study of the several branches of knowledge how they have individually grown during their developmental history in past ages, note the order of subjects which were earliest and most easily appre- ciated by the human intellect, and give the successive phases’ of education as nearly as may be in that order. Again, it is sometimes hinted that the only fruitful education is that which is purely experimental, the deductions and generalizations in which shall be worked out by the scholar himself; and also that all knowledge which is imparted by the didactic method is not true knowledge and is comparatively infertile. But I firmly hold that 386 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. both methods are correct, each for itself, and should both be utilized. There are unquestionably some things which are best taught by experiment, and by that demonstration in which the pupil takes the whole or the largest share. But, on the other hand, the facts of science are so overwhelming in number, and some of its grandest conclusions are so dependent on the highest extremes of knowledge, that they must be communicated didactically and must be accepted by the scholar more or less as an article of faith. Indeed, the younger the scholar and the less his experience, the more certain is he to accept as unquestionable truths the assertions of his instructors. It would be the height of folly to neglect the advantages of all this side of a youth’s education in those years of his life when he is most qualified to profit by it. The fact is that in the imparting of earth knowledge, as in any other kind of instruction, both educational methods—didactic and experi- mental, authoritative and original—should be utilized together. It is aimatter for the educationalist to find out what sections of a subject and what stages of a subject are best imparted by one method and what by another. The only rule which can be laid down is that the didactic and authoritative method is certain to have less and less effect as the scholar grows older and his experience broadens, and the experimental and original more and more. But there is no escape from the conclusion that it is the common interest of the teacher and the scholar to make use of both methods; for the knowledge of every man—the genius, the scholar, the wise man, and the fool—is alike in this, that it is the sum of that knowledge which is due to his own individual experience and that portion of the collective knowledge of humanity which is due to the antecedent experiences of his fore- fathers and which he has received at second hand. It is not that the present educational systems are wrong in laying stress on the memo- rizing and the applying of what is already known, but that they are defective in neglecting the individual and original half of a liberal education. As I have already pointed out, the central plane of geonomy is the knowledge of the surface of the earth, whose present conditions belong to geography, and whose past and evolution belong to geology. 3ut in the earlier phases of the education of the scholar there can and need be no distinction in his mind between these two sciences; they are rather combined in a geonomic stage—in a generalized organism, so to speak—destined to evolve and differentiate later on. Yet in this early stage the dominating section of the subject is essentially geog- raphy. As such it presents two very different aspects—the general geography, namely, that of the world and its surface as a whole; and the local geography, namely, the geography of the home and the sur- roundings of the scholar. The general geography must be taught di- THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 387 dactically, with the aid of such lecture illustrations as globes and maps; and the instruction must be received by the scholar more or less as an article of faith. The local geography, however—and by this I would understand not only the topography of the district, but the geography of the town or village, the playground, and the very schoolroom itself— should be taught practically at first hand, the data being recognized, collected, and classified, the experiments made, and the conclusions drawn, as much as possible by the scholar himself. MAPS AS MEANS AND SYMBOLS OF EARTH KNOWLEDGE. It is along this local side of geonomy that some of the most impor- tant advantages will accrue to geology, and not only to geology but to all its associated sciences. One of the most necessary qualifications for the geologist and the geographer, and indeed for all students of those sciences and arts in which facts and phenomena have to be arranged in their order of distribution, is a familiarity with the use of maps and a knowledge of how they are constructed. But one of the commonest results of the present modes of giving instruction in maps and map making in most schools is to cause this kind of knowledge to become distasteful to the learner. And the consequence is that for one fairly well educated man who can read a good map of his own native district, there are hundreds to whom this is impossible. A detailed topographical map or a geological map is practically a mystery to the average man, and yet the training which would have enabled him to appreciate and enjoy them both might, if given properly in his early years, have afforded him many a pleasant and interesting break in the monotony of his ordinary school work. He has doubtless been shown in his geographical classes the ordinary maps of the world, and those of the continents and his own country; he has perhaps copied some of them laboriously in manuscript and very probably passed examinations in drawing them from memory. But they were always more or less dead things to him, because they dealt with lands and districts which he had never beheld and not with the familiar objects of the school and the home. He has never seen them grow up before his own eyes, built up from facts collected by himself and his fellows. We should like to see the lower classes of all schools making a map of their own schoolroom and playground. We should like to see the scholars at a higher stage studying and exercised in the large scale 25-inch map of the locality, with the school in the center; those at a higher stage engaged on the 6-inch map of the neighborhood, and so on. Stage by stage the scholars might pass to the study of the 1-inch map of the district or county. Then, when once these maps had become familiar objects, the learners should be taken out on occasional excursions into the country with the maps in their hands, and edu- cated in some of the higher grades of that earth knowledge which can 388 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. only be seen and appreciated in the open air. Later on the scholars might pass to the study of natural agencies, the origin and meaning of landscape, to geology proper, and thence to the study of the intimate relations of nature and man. But it must be acknowledged that the present lack of this kind of instruction is not to be wholly ascribed to the teachers. Good local maps were until recently practically nonexistent. The Government ordnance and geological surveys have now made these at great national expense, but so hidden away are they that few except military and civil engineers and surveyors use them freely, and very few have rec- ognized their perfection and importance. Now, that these maps are becoming completed, we are beginning to discover that they constitute a most important educational engine. They are still, however, sold at too high a price. When we bear in mind the important fact that sxach member of a class should be provided with a fresh map at every successive stage, the cost to parents and school managers of this branch of geonomic training, as matters stand, would be considerable. Yet we may be sure that this kind of instruction is certain to come about. It becomes, therefore, a serious question whether the Govern- ment departments concerned with the surveying of our country could not be authorized to supply these maps to school classes, either as part of the local Government grant or at a very cheap rate. The actual surveying of the country and the preparation of the maps already costs several thousands of pounds annually, which are ungrudgingly paid by the nation. Surely an extra yearly grant of a few scores of pounds to enable the Government map-making departments to supply these maps to schools at a nominal price would_be so trivial, whether compared on the one hand with the large grant already made for the original production of these maps or on the other hand with their educational value to the rising generation, that it would undoubtedly be welcomed by ali. And once our people became aware of the excellence of these national maps, topographical and geological, the demand for them, which is comparatively small at present, would certainly grow. As yet, how- ever, the public are hardly aware even of their existence. A great advance has been made of late by hanging up selected, but unfortu- nately not local, portions of these maps in post-offices, with a notice that the maps can be obtained from the local agent. But what are really wanted in all post-offices are framed copies of the 1-inch and 6-inch maps of the locality, hung up so as to be available for reference by all comers, and a copy of each of these and the other local maps kept in stock, together with a simple catalogue of all the national maps and memoirs, any one of which should be obtainable by return of post. The post-offices are, in the very nature of things, the best advertising places in the country, and they are in direct touch with THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 389 the map-issuing departments of the Government. Once the people become accustomed by means of their school teaching, and by constant sight of these maps in the post-offices to regard them as a factor in their daily life, that which is now a luxury for the learned and the few will become more or lessa necessity for the general and the many, and they will demand for themselves and their children a more inti- mate acquaintance with that earth knowledge of which these maps are a consummation in which the science of geology will benefit a symbol by no means last and by no means least. CONCLUSION. But to what extent instruction in that earth knowledge of which geology is the soul and center will constitute an integral portion of the general education during the present century must depend in part on the efforts of geologists and in part on the enltghtenment and emanci- pation of the educationalists themselves. As geologists, however, we have the assurance, justified by unbroken tradition, that our views will eventually be accepted simply: because they are inevitable. In the direction of practice also we may look forward with equal -confidence, especially to the spread of geological facts and principles and to the extension of the applications of our science. The enormous increase in the utilization of the mineral resources of our country which is now going on, and the rapid opening up of the many mineral districts throughout the world-wide possessions of the Empire, bring day by day a larger array of students to our science from the side of economics. ; And turning to the side of research we are all of us aware that some of the grandest and most difficult problems of our science still await solution—problems as attractive, as stimulating, and as rich in prom- ise as were any of those of the past. And if that past be a true index of the future we may be well satisfied that there is no science which need outstrip ours in its rate of progress. When we call to mind that at the commencement of the great French Revolution, whose echoes have as yet hardly died away, our science was just struggling into exist- ence, and that in the short time which has since elapsed it has placed itself abreast of the foremost, we have every incentive to push for- ward and to emulate those great pioneers in the science, in the mighty sum of whose conquests we rejoice and take a pardonable pride. We have indeed abundant cause for pride, yet none for vainglory. No science, it is true, has made so swift an advance as geology, but certainly to none has ever been afforded so magnificent an opportunity. The veil of ignorance and of traditional opinion which hid from the men of the Middle Ages the wonders which geology has since re,ealed was so dark and opaque that until the close of the eighteenth century no 390 THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY. light could penetrate beyond. But so old and flimsy was it that when once the strong hand of the geologist had torn it, it was soon rent through from top to bottom, and in the flood of light which entered what wonder that discovery followed discovery in almost endless succession, And we have deep cause for thankfulness in that these discoveries have been of benefit not for our science alone, but for ali its fellow- sciences; and more, that they have been from the first of supreme importance to man himself, his industries, and his progress, and to the study of his history, his origin, and indeed of all that binds him and his fellow-creatures to the world on which he lives. While, therefore, we move on confidently together in this dawn of a new era, blazing forward the straight and narrow. trail of research marked out up to this point by our geological forefathers——** the old trail, the lone trail, the trail that’s always new ”—let us ever remem- ber that our science is not only the interpreter of nature, but also the servant of humanity. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM IN ITS RELATION TO GEOGRAPHY. ¢ By Capt. Errrick W. Creak, C. B., R.N., F. B.S. Of the six distinguished nayal officers who have previously presided ‘over this section, four were arctic explorers; and therefore, possessing personal experience in arctic regions, they naturally gave prominence to the deeply interesting subject of the past and future of arctic dis- covery in their addresses, while not forgetting other matters relating to the geography of the sea. The remaining officers, from their imme- diate connection with all that relates to the physical condition of the ocean, in its widest sense, coupled with the great importance of giving the fruits of their knowledge to the world, took that subject as their principal theme. Valuable as are contributions to our knowledge of the physics of the ocean to the world in general, and especially to the mariner and water- borne landsman, I propose to take a different course, and bring to your notice the subject of terrestrial magnetism in its relation to geography. In doing so I shall endeavor to show that much may be done by the traveler on land and the seaman at sea in helping to fathom the mys- teries connected with the behavior of the freely suspended magnetic needle as it is carried about over that great magnet, the earth, by observations in different regions, and even in limited areas. I would, however, pause a moment to call attention to the presence of several distinguished meteorologists at this meeting, who will surely attract many to the consideration of matters connected with the impor- tant science of meteorology, which already occupies considerable atten- tion from travelers. I feel sure, therefore, that geographers will be glad to accord a hearty welcome to the members of the International Meteorological Congress now assembled in this town, and especially to the foreign visitors who honor us by their presence. Some one may ask, What has terrestrial magnetism to do with geography? I reply, Excellent lectures on that subject of growing importance have been given under the direct auspices of the Royal «The president’s address to Section E (geography) at the Southport meeting of the British Association. Reprinted after revision by the author from the Scottish Geographical Magazine for October, 1903. sm 1903 26 391 392 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. Geographical Society; one in 1878 by the late Capt. Sir Frederick Evans, and another in 1897 by Sir Arthur Riicker. And I would here quote the opinion of Doctor Mill, when defining geography, in my sup- port: ‘*Geography is the science which deals with the forms of the earth’s crust and with the influence which these forms exercise on the distribution of other phenomena.’ We know now that the normal distribution of the sarth’s magnetism for any epoch is in many localities seriously affected according as the nature of the country surveyed be mountainous, or generally a plain, 1 the form of islands (or mountains standing out of the sea), and ae land under the sea. There is also reason to suspect that the mag- netism of that portion of the earth covered by the oceans differs in intensity from that of the dry land we inhabit. A connection between the disturbances of the earth’s crust in earthquakes and disturbances of the magnetic needle also seems to exist, although the evidence on this point is not conclusive. MAGNETIC SURVEYS. Previously to the year 1880 there were two periods of exceptional activity on the part of contributors to our knowledge of the earth’s magnetism, during which the scientific sailor in his ship on the track- less ocean combined with his brethren on land in making a magnetic survey of the globe. The first period was that of 1843-1849, during which not only were fixed observatories established at Toronto, Saint Helena, Capetown, and Hobart for hourly observations of the movements of the magnetic needle, but to use Sabine’s words, ‘*that great national undertaking, the magnetic survey of the south polar regions of the globe,” the fore- or of our present antarctic expedition, was accomplished by Ross and his companions almost entirely at sea. This antarctic survey was carried out during the years 1840-1845, and the results given to the world as soon as possible by Sabine. The results afterwards formed a valuable contribution when constructing his maps of equal lines of magnetic declination, inclination, and inten- sity for the whole world, a great work for the completion of which Sabine employed every available observation made up to the year 1870, whether on land or at sea. Readers of these contributions can not fail to be struck with the great number of observations made by such travelers as Hansteen and Due, Erman and Wrangel, extending from western Europe to far into Siberia. The second period was that of 1870-1880, during which not only was there much activity among observers on land, but that expedition, so fruitful to science, the voyage of H. M.S. Challenger, took place. During the years 1872-1876 we find the sailor in the Challenger doing most valuable work in carrying out a magnetic survey of certain por- TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 393 tions of the great oceans, valuble not only for needful uses in making charts for the seaman, but also as a contribution to magnetic science. Prior to this expedition very little was known from observation of the distribution of terrestrial magnetism in the central regions of the north and south Pacific oceans, and Sabine’s charts are consequently defective there. Combining the Challenger magnetical results with those of all avail- able observations made by others of Her Majesty’s ships and by colo- nial and foreign governments, I was enabled to compile the charts of the magnetic elements for the epoch of 1880, which were published in the report of the scientific results of H. M.S. Challenger. 1 will ven- ture to say that these charts give a fairly accurate representation of the normal distribution of the earth’s magnetism between parallels of 70° north and 40° south. Beyond these limits, either northward or southward, there is a degree of uncertainty about the value of the lines of equal value, especially in the southern regions—an uncertainty which we have reason to hope will be dissipated when we know the full results obtained by Captain Scott and the gallant band he com- mands, for as yet we have to be content with some eddies of the full tide of his success. Until the Discovery was built the Challenger was the last vessel spe- cially selected with a view to obtaining magnetic observations at sea, so that for several years past results obtained on land have been our mainstay. Thus, elaborate magnetic surveys with fruitful results have been carried out in recent years in the British Isles by Ricker and Thorpe. France, Germany, Holland, and some smaller districts in Europe have also been carefully surveyed, and British India par- tially so, by Messrs. Schlagintweit in 1857-58. The latter country ts being again magnetically surveyed under the auspices of the Indian government. On the American continent the coast and geodetic survey of the vast territories comprised in the United States, which has been so many years in progress, has been accompanied by an extended magnetic sur- vey during the last fifty-two years, which is now under the able direc- tion of Dr. L. A. Bauer. Resulting from this some excellent charts of the magnetic declination in the United States have been-published from time to time, and the last, for the epoch 1902, is based upon 8,000 observations. There are other contributions to terrestrial magnetism for positions on yarious coasts from the surveying service of the royal navy, and our ships of war are constantly assisting with their quota to the mag- netic declination, or variation, as sailors prefer to call it; and wisely so, I trow, for have they not the declination of the sun and other heavenly bodies constantly in use in the computation of their ship’s position 394 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. This work of the royal navy and the Indian marine is one of great importance, both in the interests of practical navigation and of science; for hesides the equipment of instruments for absolute determinations of the declination, dip, and horizontal force supplied to certain of our surveying ships, every seagoing vessel in the service carries a landing compass, specially tested, by means of which the declination can be observed with considerable accuracy on land. Although observers of many other objects may still speak of their ‘heritage, the sea,” as a mine of wealth waiting for them to explore, unfortunately for magnetic observations, we can no longer say ** the hollow oak our palace is,” for wood has been everywhere replaced by iron or steel in our ships, to the destruction of accurate observations of dip and force on board of them. Experience, however, has shown that very useful results, as regards the declination, can be obtained every time a ship is ‘*swung,” either for that purpose alone or in the ordinary course of ascertaining the errors of the compass due to the iron or steel of the ship. As an example of this method, the cruise of the training squadron to Spitzbergen and Norway in 1895 may be cited, when several most useful observations were made at sea in regions but seldom visited. Again, only this year a.squadron of our pins cruising together near Madagascar separated to a distance of a mile apart and ‘*swune” to ascertain the declination. I would here note that all the magnetic observations made by the officers of Her Majesty’s ships during the years 1890-1900 have been published in a conyenient form by the hydrographic department of the Admiralty. The fact remains, however, that a great portion of the world, other than the coasts, continues unknown to the searching action of the magnetic needle, while the two-thirds of the globe covered by water is still worse off. Among other regions I would specify Africa, which, apart from the coasts, Cape Colony, and the Nile valley to lat- itude 54° north, is absolutely a new field for the observer Moreover, the elaborate surveys I have mentioned show how much the results depend upon the nature of the locality. I am therefore convinced that travelers on land, provided with a proper equipment of instruments for conducting a land survey of the strange countries which they may visit, and mapping the same correctly, can, with a small addition to the weight they have to carry, make a valuable con- tribution to our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism, commencing with observations at their principal stations and filling in the intermediate space with as many others as circumstances will permit. ey) ie) On TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. THE ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. Of the magnetic work of our antarctic expedition we know that since the D/scovery entered the pack—and, as far as terrestrial mag- netism is concerned, upon the most important part of ‘that work— every opportunity has been seized for making observations. Lyttelton, New Zealand (where there is now a regular fixed magnetic observatory), was made the primary southern base station of the expedi- tion; the winter quarters of the D/scovery, the secondary southern base station. Before settling down in winter quarters, magnetic observa- tions were made on board the ship during the cruise to and from the most easterly position attained off King Edward VII Land in lati- tude 76° south, longitude 1525” west, and she was successfully swung off Cape Crozier to ascertain the disturbing effects of the iron upon the compasses and dip and force instruments mounted in the ship’s observatory. Asa ship fitted to meet the most stormy seas and to buffet with the ice, the Discovery has been a great success. Let me add another tribute to her yalue. From Spithead until she reached New Zea- land but small corrections were required for reducing the observations made on board. The experience of Ross’s Antarctic expedition had, however, taught the lesson that two wood-built ships, the Z7ehus and Terror, with but some 3 to 4 degrees of deviation of the compass at Simons Bay, South Africa, found as much as 56 degrees of deviation at their position farthest south, an amount almost prohibitory of good results being obtained on board. How fared the Discovery? I have been told by Lieutenant Shackle- ton—for whose return to England on account of his health we must all feel great sympathy—that a maximum of only 11 degrees of devia- tion was observed at her most southerly position. From this we may look forward hopefully to magnetic results of a value hitherto unat- tained in those regions. At winter quarters, besides the monthly absolute observations of the magnetic elements, the Eschenhagen variometers or self-register- ing instruments for continuously recording the changes in the declina- tion, horizontal force, and vertical force were established, and in good working order at the time appointed for commencing the year’s observations. I may here remind you that some time previously to the departure of the British and German Antarctic expeditions a scheme of coopera- tion had been established between them, according to which observa- tions of exactly the same nature, with the same form of variometers, were to be carried out at their respective winter quarters during a whole year, commencing March 1, 1902. Besides the continuous observations with the variometers, regular term days and term hours 396 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. were agreed upon for obtaining special observations with them at the same moment of Greenwich mean time. Both expeditions have sue- cessfully completed this part of their intended work. To cooperate in like manner with these far southern stations, the Argentine Government sent a special party of observers to Staten Island, near Cape Horn, and the Germans another to Kerguelen Land, whilst New Zealand entered heartily into the work. In additon, similar observations were arranged to be made in certain British and colonial observatories, which include Kew, Falmouth, Bombay, Mauritius, and Melbourne; also in German and other foreign observatories. _ We have all read thrilling accounts of the journeys of the several traveling parties which set out from the Descovery, and of the immi- nent dangers to life they encountered and how they happily escaped them except one brave fellow named Vince, who disappeared over one of those mighty ice cliffs, upon which all Antarctic voyagers descant, into the sea. In spite of all this there is a record of magnetic obser- vations taken on these journeys of which only an outline has yet been given. Anticipations of the value of these observations are somewhat clouded when we read in one report, that hills ‘**more inland were com- posed of granite rock, split and broken, as well as weatberworn, into extraordinary shapes. Phe lower or more outer hills consisted of quartz, etc., with basaltic dikes cutting through them.” Conse- quently, we have to fear the effects of local magnetic disturbances of the needle in the land observations, while buoyed up with the hope of obtaining normal results on board the ship. Judging from some land observations which have been received it appears that considerable changes have taken place in the values of the magnetic elements in the regions we are considering, but when making comparisons we have to remember the sixty years which have elapsed since Ross’s time, and that he had nothing like the advantage of steam for his ships, or of instruments of precision like our present ship Discovery. His ships also were, as we have already remarked, much worse magnetically, causing far more serious disturbance of the instruments. Hence the changes we note may not be entirely due to changes in the earth’s magnetism. The observations made by the officers of the Southern Cross at Cape Adare in 1899-1900 also contribute to this question of magnetic change. THE MAGNETIC POLES OF THE EARTH. I will now refer to those two areas on the globe where the dipping needle stands vertically, known as the magnetic poles. The determina- tion of the exact position of these areas is of great importance to magnetic science, and I will just glance at what is being done to solve the problem. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 397 Let us consider the North Pole first, the approximate position of which we know best from observation. If one were asked to say exactly where that pole has been in observation times, whether it has moved, or where it now is, the answer must be, ‘1 do not know.” It is true that Ross in 1831, by a single observation, considered that he had fixed its position, and I believe hoisted the British flag over the spot, taking possession thereof; but he may or may not have set up his dip circle over a position affected by serious magnetic disturbance, and therefore we must still be doubtful of his complete success from a magnetic point of view. Although eminent mathematicians have calculated its position, and Neumayer in 1885 gave a place to it on his charts of that year, we have still to wait for observation to settle the question, for one epoch at least. Happily, I am able to repeat the good news that the Vorwegian, Capt. Roald Amundsen, sailed in June last with the express object of making a magnetic survey of Ross’s position and of the surrounding regions, in order to fix the position of the north magnetic pole. Furnished with suitable instruments of the latest pattern, he proposes to continue his investigations until 1905, when we may look for his return and the fulfillment of our hopes. As far as we can now see, the south magnetic pole can not be approached very nearly by the traveler, and we can only lay siege to it by observing at stations some distance off, but encircling it. We have our own expedition on one side of it, and now with the return of the Gauss to South Africa in June last we have learned that that vessel wintered in latitude 66° 2’ south, longitude 89° 48’ east, a position on the opposite side of the supposed site of the magnetic pole to that of the Discovery. We may now pause to record our warm congratula- tions to Doctor yon Drygalski and his companions on their safe return, accompanied by the welcome report that their expedition has proved successful. In addition to the British and German expeditions, there are the Swedish expedition and the Scottish expedition. Therefore, with so many nationalities working in widely different localities surrounding it, we have every reason to expect that the position of the south mag- netic pole will be determined. THE SECULAR CHANGE. When, in the year 1600, Gilbert announced to the world that the earth is a great magnet, he believed it to bea stable magnet; and it was left to Gellibrand, some thirty-four years later, by his discovery of the annual change of the magnetic declination near London, to show that this could hardly be the case. Eversince then the remarkable and unceasing changes in the magnetism of the earth have been the subject of constant observation by magneticians and of investigation by some 398 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. of the ablest philosophers in Europe and America. Year after year new data are amassed as to the changes going on in the distribution of the magnetism of the earth, but as yet we have been favored by hypotheses only as to the causes of the wondrous changes which the magnetic needle records. These hypotheses were at one time chiefly based upon a considera- tion of the secular change in the declination, but it is now certain that we must take into account the whole phenomena connected with the movements of the needle if we are to arrive at any satisfactory result. Besides, it will not suffice to take our data solely from existing fixed observatories, however relatively well placed and equipped, and valuable as they certainly are, for it now appears that the secular change is partly dependent upon locality, and that even at places not many miles apart differences in results unaccounted for by distance have been obtained. The tendency of observation is increasingly to show that the secu- lar change of the magnetic elements is not a world-wide progress of the magnetic needle moving regularly in certain directions, as if solely caused by the regular rotation during a long series of years of the magnetic poles round the geographical poles, for if you examine Map No. 1,¢ showing the results of observations during the years 1840-1850, as regards secular change, you will observe that there are local causes at work in certain regions, whilst in others there is rest, which must largely modify the effect of any polar rotation. Allow me to explain further. The plain lines on Map No. 1 indicate approximate regions of no secular change in the declination, and the small arrows the general direction (not the amount) in which the north- seeking end of the horizontal needle was moving during those forty years. The foci of greatest change in the declination, with the approxi- mate amount of annual change in the Northern Hemisphere, are shown in the German Ocean and northwestern Alaska, in the Southern Hemis- phere off the coast of Brazil, and in the South Pacific between New Zealand and Cape Horn. The two foci of greatest annual change in the dip are shown—one in the Gulf of Guinea, where the north-seeking end of the needle was being repelled strongly upward; the other on the west side of Tierra del Fuego, where the north-seeking end of the needle was being attracted strongly downward. It is remarkable that the lines of no change in the declination pass through the foci of greatest change in the dip. If the needle be repelled upward, as at the Gulf of Guinea focus, it will be found to be moving to the eastward on the east side of the whole line of no change in the declination from the Cape of Good Hope to Labrador; to the westward, onthe west side. If the needle be attracted downward, as at the Tierr @Originally prepared by the author for the ‘‘ Magnetical Results,’? H. M.S. Challenger. ‘ TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 399 del Fuego focus, it will be found moving to the westward on the east side of the whole line of no declination from that focus to near Van- couver Island; to the eastward on the west side. A similar result may be seen in the line passing through a minor focus of the dip near Hongkong. Judging from analogy, there should be another focus of change in the dip in latitude 70° north, longitude 115° east, or about the posti- tion assigned to the Siberian focus of greatest force. “ On Map No. 2 are shown lines of equal value of the declination —the red lines for the year 1880, the black lines for the year 1895. From these, when shown on a large scale, we may deduce the mean annual change which has taken place in the declination during the fifteen years elapsed. In this map we are reminded of the different results we obtain in different localities; for if a line be drawn from Wellington, in New Zealand, past Cape York, in Australia, to Hongkong, little or no change will be found in the neighboring region since 1840. Again, the line of no change in the declination shown on Map No. 1, to be following much the same direction as the great mountain ranges on the west side of the American Continent, has hardly moved for many years, according to the observations available. On the other hand, let us now turn to an example of the remarkable changes which may take place in the declination unexpectedly and locally. The island of Zanzibar and the east coast of Africa were con- stantly being visited by our surveying ships and ships of war up to the year 1880, observations of the declination being made every year at Zanzibar during the epoch 1870-1880. The results showed that from Cape Town nearly to Cape Guardafui the annual change of that element hardly exceeded 1’. During the succeeding years of 1890-91 observations were made by the Germans at Dar-es-Salaam and some other places on the neighbor- ing coasts, with the result that the declination was found to be chang- ing at first 3 minutes annually, and since that period it had reached 10 to 12 minutes at Dar-es-Salaam. Subsequent observations at the latter place in 1896-1898 confirmed the fact of the great change, and in addition our surveying ship on the station, specially ordered to ‘‘swing” at different places in deep water off the coast, generally con- firmed the results. It is remarkable that while such great changes should have taken place between Cape Town and Cape Guardafui, Aden and the region about the Straits of Bab el Mandeb seem to be comparatively unaffected. «The results described in the four preceding paragraphs and given in Map No. 1 were also exhibited on a 12-inch globe with the addition of magnetic meridians for the epoch 1880, terminating in the supposed positions of the magnetic poles. This 12-inch globe is now in the South Kensington Museum, London. 400 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. LOCAL MAGNETIC DISTURBANCE. In Map No. 2 normal lines of equal value of the declination are recorded, and as far as the greater part of the globe covered by water is concerned we may accept them as undisturbed values, for we have yet to learn that there are any local magnetic disturhances of the needle in depths beyond 100 fathoms. When, however, we come’ to the land, there is an increasing diffi- culty in finding districts of only a few miles in extent where the observed values of the magnetic elements at different stations therein do not differ more widely than they should if we considered only their relative position on the earth asa magnet. Take Ricker and Thorpe’s maps of the British Isles and those of the United States, for example, where the lines of equal value are drawn in accordance with the observations, with the result that they form extraordinary loops and curves differing largely from the normal curves of calculation. From among numerous examples of disturbance of the declination on land, two may be quoted. In the Rapakivi district, near Wiborg, a Russian surveying officer in the year 1890 observed a disturbance of 180 degrees, or, in other words, the north point of his compass pointed due south. At Invercargill, in New Zealand, within a circle of 30 feet radius a difference of 56 degrees was found. Even on board ships in the same harbor different results are sometimes observed, as our train- ing squadron found at Reikiavik, in Iceland, and notably in our ships at Bermuda. It is hardly necessary to add that the dip and force are often largely subject to like disturbance, but I do so in order to warn travelers and surveyors that observations in one position often convey but a partial truth; they should be supplemented by as many more as possible in the neighborhood or district. Erroneous values of the secular change have also been published from the various observers not having occupied exactly the same spot, and even varied heights of the instrument from the ground may make a serious difference, as at Rapakivi, before men- tioned, and at Madeira, where the officers of the Challenger expedition found the dip at a foot above the ground to be 48° 46’ north; at 34 feet above the ground, 56° 18’ north, at the same spot. All mountainous districts are specially open to suspicion of magnetic disturbance, and we know from comparison with normal observations at sea that those mountains standing out of the deep sea, which we call islands, are considerably so affected. MAGNETIC SHOALS. The idea that the compasses of ships could be affected by the attrac- tion of the neighboring dry land, causing those ships to be unsus- pectingly diverted from their correct course, was long a favorite theory of those who discussed the causes of shipwreck, but it was ‘‘a TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 401 fond thing vainly invented.” I can hardly say this idea is yet exploded, but from what has already been said about local magnetic disturbance on land, it is not a matter of surprise that similar sources of disturb- ance should exist in the land under the sea, for it has been found that in certain localities, in depths of water sufficient to float the largest ironclad, considerable disturbances are caused in the compasses of ships. , An area of remarkable disturbance haying been reported as existing off Cossack, northwestern Australia, H. M.S. Penguin,a surveying ship provided with the necessary magnetic instruments, was sent by the Admiralty in 1891 to make a complete magnetic survey of the locality, with a view to ascertaining the facts and placing them on a scientific basis.” An area of disturbance 3.5 miles long by 2 miles broad, with not less than 8 fathoms of water over it, was found lying in a north- east by east and southwest by west direction. At one position the dis- turbing force was suflicient to deflect the Penguin's compass 56 degrees; in another—the focus of principal disturbance—the dip on board was increased by 29 degrees, and this ata distance of over 2 miles from the nearest visible land, upon which only a small disturbance of the dip was found. This remarkable area of disturbance was then called a ** magnetic shoal.” a term which at first sight hardly appears to be applicable. We have, however, become familiar with the terms ‘* ridge line, valley line, peak, and col,” as applied to areas of magnetic disturbance on land; therefore I think we may conveniently designate areas of magnetic disturbance in land under the sea ‘‘ magnetic shoals.” This year His Majesty’s surveying ship esearch has examined and placed a magnetic shoal in East Loch Roag (island of Lewis), but as all our surveying ships are practically iron ships, it was impossible from obseryations on board to obtain the exact values of the disturb- ing forces prevailing in this shoal. The reason for this is that, although we may accurately measure the disturbing forces of the iron of the ship in deep water, directly she is placed over the shoal mdue- tion takes place, and we can no longer determine to what extent the observed disturbances are due to the ship’s newly developed magnet- ism, or to what extent the shoal alone produces them. We can, nevertheless, even in an iron ship, accurately place and show the dimensions of a magnetic shoal and the direction in which a ship’s compass will be deflected in any part of it by compass observa- tions only. Is it not, therefore, the duty of any ship meeting with such shoals to stop and fix their position ? The general law governing the distribution of magnetism on these magnetic shoals is that in the Northern Hemisphere the north point of the compass is drawn toward the focus of greatest dip; in the Southern Hemisphere it is repelled. The results at East Loch Roag proved an exception, the north point of the compass being repelled. 402 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND GEOLOGY. T have already referred to the question of local magnetic disturbance as one of great importance in magnetic surveys. The causes of these disturbances were at one time a matter of opinion, but the evidence of the elaborate magnetic surveys I have alluded to, when compared with the geological maps of the same countries, points clearly to magnetic rocks as their chief origin. Magnetic rocks may be present, but from their peculiar position fail to disturb the needle; on the other hand, as Riicker writes in his summary of the results of the great magnetic survey of the British Isles conducted by Thorpe and himself, **the magnet would be capable of detecting large masses of magnetic rock at a depth of several miles,” a distance not yet attained by the science of the geologist. Again, Doctor Rijckevorsel, in his survey of Holland for the epoch 1891, was convinced that ‘tin some cases, in many, perhaps, there must be a direct relation between geology and terrestrial magnetism, and that many of the magnetic features must be in some way deter- mined by the geological structure of the underground.” During the years 1897-1599 a magnetic survey was made of the Kaiserstuhl, a mountainous district in the neighborhood of Freiburg, in Baden, by Dr. G. Meyer. Exact topographical and geological sur- veys had been previously made, and the object of the magnetic survey was to show how far the magnetic disturbances of the needle were con- nected with geological confirmations. Here, again, it was found that the magnetic and geological features of the district showed consider- able agreement, basaltic rocks being the origin of the disturbance. This was not all, for in the level country adjacent to the Rhine and near Breisach unsuspected masses of basalt were found by the agency of the magnetic needle. More recently we find our naval officers in Hl. M.S. Penguin, with a complete outfit of magnetic instruments, making a magnetic survey of Funafuti atoll and assisting the geologist by pointing out, by means of the observed disturbance of the needle, the probable positions in the lagoon in which rock would be. most accessible to their boring apparatus. Leaving the geologist and the magnetician to work in harmony for their common weal, let us turn to some other aspects of the good work already accomplished and to be accomplished by magnetic observers. MAGNETIC CHARTS. Of the valuable work of the several fixed magnetic observatories of the world, I may remark that they are constantly recording the never- ceasing movements of the needle, the key to many mysteries to science existing in the world and external to it, but of which we have not yet learned the use. Unfortunately, many of these once fixed observatories TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 4038 have become travelers to positions where the earth can carry on its work on the needle undisturbed by electric trams and railways which have sprung up near them, and it is to be hoped they will find rest there for many years to come. Of the 42 observatories which publish the values of the magnetic elements obtained there, 32 are situated northward of the parallel of 30 degrees north, and only 4 in south latitude; and it is a grief to magneticians that so important a position as Cape Town or its neigh- borhood does not make an additional fixed magnetic observatory of the first order. Thus, as far as our present question of magnetic charts and their compilation is concerned, the observatories do not contribute largely, but we should be very grateful to them for the accurate observations of the secular change they provide which are so difficult to obtain else- where. Of the value of magnetic charts for different epochs I have much to say, as they are required for purely scientific inquiry as well as for practical uses. It is only by their means that we can really compare the enormous changes which take place in the magnetism of the globe as a whole; they are useful to the miner, but considerably more so to the seaman. Had it not been for the chart; compiled from the results of the untiring labors of travelers by land and observers at sea in the field of terrestrial magnetism during the last century, not only would science have been miserably poorer, but it is not too much to say that the modern iron or steel steamship traversing the ocean on the darkest night at great speed would have been almost an impossibility, whereas with their aid the modern navigators can drive their ships at a speed of 26.5 statute miles an hour with comparative confidence, even when neither sun, moon, nor stars are appearing s° Of the large number of travelers by sea, including those who embark with the purpose of increasing our geographical knowledge of distant lands and busying themselves with most useful inquiries into the geol- ogy, botany, zoology, and meteorology of the regions they visit, few realize that when they set foot on board ship (for all ships are now constructed of iron or steel) they are living inside a magnet. Truly a magnet, having become one by the inductive action of that great parent magnet—the earth. How fares the compass on board those magnets, the ships, that instrument so indispensable to navigation, which Victor Hugo has forcibly called ** the soul of the ship,” and of which it has been written, A rusted nail, placed near the faithful compass, Will sway it from the truth, and wreck an argosy. And if so small a thing as an iron nail be a danger, what are we to say to the iron ship? Let us for a moment consider this important matter, 404 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. If the nature of the whole of the iron or steel used in construction of ships were such as to become permanently magnetic, their naviga- tion would be much simplified, as our knowledge of terrestrial mag- netism would enable us to provide correctors for any disturbing effects of such iron on the compass, which would then point correctly. But ships, taken as a whole, are generally more or less unstable magnets, and constantly subject to change, not only on change of geographical position, but also of direction of the ship’s head with regard to the magnetic meridian. Thus,a ship steering on an easterly course may be temporarily magnetized to a certain extent, but on reversing the ship’s course to west she would after a time become temporarily mag- netized to the same amount but in the opposite direction, the north point of the compass being attracted in each case to that side of the ship which is southernmost. Shortly, we may define the action of the earth’s magnetism on the iron of a ship as follows: The earth being surrounded by a magnetic field of force differing greatly in intensity and direction in the regions from the north pole to the equator and the equator to the south pole, the ship’s magnetic condition is largely dependent upon the direction of her head while building and the part of that field she occupied at the time; partly upon her position in the magnetic field she traverses at any given time during a voyage. For the reasons I have given, magnetic charts are a necessity for practical purposes and in the following order of value: That of the magnetic declination of variation which is constantly in use, especially in such parts of the world as the Saint Lawrence and the approaches to the English Channel, where the declination changes very rapidly as the ship proceeds on her course. Next, that of the dip and force, which are not only immediately useful when correcting the ship’s com-, pass, but are required in the analysis of a ship’s magnetism both as regards present knowledge and future improvements in placing com- passes on board. If astronomers have for a very long time been able to publish for several years in advance exact data concerning the heavenly bodies, is it too much to hope that magneticians will before long also be able to publish correct magnetic charts to cover several years in advance of any present epoch? If this is to be done within reasonable time, there must be a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull all together of magnetic observers in all lands, and accumulated data must also be discussed. ON MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS FOR TRAVELERS. Travelers in unsurveyed countries, if properly instructed and equipped, can do good service to science by observing the three mag- netic elements of declination, inclination or dip, and force at as many stations as circumstances will permit. Hence the following remarks: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 405 For the purpose of making the most exact magnetic survey the best equipment of instruments consists of the well-known unifilar magneto- meter, with fittings for observing the declination, and a Barrow dip circle. To some travelers these instruments might be found too bulky, and in some regions too delicate, as well as heavy to carry. : Of suitable instruments made abroad, those used by M. Moureaux in his survey of France may be mentioned, as they are of similar type, but much smaller and lighter than the instruments above mentioned. Another form of instrument used for observing both the inclination and total force is called an ‘‘L. C.” instrument. Originally designed for observations on board ships at sea, where the ordinary magnetic instruments above mentioned are unmanageable, it has also been found to give satisfactory results in a land survey, where greater accuracy is expected than at sea. Thus, during a series of observations extend- ing from the north side of Lake Superior to the southern part of Texas last year, comparisons were made between the results obtained with an L. C. instrument and those of the regular unifilar magnetometer and dip circle, when the agreement was found satisfactory. I am therefore of the opinion that a traveler furnished with a the- odolite for land-surveying purposes, but fitted with a reversible mag- netic needle, can at any time he observes a true bearing obtain a trustworthy value of the declination. Dismounting the theodolite from his tripod, the latter will serve for mounting an L. C. instrument with which to observe the inclination and force. Thus, by adding to his ordinary equipment an instrument weighing in its box about 21 pounds he can obtain valuable contributions to terrestrial magnetism and at the same time give useful assistance to geological investigations. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Although a great subject like terrestrial magnetism, even to exhibit our present knowledge of the science, can not be brought within the compass of an address—for it requires a treatise of many pages—I have brought some of the broad features of it before the section in order to show its connection with geography. I also entertain the hope that geographers will become more inter- ested ina subject so important to pure science and in its practical applications, and that it will become an additional subject to the instruc- tion which travelers can now obtain under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society in geology, botany, zoology, meteorology, and surveying. There is a wide field open to observers, and where results often depend so much upon locality we require to explore more and more with the magnetic needle. To look over the great oceans and think how little is being done for terrestrial magnetism is a great matter for O <>) 406 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. regret. Yet even there we may begin to be more than hopeful, for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey authorities are making arrangements to fit out its vessels with the necessary instruments for determining the magnetic elements at sea. We wish them all success; but I must again remind you that although we can not compel observers to start, there is room for them and to spare. IT would fain make some remarks on the prevailing ignorance of sound geography in many quarters and on the defective methods of teaching the science; but I feel that the subject is placed in very able hands and will be fully discussed in Section L during the present meeting. 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SCENT) —€061 ‘LYOd3Y NVINOSHLIWS ; 0 Eoeuae | ncees 4 Ee * | % > ras | | ! Biel ————————— » . ae. ws. ll a ot — The final adjustment of surveys has not yet been made, so that the exact altitudes can not now be given. os 407 sm 1905 ( 408 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. coast for over half a century, knew the mountain and called it ‘* Bul- shaia,” which, like the native name *‘‘ Trolika,” signified ‘* high moun- tain;” but Russian literature on Alaska, so far as we know, contains no reference to this important geographical feature. Lieut. Henry T. Allen, too, who, in 1885, made his hazardous exploration of the lower Tanana, saw this peak, but at so great a distance that he was not spe- cially impressed with its altitude. Thus it was that explorers and traders did not seem to be aware that they had sighted the highest peak on the continent. When,-in 1895, scores of prospectors were attracted to Cook Inlet by the discovery of gold, they, too, saw the mountain, but apparently gave it no thought until the following year, when one of them, W. A. Dickey, recognized its importance, and upon his return published a description of it and proposed the name Mount McKinley. Though the mountain had been known to white men for over a century, and though scores of others had been as near it as this prospector, or nearer, he was termed the discoverer of Mount McKinley. All honor to him for calling attention to it, but let us not make the absurd blunder of crediting him with its discovery. Two years after the naming of the mountain, George H. Eldridge and Robert Muldrow, of the United States Geological Survey, in the course of their exploration of the Sushitna River, located it accurately and determined its altitude at over 20,000 feet. Its height and posi- tion were thus known, and something of the character of the southern flank of the range above which it towers. The northern face of the range and the base of the mountain remained to be explored, and this was the task assigned to me as part of the general system of explora- tory surveys undertaken by the Geological Survey in Alaska. I was fortunate in having as associates in this enterprise Messrs. D. L. Rea- burn and L. M. Prindle, as well as four able and enthusiastic camp men. On May 27, 1902, the vessel bearing our party steamed slowly up Cook Inlet. Hardly a ripple stirred the water, and through the hazy atmosphere we could barely discern the outline of the low coast, beyond which, in a bank of clouds, lay the high mountain range which we were to explore. At noon we dropped anchor at Tyonok, a small native settlement on the west shore of the Inlet with one trading post and a white population of half a dozen men. (See plate 111.) We were forced to wait until the evening tide floated a large scow destined to convey our horses to the shore. These, in spite of much struggling and kicking on their part, were then unceremoniously hoisted out of the hold and dropped over the side into the scow. The landing was attended with some excitement, for the horses, restless after their two week’s confinement, exhibited a strong desire to leave the narrow gangway which reached the beach. One little brute satisfied his curi- ‘ASINIMOW LNNOW LY dQ SNINOO 7 ‘| aLV1d *syOooIg—'eQ6| ‘Hoday ueiuosy}iWS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Brooks. SOT AY, Sn, 2 U a ws I - = 2 Seas ANN © SIMI, loke Clavk THE MOUNT MCKINLEY REGION, ALASKA, SHOWING THE ROUTE OF THE EXPEDITION. From a sketch made by the author. AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. 409 osity by leaping into the sea, but was promptly hauled out, and on striking the beach took to his heels. After the entire outfit had been dragged ashore by the infinite labor of all hands, the presence of great numbers of Indians and dogs necessitated a guard, so I stood watch while the others slept. The chilly night air made the employment of chasing the Indian or ‘*Siwash” dogs, as they are called, not unaccept- able. A relief was called at 5, and I turned in and slept as one only can sleep who has been active for twenty-four hours. The important question was which route should be chosen to the base of the mountains, for the crossing of the swampy and _ heavily timbered lowland area which intervened presented the most serious difficulties. The agent of the trading company, who was first interro- gated, was rather skeptical of the proposed plans; and well he might be, for he had seen more than one exploring expedition start out with high hopes only to return disappointed a few months later. Should we go westward directly toward the mountains our northeasterly course along the base of the range would be blocked by glaciers; should we take a more northerly course we would become lost in a maze of swamps and encounter a number of turbulent rivers. Such were the stories told by the white men, and the Indians, who were assembled in solemn conclave, were equally discouraging. Through the medium of signs, eked out by a few Russian words, I held a long parley with an old Indian chief over a map of his hunting grounds which he drew for me, but when I pointed out my proposed route far beyond the bounds of his knowledge he gravely shook his head as if to say that I was attempting the impossible. Some of the more experienced traders admitted that we might reach the base of the range during the course of the summer, but when we unfolded our plans for extending our journey to the Tanana, and even the Yukon, they smiled knowingly and told us when we could catch the last steamer in the fall, before the ice blocked Cook Inlet. Asa matter of fact, the ‘‘zone of influence” of many of the long- established Alaskan trading posts extends hardly aday’s journey from the settlement, and many traders of long residence are astonishingly ignorant of the ‘*‘ hinterland.” The Indian’s knowledge is always con- fined to the hunting grounds of his tribe, and he is apt to regard the region beyond very much as the old cartographer represented unex- plored areas, as the abode of hideous monsters. He magnifies unknown dangers, and this fact, together with his ignorance of the use of horses, ‘makes his advice in regard to routes of little value. The party paid small heed to the stories of dire failure and disaster which were recounted, for all but two of its members were veterans of three or four years’ standing in Alaskan explorations and had made more than one successful trip in the face of similar gloomy prophecies. While some were reconnoitering to choose a route, the packers, Fred 410 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. and Von, were busy breaking in such of the horses as were unused to packing—an operation which afforded great amusement to the natives, who watched it from afar and promptly took to their heels if one of the bucking brutes threatened to approach them. Our observations finally prompted us to choose the northwesterly route as the shortest, other conditions being about equal, or at least equally impossible to foresee. To facilitate the crossing of the large rivers which were known to lie athwart our route to the mountains, a boat was sent ahead in charge of George Eberhardt and Louis Ander- son, both experienced in frontier life and, as the event proved, emi- nently reliable men. We decided not to use Indian guides, in spite of the advice of the Tyonok sages, both because of the Indian’s igno- rance of horses and for the reason that his insatiable appetite for white men’s stores makes him an undesirable addition to a party when the transportation of supplies is the difficult problem. The adequate provisioning of a party like ours is the most important feature of the preparation. If the allowance of food is insufficient, the journey has to be curtailed or risk of starvation encountered. On the other hand, if a greater quantity is taken than is necessary, it may hamper the transportation facilities and result in failure to the expe- dition. A proper variety of food is also imperative, for on this will depend the health and strength of the party. The accumulated expe- rience of five years of Alaskan travel enabled us to judge the propor- tions to a nicety. Practically nothing but dried foods were chosen; the staples—flour, bacon, beans, sugar, and evaporated fruit—were sup- plemented by farinaceous foods, cheese, evaporated eggs and potatoes, condensed soups, together with tea, coffee, and a few pounds of delica- cies, such as macaroni and jelly. Our ration provided for 3 pounds of food per man each day, an ample allowance if no canned goods are taken. The provisions, suflicient to feed seven men for one hundred and five days, were packed in 50-pound waterproof bags. As for the rest of the equipment, everything was chosen with a view to lightness, the tents weighing only a few pounds and carbines being carried instead of rifles. Sleeping bags were substituted for blankets because they give a maximum of warmth for a minimum of weight. The entire equipment weighed about 3,500 pounds, of which 1,000 pounds were sent by boat and the rest distributed among the 20 horses. As all our preparations were now completed and the grass was sufli- ciently advanced to insure an ample supply of feed for the horses, we set out from Tyonok on June 2. At the outset our experience was ahard one. The horses were fresh and some of them objected seriously to the heavy burdens. Again and again they bucked their packs off and stampeded the entire herd. Our baggage was scattered to the four winds of heaven, and the pieces AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. 41] had to be sought for carefully in the long grass which covered the upper part of the beach; the natives, meanwhile, viewing our discom- fiture with delight, as if it were an exhibition prepared for their special benefit. Beyond the town, where the route followed the beach between the water on the one side and the steep gravel bluffs on the other, the narrow space gave opportunity to control the fractious horses. (See plate 11.) The pack train was not without a certain picturesqueness. First came Fred mounted on the lead horse, and behind him, in single file, followed the other horses, their new white pack covers glistening in the sun. The other men were on foot scattered along at intervals, with George at the close of the procession, leading his small bay mare with the cook stove on top of her pack. This stove was in George’s eyes the most precious possession of the party, and for three months he never allowed it to be out of his sight. It finally came to grief 700 miles inland, when both horse and stove rolled into the river. At the mouth of the Beluga River, 20 miles from Tyonok, the boat met the party, and a day was spent in crossing. The horses were made to swim over at full tide, little relishing the plunge into the cold waters; and they probably would have liked it still less had they known of the score or more of icy rivers that would be traversed during the suc- ceeding journey. Camp was pitched on the north bank while the boat was utilized for a two days’ excursion up the Sushitna River. Leaving the boat at an Indian town at the head of the delta, four of us made our way to Mount Sushitna. A steep climb brought us to the summit, and the broad lowland of the Sushitna Valley lay spread before us, the dark greens of its spruce forests contrasting with the lighter greens of the open marshes and the bright gleam of small lakes or winding water courses. Beyond rose a range of highlands, and then, forming the sky-line, snow-covered Alaskan mountains. From our vantage point the rugged crest line seemed unbroken, and had we not known that it was in fact cleft by passes we might have despaired of finding a route through such a forbidding mountain mass. As we gazed a mass of clouds hanging over what appeared to be the center of the range broke and revealed two majestic peaks, Mount McKinley and Mount Foraker, glistening in the slanting rays of the afternoon sun. Far above the crest line they towered, enormous mountains, even at a distance of 120 miles. Four years before, while making an exploration down the Tanana with canoes, I had seen the same peaks and at about the same distance, but from the opposite direction. The task before us was to find a route across the swampy lowland, traverse the mountains, and, following their northern front, approach from the inland slope as near the base of this culminating peak of the a? AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. continent as conditions and means would permit; we must map the country and incidentally explore a route which some time could be used by that mountaineer to whom should falb the honor of first set- ting foot on the summit of Mount McKinley. At the Beluga River the course lay inland, and by good fortune an Indian trail lightened the labor of the axmen to a great extent; but it was designed for use in the fall and winter when the ground was frozen, and its many bogs, which then only served to facilitate travel- ing, now caused our horses one long struggle to wallow through it with their heavy burdens. Almost continuously one or more of the animals became mired, and often the entire strength of the seven members of the party was required to drag them out. A week after leaving tide water, we emerged from the lowlands into a belt of foothills covered for the most part with tall grass, inter- spersed with symmetrical spruces and open groves of poplar. The landscape had a park-like appearance not unlike some of the farming regions of the East. (See plate rv.) The many familiar wild flowers added to the delusion, and it was hard to realize that we were in one of the unexplored parts of the world, for it seemed as if every rise of ground must bring us to the sight of a farmhouse, with its fields and orchards. : = . As we climbed higher we left all timber behind us except the omni- present willow and alder thickets. The horses reveled in an abun- dance of grass, while the camp larder was improved by the ptarmigan which were shot along our line of march. Another glimpse of Mount McKinley enabled Reaburn, our topographer, to determine our loca- tion accurately. The daily routine was now well established. All hands were called at 5 in the morning, and while the packers drove in the horses the others took down the tents. When the horses had been saddled and breakfast had been eaten, we all took a hand in the packing. It was no easy task to lift the 200-pound packs to the backs of the horses and adjust them. Nearly all of the men were now fairly expert at lashing them in place—‘‘ throwing the diamond hitch,” as it is called. (See plate rv.) After two hours of hard work spent in this operation, the march began. In a timbered region two or three axmen pre- ceded the train, but in the open country this was not necessary. Camp was made between 3 and 4, and after an early supper the geolo- gist and topographer usually made an excursion to some neighboring peak or valley. In this foothill region we came in contact with our first bear. Fred, while forging ahead of the party in search of a trail, came upon a she bear and cub. The old one at once charged. Hemmed in by alder thickets, with an ax as his only weapon, he faced his assailant with what seemed, even to an old hunter like himself, hardly a fighting Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Brooks. PLATE III. Fia@a. 1.—TYONOK, COOK INLET, ALASKA. For location see map, Pl. II. Fic. 2.—THE ROUTE ALONG THE BEACH BEYOND TYONOK. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Brooks. PLATE IV. FiG. 1.—PACKING THROUGH AN ALASKAN MEADOW LOWLAND OF TALL GRASS. FiG. 2.—PACKING A HORSE, PREPARATORY FOR A START—‘' THROWING THE DIAMOND HITCH.” AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. 413 chance for life. Fortunately, however, the Kodiak grizzly, though larger, is not so ferocious as his Rocky Mountain brother, and Fred made his escape, though the animal approached within a few feet of him. The good traveling came to an end all too soon, and we plunged into the thick growth of timber covering the floor of the Yentna Valley. When, on June 18, we reached the banks of that river, the turbulent, silt-bearing waters, coursing through a score of channels, did not look inviting, and we had grave doubts whether a crossing could be made. It must be attempted, however, as it would save a week’s time. Mounted on two of the stronger horses, from which the saddles had been stripped, Fred and I managed to ford some of the streams, though the horses barely kept their footing in the rushing waters, which reached their shoulders. There still remained several of the widest channels. The unwilling animals were urged into the first of these, and in a moment were swept off their feet by the muddy torrent, which for an instant engulfed both riders and horses and bore them downstream at a terrific rate. By an almost instinctive move- ment, we threw ourselves from the struggling brutes, seized them by their manes, and swam alongside, thus at length guiding them back to the bank. We dragged ourselves out, both we and the horses shivering from our ducking in the icy waters. The plunge was but one of many similar incidents of the journey before us, but it was more significant, in that it showed the impossibility of making a cross- ing at this point without taking serious risks. So, perforce, we headed downstream and spent weary days cutting a trail through the dense growth on the river bank; until on the fourth day a welcome rifle shot told us that we were near the rendezvous with the men and boat. With the aid of these we at last succeeded in crossing the river. As it was, the passage occupied an entire day, and was not without its dangers to the horses, who had to be towed across behind the boat, in imminent risk of drowning in the 8-mile current, which at times carried them under water. (See plate v.) After agreeing upon a third rendezyous, the land party continued its trail chopping and corduroy building. This was the most disheart- ening part of the whole journey. The middays were sultry, and the endless chopping, harassed as we were by clouds of mosquitoes, was almost maddening. With our best efforts we could make barely 3 miles a day, and though nearly a third of our provisions were con- sumed, we had completed hardly an eighth of our 800-mile journey. Day after day we toiled on, fighting mosquitoes, dragging horses out of mud holes, cutting our way through dense growths of alder. Occa- sionally we would determine our position by compass sights from the top of some tall cottonwood, and then we would lay a new course. At last, having reason to believe ourselves near the Keechatna, we halted: for a day to reconnoiter and rest the tired horses and men. 414 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. While exploring the route ahead I missed camp, which was hidden in a broad, wooded flat, and spent a part of the night in the rain, vainly attempting to snatch a few hours’ sleep in spite of the myriads of mosquitoes, and my supperless plight. When I finally reached camp, at 6 the next morning, we at once got under way. A day’s march brought us to the banks of the Keechatna, and a signal smoke euided us to where the boat and men awaited us. My thirty-six hours of almost continuous tramping made my small tent seem very attractive. The Keechatna was a less turbulent stream than the Yentna, and with the aid of the boat a crossing was effected without difficulty. We now parted with Eberhardt and Anderson, who returned to Tyonok, taking the last letters we should be able to send out. Thence- forth until we reached the Yukon, about three months later, we were to be entirely cut off from the rest of the world. The outlook was not encouraging, for we had nearly 700 miles of practically unknown territory to traverse, and the incessant labor of toiling through the swamp, added to the continual annoyance from mosquitoes and horseflies, was haying a serious effect upon the strength of our horses. Night after night we would hear the tinkle of the bell horse as he led the band of horses, maddened by the insects, back and forth. Though we blanketed them and built large fires as smudges, they seldom got relief for more than two or three hours of the twenty- four. It was terrible to see their suffering and be powerless to help them. They would frequently crowd into camp as if to implore us to relieve them from their misery. The men, too, were becoming worn out by the mosquito pest, which harassed them continually during the day, though they found relief at night in the mosquito-proof tents. The soft blanket of moss, usually saturated with moisture, which nearly everywhere covers the face of the country, offers a breeding-ground for myriads of the insects. They are ever active, both day and night; on the mountain tops, far above timber, as well as in the lowlands. Five years of Alaskan travel have convinced me that there is no hardship so dif_i- cult to bear as this insect pest. I have seen horses, fairly maddened by the torment, blindly charge through the forest, oblivious to the trees and branches encountered, until they wore themselves out, then, in utter hopelessness, drop their heads and patiently endure the suf- fering. I have seen strong men, after days and nights of almost incessant torment, when they were too weary to offer further resist- ance to their relentless foes, weep with vexation. No part of an Alaskan trayeler’s outfit is more important than his mosquito-proof headdress and gloves. The former is made to fit closely around the rim of his hat and to his shoulders, for the mosquitoes will find the smallest opening. Unfortunately, the headdress has only too often to be dis- carded. When pushing through the undergrowth, using a surveying instrument, sighting a rifle, or chopping a trail, the traveler is at the Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Brooks. PLATE V. — cS wax SRG ares i Rae FiG. 1.—TOWING HorSES ACROSS THE YENTNA RIVER. For location see map, Pl. II. ; : Fig. 2.—THE HEART OF THE ALASKAN RANGE. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Brooks. PLATE VI. Fic. 1.—LOOKING TOWARD RAINY PASS, THE GAP WHICH LEADS TO THE YUKON REGION. ah be enooee , he peat San ‘ 5 FiG. 2.—CAMP IN THE COTTONWOODS, BELUGA RIVER. AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. 415 mercy of the mosquitoes, which follow him in clouds. While every other hardship of Alaskan travel is often grossly exaggerated, it is hardly possible to do this one justice. Men capable of enduring heat and cold, hunger and fatigue without murmuring, will become almost savage under the torture. However, the story told me by an old prospector of the days on ‘* Fortymile,” when he could wave a pint cup over his head and catch a quart of mosquitoes, did seem somewhat beyond the bounds of probability. As we could not know but that the party might be forced to retreat along the same line as the advance, we left an emergency cache of provisions at this point—that is, we placed bags of bacon and flour in the branches of a tall spruce out of the reach of wolves. There they will remain until they decay, for a cache is sacred to an Indian, and he will not molest it even if he be at the point of starvation. On the 30th of June we started up the Keechatna River, taking turns as axmen in the dense growth of alder and willow which clothed the valley floor. Sometimes our trail lay perilously near the under- cut river bank, and again it climbed along the valley wall to avoid precipitous cliffs. The river seemed to have a strange fascination for some of the horses, and more than once they deliberately jumped in. A cry for help one day brought me to the rear of the pack train ona run, and there was Prindle lying full length on a tree trunk which overhung the water, clinging desperately to the halter of a horse which the rushing current threatened to carry down. The loss would have been irretrievable, for his pack contained nearly all the records of the journey. A general alarm was sounded, and the united efforts of seven availed at last to rescue the animal. On another occasion Medicine, one of our most troublesome horses, deliberately jumped into the river and became mired in a quicksand 20 feet from the bank. The horse following, known as ‘* Grand- father,” to whose pack was intrusted the folding boat, plunged in after Medicine, as if to the rescue. Both were dragged out, but at no small danger of both horses and men being engulfed in the treacher- ous quicksand. One day the steep mountain wall closed in and forced us to ford the river. This was not very wide, but its swift current tumbling over huge bowlders looked anything but inviting. Climbing on top of a pack, I essayed the first attempt, but my horse lost his footing and rolled us both over in the icy waters. A second trial proving more successful, the other horses followed one by one, with the men lying flat on the tops of the packs. Odell, with characteristic recklessness, had chosen the wildest one, which bucked him off in midstream, giv- ing us a bad scare, but he managed to gain his feet and clamber ashore. 416 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. After a week of this sort of thing we entered the foothills of the range, and the conditions improved. The horses being now thoroughly broken in and, in fact, almost devoid of spirit, three men could easily manage them while the others explored the adjacent hills. Grass was plentiful; and as the mosquitoes became less annoying after the timbered region was left behind, most of the horses began to recover strength. The jaded horses now needed a day’s rest, and while they enjoyed the abundant grass Reaburn and I climbed a neighboring mountain. We found that we were well within a rugged range whose jagged peaks arose on every hand and whose higher valleys were filled with glacial ice. There were still no indications of the pass we sought, so we again took up our march. (See plate v.) On July 13 a convenient moose walked into camp, and a shot from Fred’s carbine gave us a welcome supply of fresh meat. Poor Wild Bill, who had been playing the part of an invalid for several days, found himself under a load of 100 pounds, much to his disgust. Fred, Prindle, and I now set out to explore the mountains ahead, each taking a different direction. When we met again in camp after a twenty-four hours’ absence, it was Fred who reported discovery of the pass so essential to our further progress. It was the middle of July when we threaded the narrow gap which led us from waters flowing into the Pacific Ocean to those tributary to Bering Sea. The fair weather we had encountered almost from the beginning now gave place to storms, naturally suggesting the name ‘Rainy Pass” for the newly discovered gap. (See plate vr.) We were now in high spirits, for we all felt that whatever the summer might bring forth, we had at least located a route through this high mountain barrier. With this thought to encourage us we hastened to press on. Choos- ing as guide a stream which headed on the north side of the divide, we entered a beautiful mountain valley, whose steep slopes, clothed in dark green spruce, ended above in abrupt cliffs. Here Fred’s ever- ready carbine brought us our first mountain sheep. Farther on the valley opened up into a broader one across whose level floor a mighty river meandered with great, sweeping bends, and we recognized the Kuskokwim, the second river of Alaska in size, which poured its muddy waters into the Bering Sea a thousand miles away. Here we came upon the trail of a previous exploring expedition and hailed the half-obliterated ax marks with a sense of companionship, several years old though they were. While the pack train cut its way along the river bank, I climbed a peak which proved to be a part of the valley wall. From this point I could see the broad valley of the Kuskokwim stretching to the north, opening out 30 miles below to a broad lowland whose limits were lost in the distant haze. South of me rose the snowy peaks of the range AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. AL] we had traversed, sweeping around to the northeast in an apparently unbroken crest line, without a suggestion of Rainy Pass. Far to the southwest distant snow peaks belonging to some unknown range com- pleted the picture. On my way down I kept along the ridge until I caught the glimmer of white tents in the valley 5,000 feet below me, and then, noting the course by my compass, I plunged down the mountain side without further consideration. A cliff proved a temporary obstacle, then another, and finally a succession of steep slopes which were merely intervals between small cliffs. Once started it was impossible to turn back; one minute I was sliding with a mass of loose talus, another cau- tiously clambering down a cleft in a precipice, bracing myself against either wall to maintain my scant foothold. Once a huge bowlder, which I had loosened in my descent, whizzed past and crashed into the timber a thousand feet below. It was with a deep sense of relief that I reached the timber line and registered a silent vow never to attempt anything so foolhardy again. By the last week in July we reached the lowland which stretches northwestward from the inland front of the Alaskan Range. Our route now left the river, turning to the northwest. As we slowly cut our way through the dense timber of the lower slopes of the valley another horse gave out, and his load was distributed among the others. Poor brute! Only six weeks before he had been tearing up the beach at Tyonok, scattering his pack to right and left to the terror of the Siwash dogs. Coming shortly after into an open spruce forest, we were startled by the discovery of a blazed trail, which was plainly not the work of natives. No one accustomed to the frontier can ever mistake the scars of an Alaskan Indian’s ax, for he has never learned to make a clean, sharp cut. No; this chopping had been done by white men, in win- ter, several years before. We followed the trail for some miles until it turned off out of our course. Who were these lonely travelers of this wild region? Whence had they come and whither did they go? These are questions that may never be answered. That they belonged to that class of Alaskan prospectors who have traversed the territory from the almost tropical jungles of its southern coast to the barren grounds which skirt the frozen sea on the north seems not unlikely. Often these pioneers make journeys that would put to shame the widely advertised explorations of many a well-equipped government expedition. Were the results of their efforts commensurate with the toil, danger, and suffering involved, geographical science would be much enriched thereby. Unfortunately their ideas of where they have been are often almost as vague as of where they are going. Many a life has been lost on these hazardous journeys, and only too often are bleaching bones the sole record of unproclaimed and unre- rarded heroism. These adventurers have no high ideals, often no 418 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. thought beyond the desire of finding gold; but in the last three decades they have been carrying civilization northward and converted an unknown land into a populated territory which is now yielding millions of gold. From the forest we now entered a -belt of foothills, which formed a northern spur of the main range, and once more obtained a clear view of Mount McKinley, still almost as far distant as when we first saw it from Mount Sushitna six weeks before. This was no cause for depression, however, for then we were separated from our goal by an apparently impenetrable swamp and a great, snow-covered range, whereas now there seemed no serious obstacles to our achieving our purpose. Among these foothills, averaging a height of 3,000 or 4,000 feet, dwelt large numbers of mountain sheep, their pure white color, which in this region remains unchanged throughout the year, making them conspicuous objects on the bare rocks or moss-covered slopes. In the course of one morning’s roaming over the hills I counted more than 100 of these mountain dwellers. In fact, the abundance of sheep, bear, moose, and caribou found along the north slope of the Alaskan Range rank it as one of the finest hunting grounds in North America. Our descent from the foothills brought us to a gravel-floored plateau which abutted directly upon the base of the range. Its smooth, moss- covered surface afforded such excellent footing and so few obstacles to progress that for days we hardly yaried our direction a degree, heading straight for Mount McKinley. That mountain and its twin peak, Mount Foraker, now only 50 miles away, seemed to us to rise almost sheer from the gravel plain. We passed many large glaciers which debouched from the mountain valleys upon the plateau and dis- charged roaring, turbulent, bowlder-filled rivers, which were our most serious impediment. The other members of the party seemed to have no dread of these dangerous crossings, but for my part, I crossed every one we sighted a dozen times before we reached it. Late in the day, after the glaciers had felt the full influence of the sun’s rays, the streams would often be so high as to be practically impassable, but morning would generally find the water fallen 1 or 2 feet. The large rivers were always reconnoitered on a horse stripped to the halter; then, if a crossing proved feasible, each man would mount on the back of his favorite horse and essay the perilous passage, guiding the unmanageable steed as best he could. The feat was ever exciting, with the animal plunging shoulder high in the muddy, surging water, swaying from side to side, and occasionally slipping on some hidden bowlder. More than once a horse was carried off his feet, and sometimes rolied quite over. Nor was the ludicrous aspect entirely wanting, for often when the farther bank was reached the horses would make a sudden leap for it anda = AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. 419 careless rider would be unceremoniously dumped over the animal’s tail into the glacial water. Since leaving the pass we had subsisted largely upon moose and mountain sheep. Nota day was spent in hunting, but when the supply of meat ran low an animal was shot near camp or on the march. Not only was game plentiful, but so little did it know of man that it regarded us rather with curiosity than mistrust. During our journey across the piedmont plateau for days and weeks together we were hardly out of sight of caribou. They had a curious way of approach- ing, either individually or in bands, to within 50 yards of the moving train, then galloping away to a distance and returning by a series of large circles. Sometimes a lone buck would encircle our camp for hours at a time, one minute standing erect gazing at us with rapt attention, another flying across the smooth sod at a breakneck pace, only to approach again from a different direction. Their curiosity was apparently never satisfied, their wonder ever increasing at the unfamiliar sight of the pack train or tents. Even the sharp crack of the rifle did not frighten them. There was no sport in hunting such innocently tame creatures, and we never molested them except when we needed meat. These were the happiest days of the summer. Cheered by the thought that every day’s march was bringing us visibly nearer to our goal, we lent ourselves readily to the influence of the clear, invigorating air and the inspiration of that majestic peak ever looming before us, the highest mountain of North America, which we were to be the first to explore. Yet our task was never an easy one; for the very fact that the pack train was enabled to cover longer distances rendered it all the harder to overtake it after the side excursions which were necessary to fulfill the purpose of the expedition, and it was often dusk of the long arctic day before the geologists and topographer reached camp. George alone of the party was low-spirited. His great ambition in life—to cook—had too narrow a scope in this land above the limit of spruce trees, where there were only stunted willow and alder for fuel. His spirits registered inversely to the barometer, rising as we went down toward timber, falling as we climbed above it. Two long jour- neys in the barren grounds of the north had not freed him from the traditions of the Lake Superior woodsman, and he could never regard anything as fuel that did not require splitting with an ax. Notwith- standing, be cooked wonderful meals, as the following menu copied from my diary will show: Pea Soup. Mountain Sheep a la George. Rice. Potatoes. Mince Pie. Stewed Apricots. Johnny Cake. - Tea. Cocoa. 420 AN EXPLORATION TO MOUNT McKINLEY. ameal that no city cook need be ashamed of, yet it was prepared in one of the most inaccessible points on the continent, with only green willow as fuel. George was ever faithful to his task, ready at any time of night or day with a hot meal for those who returned late. Our camp of August 1 was pitched in a grove of cottonwoods near the foot of a glacier which flowed down from the névé fields of Mount Foraker. ‘This we called the *‘ Herron Glacier,” in honor of Capt. Joseph S. Herron, our predecessor in the exploration of the upper Kuskokwim Basin. south, 62> west. The accompanying rough sketch-map, compiled by Lieutenant Duse, gives an idea of the general geography of the region rather different from older maps. As a matter of fact, the whole mainland from Louis Philippe Land past King Oscar Land forms a narrow strip of high mountainous land, the continuation of Graham Land. Farther on in the same direction, Joinville Island seems really an archipelago of islands. East of the mainland we find two other island groups, divided by the wide gulf extending between Snow Hill and Robertson Island. The northern archipelago is divided from the mainland by a broad channel studded with islands. It consists of two groups, divided by Admiralty Sound, with its two islands, Cockburn and Lockyer. Inside of this strait the principal mass of land is divided by a narrow winding channel into two large islands, the largest of which, with Mount Haddington for its highest point, I propose to call, after its discoverer, James Ross Island. Though in cold summers the ice in those channels and straits does not break up, it is probable that there is in other years much open water. Very different is the aspect of the southern ‘‘ archipelago.” No real islands exist here; even the mildest summer will not melt away the ice so as to allow a boat to come round any of the islands. All visible land consists of nunataks rising out of a high, extensive mass of ice. Still, 1 believe it is very probable that should once there come a change toa warmer climate, then the ice would be found to rest for a great part in a shallow sea, and not only on the land, forming in reality a connection between the mainland anda group of outlying islands. The mainland, so far as known, is composed of crystalline rocks, mostly granites, and also porphyries, and, as shown by Doctor Andersson, though perhaps to a less extent, of folded sedimentary rocks of pre-Cretaceous age. On the contrary, in all parts of the eastern archipelago, young volcanic rocks are in predominance, while granitoid rocks are entirely wanting. What is found is mostly basalt, and toa great extent tufaceous rocks, sometimes belonging to types of great petrographical interest. I need not state that, as a conse- quence of this geological difference, the mountain forms and the whole aspect of the country show very marked contrasts. Among the southern nunataks I have only observed volcanic rocks. Besides those, there occurs in the northern region, around our station, another far more interesting series of rocks. Those are the fossilifer- ous sedimentary rocks, generally sandstones, that are to be found cropping out at the foot of the hills below the volcanic series in most parts of Ross Island, and also on Cockburn Island, and which form the whole of the two large outlying islands, Snow Hill and Seymour islands. The study of those rocks and their fossils will be of great interest for the knowledge of the conditions of those regions in former THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. 473 times, though it is, of course, impossible at this time to go further into the matter. The whole formation is generally very rich in rather well-preserved fossils, belonging to numerous groups of marine forms. In the lower part ammonites are common, and the age must be con- sidered as Mesozoic; higher up those are wanting, and it is not improbable that the strata here pass into the Tertiary. It is in those upper strata that I found numerous plant remains, and also remains of some vertebrate animals, showing not only that in a period geologically not very distant, land has existed in this region, but also that the climate was at that time mild, and the land covered by vegetation and inhabited by animals. There is in all this, in the whole configuration of the country as well as in its geology, a very marked analogy to Patagonia, and further studies may prove the resemblance to be still greater. Even the inner channels are interest- ing, because of their analogy with the great plains and the lakes on the eastern side of the Cordillera. But it seems undeniable that there are great differences in the structure of the southern Cordillera and the Antarctic mountain chain, and more investigation is necessary to deter- mine whether it is possible to consider this part of Antarctica as a con- tinuation of the South American continent or not. Of our other investigations I will here only mention the bacterio- logical work. Just as in the Arctic regions, bacteria are also here scarce; but Doctor Ekeléf has made the interesting observation that in the upper layers of the soil there is to be found a comparatively rich flora. Our studies came to rather an abrupt end with the arrival of the Argentina relief expedition, as we thought we had reasons to expect that we should have a good deal of the summer at our disposal. Still, the time has been long, and undoubtedly it has been an advantage that the scientific work could be continued two years instead of one. Ill. THe SctentTiric OPERATIONS ON BOARD THE ANTARCTIC IN THE SUMMER 1902-1908. By Dr. J. GUNNAR ANDERSSON. On November 5, 1902, the Antarctie left Ushuaia for the south. The ship had been thoroughly equipped for the coming cruise in the Antarctic sea; a full supply of coal was taken on board, together with some additional provisions in case of having to winter. A plan for a relief expedition was sent to Sweden and to the Scandinavian general consulate in Buenos Ayres. As I had been told that coal had been recently discovered in Teke- nika Bay, in the southern part of the Fuegian Archipelago, I so arranged our route southward that we stopped two days in this bay to survey the coal-bearing formation. This led toan unexpected result. Instead A474 THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. of what I had expected to meet here, an isolated patch—like that in Slogget Bay—of the Tertiary formation, with plant fossils and lignite, which is widely distributed in northern Tierra del Fuego, and, in my opinion, more recent than the folding period of the Fuegian cordillera, I found a strongly folded sedimentary series, chiefly a conglomerate, with marine shells and trunks of driftwood. The sedimentary beds were traversed by eruptive dikes. Unfortunately my collections from this place were lost with the Antarctic. For this reason I can not give any definite opinion as to the age of the sedimentary beds nor the petrological character of the eruptions traversing them. Moreover, I have decided to return to Tekenika Bay to survey in detail this locality, as it will evidently contribute to deciding the unsettled age of the Fuegian cordillera. Late in the evening of November 7 the Antarctic crossed the latitude of Cape Horn to the west of Hermit Island, and in the night of the 9th to 10th of the same month, in latitude 59° 30’ south, longitude 66° west, we passed the first water-worn floes of drift sea ice, the first iceberg having been sighted the previous day. As soon as we had entered the region of drift ice, I started regular observations on the frequency and size of sea ice and icebergs. These running observations were carried on by me up to my departure from the ship on December 29, and after that they were continued by Mr. Skottsberg. On November 11-12 we met the dense pack in latitude 61° south, and only after ten days’ hard work did Captain Larsen force a way to the open coast water outside the South Shetland Islands. Between Smith Island and Snow Island we entered Bransfield Strait, practically free from ice. November 23-24 we visited Deception Island, but found its crater covered by unbroken ice. From here we steered for the eastern end of Livingstone Island, where a short landing was made. During all this time the weather was fine.and clear. On the opposite side of the broad strait we distinctly sighted the snow-clad plateaus and lofty peaks round the Orleans channel—the old Trinity Land. But nothing was to be seen of Middle Island, which is marked on the charts as situated in the middle of the strait between McFarlane Sound and Astrolabe Island; on the following day (25th) we crossed the position of the nonexisting island, and here dropped the lead in 800 fathoms. On the previous day, in a sounding between Deception and Livingstone islands, in 534 fathoms depth, we had found a remarkably low-bottom temperature of 29° Fahrenheit. An examination of the intermediate depths at the sounding station of Middle Island, gave the result that Bransfield Strait repeats the typical hydrographical condition of all ice-bearing parts of the ocean—a superficial layer and a deep-water mass, both characterized by low temperature, and between them a body of relatively warm water. But this section shows two remarkable features; the intermediate warm current is THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. 475 here faintly developed, and in consequence a very large part of the section is occupied by the bottom water, the temperature of which is only 29.66° to 29° Fahrenheit, the latter at the bottom itself. This bottom temperature is somewhat below the minimum deep temperature hitherto observed in the ocean (the Norwegian Sea, bottom tempera- ture 29.3° Fahrenheit), and it is quite exceptional in the south polar regions, the bottom temperature of the Antarctic Ocean being about 31° Fahrenheit. Evidently Bransfield Strait is an isolated basin, separated from the open ocean by submarine shelves, which admit only a very limited renewal of the warm water. Later on in the summer we got more sections and single soundings in Bransfield Strait. The maximum depth observed was 826 fathoms, near to Bridgeman Island. In January of the same year (1902), before establishing the winter station, Doctor Nordenskidid, with the Antarctic, made a two days’ excursion along the coast of Graham Land southwest from Astrolabe Island. As a result of this visit he was convinced that here runs a continuous coast line, and that the Orleans channel of Dumont d@’Urville and the Belgica (later Gerlache) Strait of the Belgian expe- dition form parts of the same far-extending channel. But the ques- tion was in some principal points unsettled, because of the difficulty of reaching an incontestable connection with the Belgian chart. Now, we had to clear it up decisively, and in the time—November 26 to December 5—Lieutenant Duse carried out a survey on the scale of 1:300,000 of the region between Astrolabe Island and Cape Murray (Cape Neyt of the Belgian chart). During this time the hard-working cartographer arranged the course of the ship so as best to suit his sur- vey, we other scientists taking the chances thus offered for our own work. At every landing that Mr. Duse made to get bearings and astronomical observations he was followed by the botanist and the geologist; Mr. K. A. Andersson, in the meantime, with trawlings from the ship, making collections of the luxuriant marine fauna. These days in the Orleans channel we remember as a most happy time of full and profitable activity, the only regret being that the larger mass of its rich collections no longer exists. On December 5, the survey of the Orleans Channel being finished, we headed for the sound between the mainland and Joinville Island in order to proceed to the winter station. Cheerfully we spoke of the approaching meeting with Nordenskiéld and his comrades, and prepa- ‘ations were made for their reception on board, but events turned out far otherwise than we expected and many a lonely day had to pass before we reached our friends on Snow Hill. The sound inside Join- ville Island we always found filled with heavy, hummocky drift ice; and Erebus and Terror Gulf,as far as we could sight it from the sound, looked like a dazzling white plain without a single space of open water 476 THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. visible. Here all efforts to penetrate the pack would evidently be use- less, at least for the next few weeks, and Captain Larsen determined to try outside of Joinville Island. On the northern coast of this island we again met the edge of the dense pack, which we followed in a northerly direction, eagerly looking for an opening to the east and south. South from the Elephant Islands the Antarctic got caught by the ice and drifted with it in a northeasterly direction. On December 15 (latitude 61° 35’ south, Jongitude 53° west) we had drifted outside the Bransfield basin, as was proved by a sounding at 892 fathoms, a bottom temperature of 31.28° F., the normal deep temperature of the open Antarctic Ocean. Two days later, the ice having slackened so as to permit the ship moving, Captain Larsen made his way back westward to open water. We now returned to the sound inside Joinville Island, only to find the ice conditions here unaltered. The chances of reaching the winter station with the ship at this time seemed very bad, and we sought to realize a plan that had been under preparation during the last two weeks. On December 29 Mr. Duse, Sailor Grunden, and I were landed on the west side of the sound to try sledging round the gulf to get into communication with Snow Hill. The movements of the Anfarct7c from this day to the final disaster will be reported by another hand.“ The only thing that remains to tell here is the fate of the scientific materials on board at this time. The most valuable part of our collections of earlier times by the expedition had been sent home from Port Stanley and Ushuaia. Before we left Port Stanley the last time (September, 1902), I had left another large part of our collections in charge of the Colonial Govern- ment and of the Falkland Island Company. All zoological, botanical, and geological material that could, if wanted, be worked out by foreign hands was deposited here. My private geological notebooks, as well as all the materials in charge of Mr. Duse (meteorological and hydro- graphical journals, cartographical material), were kept on board to be worked out in the course of the voyage. We are highly indebted to Captain Larsen and the two scientists remaining with him on board for saving all the notebooks, journals, etc. Only the cartographical material from South Georgia could not be found by them, and it was consequently lost with the ship. The collections made on the second visit to Tierra del Fuego were kept on board, and the most of these, as well as most of the collections obtained during that last summer’s work in the south, had to be left on board when the sinking ship was abandoned. But it is much to the credit of Messrs. K. A. Andersson and Skottsberg that they, in the days when the fate of the ship was already evident, selected the most valuable, portable parts of their collections, which they took to Paulet Island, and thus saved them. a@See above. =I THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. 4 IV. Tue SLEDGE EXPEDITION FROM THE ‘‘ANTARCTIC.”’ By Dr. J. GuNNAR ANDERSSON. When, in the middle of December, we had found that the impene- trable pack in every direction stopped the ship in its passage toward the winter station, I determined to try to reach Snow Hill by a sledge voyage round Erebus and Terror Gulf. Mr. Duse instantly expressed his desire to take part in the proposed trip, and also the third member wanted, Sailor T. Grunden, joined voluntarily. Without any special equipment for sledge traveling, and starting along an unknown coast, we evidently entered on a rather doubtful and hazardous undertaking, but the situation required everything possible to be tried. As soon as the necessary preparations were made, we landed in a bay on the mainland (west) coast of the sound inside Join- ville Island where a depot of provisions was erected. Before the departure the following was agreed with Captain Larson: That (1) if the sledge party reached the station, we should wait there for the Antarctic until February 10, but after that date bring Nordenskiédld and his comrades out to our starting point. In this case Larson had to pick us up at the place agreed on between February 25 and March 10. (2) If the Antarctic reached the station, and we did not appear there by January 25, Larson had to look for us at our depot. On the night following our landing, we started in a south-southwest direction across the inland ice, and on the second day we made an unexpected discovery. Having reached an ice shed we faced a broad sound with scattered islands. This sound we had to cross to reach a snow-covered land lying some 22 miles distant in a southerly direc- tion. The sea ice was at this season in a very miserable state, covered with large fresh-water pools. These were getting deeper and formed a regular network as we approached the last-named land, which we reached (January 3, 1903) only after a desperate wading and with all our effects thoroughly wet. After having climbed to the top of the gently sloping inland ice, we got a free view all round that cleared up our position. The land where we were standing formed in reality a large island on the north side of the water called by Sir James Ross, Sidney Herbert Bay, which in fact runs far inland and joins our island inside with the broad water that we had just passed. Sidney Herbert Sound was all over a bluish surface of water-covered ice, quite similar to that on which we had just had a narrow escape, and along the shores there were in some places broad spaces where the ice was entirely gone. As we could not think of crossing this sound, we could only give up our plan and return to the depot, which we reached on January 13. Here the weeks passed without the Antarct/e reappearing, and in the middle of February we began to make preparations for the chance that we might be forced to winter here. On March 10, the time to expect 478 THE SWEDISH ANTAROTIC EXPEDITION. the ship was due, and the following day our stone hut was ready for use. The depot had been established only for the time until the ship should return, and was thus insufficient for wintering. Some hundred penguins were killed to supply us with fresh meat, and seal blubber was used as fuel. The winter passed without accident, but with a complete lack of intellectual employment. On September 29 we started again for the station on Snow Hill, were stopped for three days ina violent snow- storm, and then went on slowly in unsettled weather. On October 12, traveling along the coast of the above-mentioned island, we, by a strange coincidence, unexpectedly met with Nordenskidld, who had reached this region through a large interior channel just then discovered by him. Loading our effects upon his dog sledge, we continued the journey pleasantly through Sidney Herbert Sound and outside Mount Haddington. After four days’ traveling in splendid weather, we reached Snow Hill on October 16. Our sledge party was dispatched from the Antarctcc to fulfill a duty that we failed to carry out in face of natural obstacles which we could not master. The scientific results of our undertaking are very limited. Living during the winter in a misery of dirt and darkness, and want- ing also the simplest instruments, we were unable to make any kind of observations. Still, our time was not spent totally in vain. We entered a virgin area, where Duse made a survey that forms a neces- sary link between his chart of the Orleans Channel and the extensive ‘artographical work executed by Nordenskidld and Duse together farther south on the east coast. , In the Orleans Channel I collected some facts, adding to the evidence brought forward by Mr. Arctowski, and proving that the large chan- nel was once filled by an immense glacier moving in a northeast direc- tion. Near to our wintering place I found some other and very striking traces of an earlier wider extension of the glaciers. This material will soon be published, in combination with my observations from South Georgia, the Falkland Islands, and Tierra del Fuego. On the geological survey of the vicinity of the bay where we wintered, I made another noticeable find —well-preserved plant fossils, cycadas, conifers, and ferns, a flora of apparently Lower Mesozoic age. A smal! selection of this material was brought with us on the sledge to Snow Hill, but the great mass was left at our winter place, and afterwards picked up by the Argentine relief ship. Our involuntary wintering brought also a certain practical result. By force of circumstances, living principally on the products of sur- rounding nature, and, like Nansen and Johansen in Franz Josef Land, in many respects following the mode of life of the Eskimo, we, together with the party wintering on Paulet Island, accumulated an THE SWEDISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. A479 experience, new for the Antarctic regions, which, when once fully described, might be of service to future explorers in distress during the survey of the desolate and stormy southern lands. To me it was of special interest to get intimate around our wintering place with a nature so different from the now well-surveyed region round the station on Snow Hill. Instead of its unfolded table-land surrounded by a shallow sea, we have here a deep sound with fjord- like bays swarming with a rich fauna, and a land with numerous edged nunataks rising through the inland ice—a folded region with such a variety of sedimentary and eruptive rocks that the find of a rich Mesozoic flora is only to be regarded as a first hint of the possibilities of a future more extensive exploration. In the lonely winter months I sometimes amused myself with sketching in detail a survey of the geology and biology of this region--a plan that, I hope, will not wait long for its realization. er = = =o Pe ale a] 2 « v i v BM SLIM LOTUAY sv es-0 su0orrpedxe Cl aecalsy your, S2j!W EG 4° QO0'D00'b:| FIBOS "3eN _—————————————— oo! os os oO ot ° seTy go eTeog €-ZO6I esng’ VS ¥ prlomsuepson oO AG g9 NOILIGSdX4 DJILOYVINV HSIGSMS Iq} Jo Mor B.10[dxT om syeI}sNqII 03 deyyo3eyS *| aLvid -yusssabaoane | okt ; qhereete r4-) 99 *ploInsusploON—'eQ6| ‘Wodey uRIUOsYyIWS FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA.@ By O. F. Coox, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural science so generally appears as a borrower from physies, chemistry, botany, or zoology that it has not been expected to furnish facts of use in other lines of investigation. Thus, although it has been known since the sixteenth century that the same primitive food plants were cultivated throughout the tropics of both hemis- pheres, the significance of this remains unappreciated, and there is still doubt and speculation regarding prehistoric communication across the Pacific. Alaskan Jand connection, Buddhist missionaries, stranded Japanese junks, and other possibilities of a northwestern contact have been eravely and minutely discussed, while unequivocal evidence of tropical intercourse lay only too obviously at hand. The cultivation of the same seedless plants, such as the yam, sweet potato, taro, sugar cane, and banana by the primitive peoples of the islands of the Pacific, as well as by those of the adjacent shores of Asia and America, indi- cates, with attendant facts, not only an older communication but an intimate contact or community of origin of the agricultural civiliza- tions of the lands bordering upon the Pacific and Indian oceans. Con- crete biological data need not be disregarded because the peopling of America by the lost tribes of Israel and other equally fanciful con- jectures are discredited. THE CULTIVATED PLANTS OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS. Notwithstanding the immense distances by which the tropical islands of the Pacific are separated from the continents and from each other, European discoverers found them already occupied by an adventur- ous, sea-faring people who knew enough of the stars, trade winds, and currents to navigate their frail canoes in those vast expanses of ocean without the mariner’s compass. The agriculture of the Polynesians vas, however, no less wonderful than their seamanship, and was cer- tainly not less important to them, since the coral islands of the Pacific are not only deficient in indigenous plants and animals suitable for food, but the natural conditions are distinctly unfavorable to agriculture. @ Revision of article on The American Origin of Agriculture, in Popular Science Monthly, October, 1902. 451 482 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA, ‘** The whole surface of these flat coral islands is like the clean white sanded floor of an old English kitchen. The cocoanut tree springs up everywhere, but in the spots where yams and taros are grown the sand is hollowed out and a pit formed, from 100 to 200 yards long and of varying width, into which decaying cocoanut leaves and refuse are thrown till a rich soil is formed.” ‘*The position occupied by the Polynesian races as tillers of the soil has hardly had sufficient attention given to it, although it may be doubted whether any people ignorant of the uses of the metals ever advanced so far as they have done. * * * Let any one read the account given by the first visitors to New Zealand—especially Cook— respecting the Maori cultivations of those days—the care that was taken to keep them free from weeds; the labor expended in convey- ing gravel to hill up the kumara plantations; the trouble taken to protect them from the strong winds by means of temporary screens or fences; the months employed in building houses (often highly varved and decorated) in which to store their crops; the amount of patient care and selection required in raising new varieties.” The agricultural achievements of the Polynesians become even more impressive when we reflect that so many of their cultivated species were not propagated from seeds but from cuttings... These must have been carefully packed, kept moist with fresh water, and protected against the salt spray, to survive the long voyages in open canoes. A list of 24 species of plants believed to have been brought to the Hawaiian Islands by prehistoric colonists is given by Hillebrand.¢ This number, however, must be greatly increased, since there were many varieties of the sweet potato, taro, sugar cane, and banana. Moreover, the Hawaiian group is scarcely more than subtropical in climate, and lacks numerous seedless sorts of the breadfruit, yam, taro, and other plants of the equatorial belt of islands, so that a complete enumeration of the species and varieties carried about by the early Polynesians among the islands of the Pacific would include nearly 100. There are many indications to be drawn from the people themselves, as well as from the abundance of ancient ruins, that the archipelagoes «Moresby, Discoveries and Surveys of New Guinea, p. 73, London, 1876. The vol- canic islands of Polynesia have, of course, rich soil, but they shared the deficiency of native food plants, so that nonagricultural people could scarcely have secured a permanent food supply. It is certain, moreover, that among the Polynesians the cocoanut is a cultivated plant no less than the yam, taro, sweet potato, sugar cane, banana, breadfruit, and numerous other species found in use throughout the tropical islands of the Pacific. An especial interest attaches to the cocoanut in that there are adequate botanical reasons for believing that it originated in America, the home of all related palms. See The Origin and Distribution of the Cocoa Palm, Contributions from the U. §. National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2, Washington, 1901. bCheeseman, Trans. New Zealand Inst., 33:307-308. 1901. ¢ Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, Introd.,. p- Xvi, 1888. FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 483 of the Pacific were the scene of a former civilization much more advanced than that found by Europeans. Seamanship, like other arts, had declined, and communication with the remoter islands like Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand had been interrupted for several centuries, perhaps as a result of an intermixture of the so-called Melanesians, the native black race of New Guinea and neighboring islands of the western Pacific, peoples inferior in agriculture, seaman- ship, and social organization. In spite of the richer native flora of the Melanesian islands, no cultivated plant of importance seems to have been domesticated there, no species being reported as in cultivation among the Papuans which is not shared with the Malays to the west or with the Polynesians to the east, and in nearly all cases with both. The primitive agriculture of all the Pacific islands may be viewed, then, as a connected whole, and a detailed study of the origins, present distributions, native names, agricultural methods, and domestic uses of the numerous species and varieties of cultivated plants may be expected to vield the most definite information now obtainable regard- ing the origins and migrations of the ancient agricultural peoples of the Tropics.“ At present we have only incomplete and scattered data collected incidentally by missionaries, travelers, and professional bot- anists who did not appreciate their opportunities from the agricultural point of view. But even these miscellaneous facts are often of unex- pected interest. Thus, we know that in Central America the use of leguminous shade trees in cacao plantations was adopted by the Span- ish colonists from the natives, who furnished even the name, ** mother of cacao,” by which the species of /rythrina and other leguminous shade trees are still known in Spanish America. The Indians, of course, were not aware that the roots of the leguminosze developed tubercles for the accommodation of bacteria able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and thus increase its fertility. They believed that the ‘madre de cacao” supplied water to the roots of the cacao, a fanciful idea still credited by many planters, and not much improved upon by the current notion that shade of large trees is beneficial to cacao and coffee. In the Pacific we encounter a similar fact with ref- erence to the yam bean (Pachyrhizus), a leguminous vine with a fleshy edible root. The natives of the Tonga Islands no longer cultivate Pachyrhizus for food, but they nevertheless encourage its growth in their fallow clearings in the belief that it renders them the sooner capable of yielding larger crops of yams. Such anticipations of the results of modern agricultural science are of extreme interest, but it is still uncertain whether similar knowledge exists in other archipel- agos of the Pacific, or on the American continent where Pachyrhizus “Even the cosmopolitan tropical weeds are worthy of careful study from this standpoint. After excluding aquatic, swamp-land, and strand species, Seeman found 64 genuine weeds in Fiji, of which 48 were common to America, while only 16 were heid to be Old World species. 484 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCEENT AMERICA. probably originated. The botanists report it as ‘‘a common weed in cultivated grounds,” and we learn further that, in the absence of better material, the people of Fiji use the fiber for fish lines, and that the plant sometimes figures in an unexplained manner in their religious ceremonies, an indication of greater importance in ancient times. Our knowledge is far from complete regarding even the present dis- tribution of the principal tropical food plants, but the need of further investigation should not obscure the striking fact that several of the food plants with which the Spaniards became acquainted in the West Indies were also staple crops on the islands and shores of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and even across tropical Africa. How this very ancient agricultural unity of the Tropics came about may be unexplainable by history or tradition, but it is scarcely more mysterious than that so significant a fact should have been disregarded so long in studies of primitive man. Our attitude, even yet, seems to be that of the medizval Europeans, who believed with Columbus that the newly discovered ‘* Indies” of the western Atlantic were the same as those of eastern Asia. Nearly a century elapsed between the dis- covery of America and the realization that it was indeed a new world and not merely an eastern prolongation of Asia, so that the community of food plants in regions separated by more than half the circumfer- ence of the globe did not at first appear remarkable. Modern geogra- phy has proved the remoteness of the localities, but modern biology vives no less definite testimony that the same plant does not originate twice, and makes it plain that varieties dependent everywhere for their very existence on human care must also have been distributed by human agency. THE AGRICULTURE OF ANCIENT AMERICA. The most important food plants of the Polynesians were seven in number—the taro, yam“, sweet potato, sugar cane, banana, breadfruit, and cocoanut—of which six, or all except the breadfruit, existed in pre-Spanish America, and of these, five, or all except the cocoanut, were propagated only from cuttings. Except with the banana, botany gives us much evidence for and none against the New World origin of the food plants shared by ancient America with Polynesia and the tropics of the Old World, « Numerous species of true yams ( Dioscorea) are cultivated, and the roots of many wild species are collected for food in various parts of the Tropics. The present refer- ence is to D. alata, the most widely distributed of the domesticated species and not known in the wild state. “The Haitian name of the Dioscorea alata is axes or ajes. It is under this denomi- nation that Columbus describes the igname in the account of his first voyage; and it is also that which it had in the times of Garcilasso, Acosta, and Oviedo, who have very well indicated the characters by which the aves are distinguished from batates.’’— Humboldt, Kingdom of New Spain, vol. 2, p. 355. Trans. by Black, New York, 1811. FOOD PLANTS -OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 485 though few of them are known under conditions which warrant a belief that they now exist anywhere in atruly wild state. The partial or complete seedlessness attained by several of the important species also indicates dependence upon human assistance in propagation for a very long period of time, and precludes all rational doubt that their wide dissemination was accomplished through the direct agency of primitive man. Ethnologists will not deny that in the Old World this distribution was the work of the remote ancestors of the Polynesians, traces of whose presence have been found distributed over the area included between Hawaii, Easter Island, New Zealand, Formosa, Malaya, Madagascar, and even across the African continent.“ We have not been provided, however, with any explanation of the existence of these food plants in America, for ethnologists do not admit that the eastward migrations of the Polynesians reached this continent, but hold that the tribes, languages, customs, and arts of the American Indians are of truly indigenous development, not imported from Asia or else- where, as so frequently and variously conjectured. **T maintain, therefore, in conclusion, that up to the present time there has not been shown a single dialect, not an art nor an institution, not a myth or religous rite, not a domesticated plant or animal, not a tool, weapon, game, or symbol, in use in America at the time of the discovery, which had previously been imported from Asia or from any continent of the Old World.”? If this conclusion be adopted it is obvious that the food plants com- mon to the two hemispheres must have been derived from America. This alternative seems not to have been canvassed with the standpoint and methods of modern ethnology, but it is safe to say that in Asia no “Frobenius, Zeitsch. der Gesellsch. fir Erdkunde zu Berlin, Bd. 33, 1898. Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1898, pp. 637-650. » Brinton, D. G., in Memoirs of the International Congress of Anthropology, p. 151, Chicago, 1894. The same argument has been stated somewhat less radically by Payne, but with no more adequate appreciation of the significance of the facts of tropical agriculture: “Tf advancement was at some remote time imported from the Old World into the New, how happens it that at the discovery all the domesticated animals and nearly all the cultivated food plants of the Old World were either wanting or existed only in a wild state in the New World? * * * Pulse [the bean] was the only culti- vated plant common to America and the Old World. * * * Civilized immigrants from Asia would naturally strike the New World in British Columbia or Oregon; and the doctrine of imported advancement finds its most decisive refutation in the fact that from the most remote until recent times agriculture was here absolutely unknown.’’ Payne, Hist. of the New World called America, Vol. II, p. 340-347. It is possible that there were no Old World cultivated plants in America except the banana, which evidently arrived late. That Asiatic agriculture was not intro- duced into America is, however, far from proving that American agriculture was not introduced into Asia. 486 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. such arguments can be made as in America against the exotic origin of the earliest civilizations. It is a simple zoological fact, also freely admitted by ethnologists, that the straight-haired Malayoid peoples are not the original inhabitants of southeastern Asia and the neighbor- ing islands, since throughout these regions there are isolated remnants and traces of earlier curl-haired types, such as the Negritos, Anda- manese, Papuans and Ainus.@ If it be reasonable to suppose that the food plants which the Poly- nesians shared with the tropical peoples of both continents were varried by them across the Pacific, it is also reasonable to seek the origin of these widely distributed species on the continent which gives evidence of the oldest and most extensive agricultural activity, and to the question in this form there can be but one answer. The agricul- ture of the Old World tropics is adequately explainable by the supposi- tion that it was brought by the Polynesians, since the root crops of the Polynesians were also staples of the Old World tropics. This proposi- tion would not apply to America, where, in addition to the sweet potato, yams, yam-bean (Pachyrhizus), canna and taro, which crossed the Pacific, the aborigines also domesticated a long series of root crops confined to America at the time of its discovery. Such are: Manihot (cassava), JMJaranta (arrowroot), Calathea (leren), Solanum (Irish potato), Xanthosoma (several species), Oxalis (oca), Sechium (chayote), Tropwolum, (massua’), UVucus, Arracacia, and Helianthus (Jerusalem artichoke) ¢ all of considerable local importance. The simplest of cultural methods, propagation from cuttings, was applied to these root crops and has been inuse for so longa period that several of them have become seedless. With equal uniformity the distinctively Old World root crops are grown from seed. And as all the Asiatic and European species are of temperate origin and have not been greatly modified from their wild ancestral types, it is reasonable to beheve that they were domesticated by peoples already accustomed to the planting.of cereals, which are correctly viewed as the basis of temperate agriculture. Root crops of American origin belong to at least twelve natural families, and the only important Old World addi- tion to the series is the mustard family, a distinctly temperate group, the cultivated members of which have not been greatly modified in domestication, and are still known in the wild state. This apparent superfluity of American root crops is explainable by the fact the different plants were independently domesticated in differ- @Science, N. S., 15: 928-932. 1902. »Mr. W. E. Safford notes that the word ‘‘masoa’’ means, in the Samoan language, sticky or starchy and is applied to the Polynesian arrowroot ( Tacca pinnatifida) a root crop of the Pacific islands. See Pratt, Samoan Dictionary, p. 211, 1893. ¢ All these root crops were propagated from cuttings except Pachyrhizus, Canna, and Sechium. Other seed-grown cultivated plants common to the two hemispheres were the cocoanut, bean, cotton, gourd (Cucurbita), and bottle gourd (Lagenaria). - FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 487 ent localities, which means also that conditions favorable to the develop- ment of agriculture were very general among the natives of America. That most of these plants are not known in the wild state testifies also to the great antiquity of this agricultural tendency, while archeology shows the same antiquity and diversity of prehistoric civilizations in America. From the mounds of Ohio to the equally remarkable ruins of Patagonia, the American continents and islands are, as it were, dotted with remains of rudimentary civilizations which must have required centuries and millenniums to rise from surrounding savagery, culminate, and perish. The constructive arts by which the existence of these vanished peoples is made known took the most diverse forms; some made mounds, some expended their energies upon huge carvings on high, inaccessible rocks, some dug devious underground passages, some set up monoliths and carved statues, and some built massive platforms, terraces, pyramids, temples, and tombs, while still others are known only from their pottery or their metal work. In civiliza- tion, as in agriculture, the tropics of America stand in striking con- trast to those of the Old World. Here men of the same race showed great diversity of plants and arts; there races are diverse, while arts and staple food plants are relatively little varied. The early civiliza- tions of the eastern world resembled some of the primitive cultures ot America more than these resembled each other. The American origin of agriculture is thus not doubtful, since not merely one, but several, agricultures originated in America. The same can not be claimed for Asia and Africa, where only root crops shared with America attained a wide distribution, an indication that they reached those continents before the uses of the similar indigenous plants had been discovered. POISONOUS ROOT CROPS. The domestication of so many root crops in America indicates, as has been intimated, a widespread use of food of this kind before agri- culture began, and many savage tribes still have recourse to wild roots, either as a staple article of diet, or in times of scarcity. It is evident, however, that the culture of the principal root crops of America was not begun as a simple and direct transition from the use of fruits, which are commonly supposed to have been the food of primitive man. The more ancient and more important of the Old World root crops, the onions, leeks, garlics, carrots, and radishes are eaten, or are at least edible, in the raw state, but in America there seems to be no indi- cation that the natives used any root crop in this way. Some of them, such as the sweet potato, the artichoke and the ‘*sweet cassava,” can be eaten raw, but throughout the tropics of America the Indians, like the Chinese, prefer everything cooked. This habit must have been sm 1903 B2 488 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. adopted very far back to make possible the ancient domestication of Manihot (cassava), Colocasia (taro) and Xanthosoma (yautia), since the fleshy underground parts of these plants contain substances distinctly deleterious and extremely unpalatable until disintegrated and rendered harmless and tasteless by heat. The same may have been true of the sweet potato,” since the fleshy roots of its uncultivated relatives are strongly purgative. Several of the yams, both wild and cultivated, are also poisonous in the raw state. That these poisonous root crops were the most popular, widespread and ancient would seem to afford sufficient proof that the discovery of ‘the use of fire in cooking preceded the development of the art of agri- culture, though further support may be derived from the very practi- cal. consideration that without fire the primitive savage with his stone ax would make little headway in the work of clearing away the forest,, which is everywhere the first preliminary of tropical agriculture. To be able to utilize as nourishing food the natural supplies of starchy roots, which to other tribes were poisonous, would give the primitive fire users an important advantage over their neighbors, and would greatly conduce to the adoption of a settled existence in dis- tricts where the plants were plentiful. Cassava, yams, taro, sweet potatoes, and others of the primitive series of root crops often grow freely and without care from rejected fragments or pieces of stem, so that the digging of the roots and trampling down of the vegetation would not exterminate the wild supply, but would afford, on the contrary, abundant opportunity and encouragement for the gradual increase of cultural efforts. A third important step in the domestic economy of primitive man was the making of dry meal or starch from roots, accomplished in the tropics of both hemispheres by similar processes of grating, soaking in water, boiling, or treating with alkalis to destroy their poisonous properties: Seu from the sugars and other readily soluble sub- aX oe Ww men may be he rr Fede form of the sweet no is a common weed in the Coban coffee district of eastern Guatemala. The absence of the sweet potato from Samoa, Fiji, Guam, and the Philippines may have inclined some to doubt its prehistoric distribution in the Old World west of Hawaii and New Zealand, but according to Bretschneider it is recorded in Chinese books of the second or third century of the Christian era, and there are many varieties with native names in trop- ical Africa, both east and west, and legends indicative of its presence in early times. “It is told me as truth, that before the Portuguese came to this coast (Guinea), the negroes subsisted themselves with these two fruits (yams and sweet potatoes) and a few roots of trees, they being then utterly ignorant of Milhio (maize), which was brought hither by that nation.’’ (Bosman’s Guinea (1698) in Pinkerton’s Voyages, vol. 16, p. 459. ) Cheeseman records two varieties of the sweet potato as existing in Rarotonga before the arrival of Europeans, and believes that the plant has been cultivated there ‘“‘from time immemorial.”? (Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., 2 ser., 6:289, 1903.) FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 4&9 stances which retain or absorb moisture, the starch of the taro, cassava, arrowroot, canna, and other root crops can be quickly and thoroughly dried, and will then keep indefinitely. In the absence of cereals this simple expedient might well be deemed an epoch-making discovery, since it rendered possible the accumulation of a permanent, readily transportable, food supply, and thus protected man from the vicissitudes of the season and the chase. That the resulting economic difference appeared striking to the hunting tribes of Guiana is apparent in the name they gave to their agricultural neighbors, whom they called ‘* Arawacks” or ‘‘eaters of meal.” Cassava in the raw state carries a deadly charge of prussic acid and begins to decay in a few hours after being taken from the ground, but properly prepared it furnishes the starch which keeps best, and which in the form of tapioca our civilization is tardily learning to appre- ciate as a wholesome delicacy. In spite of its unpromising qualities when raw, cassava seems to have been the first and only root crop used by many South American tribes who plant nothing else except the so-called peach palm (Gu7/éelia), a species which gives suggestive evidence of a cultivation much older than that of the date palm, since it is generally seedless, and is not known in the wild state. The farinaceous fruits are made into meal and baked into cakes in the same manner as the cassava, to which recourse is necessary during the months in which the single harvest of palm fruits is exhausted.” Cassava is, indeed, so distinctively the best, as well as the most generously and continuously productive, of the tropical root crops, that it could hardly have been known in the regions in which the others were domesticated. Ever since the Spanish conquest put an end to the isolation of the native peoples of tropical America the use of cassava has been slowly extending at the expense of similar crops; it has also found a footing in the Malay region and other parts of the East. THE DOMESTICATION OF THE BANANA. In further support of the suggestion that the use of the starch- producing root crops is a distinctively American development of primi- tive agriculture is the fact that the tropics of the Old World contributed no important cultivated plant of this class, and none which give evi- dence of long domestication. On the other hand, such regions as Madagascar and East Africa, where Polynesians are now supposed by ethnologists to have settled in ‘* remote prehistoric times,” continued «Some of these tribes are extremely primitive and, in the absence of all domestic implements, grate their cassava on the exposed spiny roots of another native palm (Iriartea exorhiza). Some Indian tribes of Guianaare similarly dependent upon still a third palm (Mauritia), from the pith of which they secure starch in a manner strongly suggestive of that used with the sago palm of the Malay region. 490) FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. the culture and differentiation of the varieties of the taro and the sweet potato, and were agriculturally mere outposts of the American tropics. The presence of the banana might be thought to explain the rela- tively small importance of root crops in the Old World, sinee it furnishes with far less effort of cultivation and preparation a highly nutritious and palatable food. It appears, however, that the use of root crops must have preceded the domestication of the banana, for, although the seed-bearing wild bananas are worthless as fruits and hence would not have been domesticated as such, nevertheless more species of them than of any other genus of food plants were brought into cultivation. The clue to this paradox is afforded by the fact that bananas are still cultivated as root crops in the Old World tropics, particularly in New Caledonia and Abyssinia.?4 That the varieties used like vegetables or root crops are as old or older than those grown for fruit is indicated by the fact that, like the sweet potato, taro, sugar cane, and ginger, they seldom produce flowers. Furthermore, among all savage tribes the varieties valued by civilized peoples as fruits are relatively little used, far greater popularity being enjoyed by the so-called ‘* plantains,” not edible in the raw state, even when ripe, though nearly always cooked and eaten while still imma- ture, or before the starch has changed to sugar. They are also in many countries dried and made into a meal or flour often compared to arrowroot. In dietary and culinary senses the breadfruit also is as much a veg- etable as the taro or the sweet potato; as a fruit it would be no more likely to be domesticated than its distant relative, the osage orange. The farinaceous character of the breadfruit also probably explains its relatively greater importance among the Polynesians than in its orig- inal Malayan home, as shown by the propagation of numerous seedless varieties. The popularity of the breadfruit among the Polynesians was “The suggestion that the primitive culture race which domesticated the banana came from America also receives definite support from the fact that an American plant (Heliconia bihai), somewhat similar to the banana but without an edible fruit, reached the islands of the Pacific in prehistoric times. Though no longer cultivated by the Polynesians, it has become established in the mountains of Samoa and in many of the more western archipelagoes. In New Caledonia the tough leaves are still woven into hats, but the Pandanus, native in the Malay region, affords a better material for general purposes and has displaced Heliconia in cultivation among the Polynesians. In the time of Oviedo the natives of the West Indies made hats, mats, baskets, and thatch from the leaves of Heliconia, and the starchy rootstocks were eaten. Professor Schumann, of Berlin, has recently recognized the prehistoric introduc- tion of Heliconia bihai from America to the Pacific Islands. “Originally native in tropical America, but extensively naturalized since very ancient times (wralten Zeiten) in Polynesia and Malaysia.’’ (Schumann und Lauter- bach, Die Flora der Deutschen Schutzgebiete in der Sudsee, 224, 1901. ) FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 491 further extended by the discovery that the fruits could be stored in covered pits, the prototypes of the modern silo. In Abyssinia the tender heart of the banana, there cultivated as a root crop, is fermented in a similar manner and then baked into cakes.“ FROM ROOT CROPS TO CEREALS. If the domestication of the banana is to be ascribed to cultivators of root crops, the same reasoning applies with even greater propriety to cereals. Tribes accustomed to subsist on mangoes, dates, figs, or similar fruits which require no grating, grinding, or cooking, and are eaten alone and not with meat, would not develop the food habits and culinary arts necessary to equip primitive man for utilizing the cereals. Wild bananas and their botanical relatives are natives of the rocky slopes of mountainous regions of the moist tropics, where shrubs and trees prevent the growth of ordinary herbaceous vegetation. The commencement of the culture of cereals by fruit-eating natives of such forest-covered regions is obviously improbable, but would be a comparatively easy transition for the meal-eating cultivators of root crops, since the grasses and other plants domesticated for their seeds are exactly those which flourish in cleared ground and are prompt to take advantage of the cultural efforts intended for other crops. Thus the Japanese have by selection secured a useful cereal from the com- mon barnyard grass (Panicum crus-galli), just as they have made a root crop of the burdock. Accordingly, we should look to some taro- growing tribe of southeastern Asia as the probable domesticators of rice, sesame, and Guinea corn. ‘That root crops preceded cereals in America was inferred above partly from the fact that root crops were not there grown from seeds, and there is a corresponding indication that the knowledge of cereals preceded the domestication of the seed- grown temperate root crops of the Old World, since none of these is anywhere dried, made into starch, or otherwise prepared for storage as the basis of a permanent food supply of primitive tribes. Without the winter protection which primitive man could not sup- ply, the culture of cassava and other tropical root crops is confined to strictly tropical climates, so that increase of latitude and altitude would bring to starch-eating peoples the necessity of a change of food plants. Indeed, altitude seems to have played a larger part than lati- tude in this transformation which brought about the adoption hy primitive American peoples of Indian corn, ** Irish” potato, arracacha, oca, and other crops of the temperate plateaus of South America. Without reasonable doubt, maize is the oldest of cereals. The large soft kernels which distinguish it from all other food grasses would render it easily available among the meal-eating aborigines of America, «Warburg, in Engler, Deutsch Ost-Africa, Nutzpflanzen, 100. 1895. In the lake regions of Central Africa the rootstocks of the fruit-bearing varieties of the banana are also pounded, dried, and made into meal, especially in times of scarcity. 499 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. and everywhere in tropical America maize is still prepared for food by methods adapted to root crops, and not ground dry and made into bread as a cereal, as among the Europeans who have colonized America. — The rough stone slab (metate) against which the primitive Indian had rubbed his cassava and other farinaceous roots to a paste served also for maize, which is first softened by soaking in water with lime or ashes. The metate and the tortilla still hold their own in tropical America. Like other species cultivated in the highlands of tropical America most varieties of maize do not thrive in moist equatorial regions of low elevations,” so that it did not supplant the root crops, though having a far wider distribution than any other plant cultivated by the aborigines in pre-Spanish America. Nor did the utilization of maize mark the limit of cereal cultures in America, though no small-seeded crop of the New World compares in popularity with rice, wheat, barley, rye, and oats. Even in Mexico, the supposed home of maize, the seeds of Amaranthus and Salvia (chia) attained considerable economic importance. In addition to their use as food, the latter were made to furnish a demulcent drink and an edible oil valued as an unguent and in applying pigments, a series of functions closely parallel to those of sesame, perhaps the most ancient of Old World herbaceous seed crops. Wild seeds of many kinds were collected by the Indians of the United States and Mexico, including wild rice (Z/zania) and Uniola, another rice-like, aquatic grass of the shallow shore water of the Gulf of California. In Chile there existed also several incipient cultures of small-seeded plants, such as J/adia, while the people of the bleak plateaus of Peru and Bolivia had developed a unique cereal crop from a pigweed (Chenopodiuin quinoa), another of many evidences of a general tendency to agricultural civilization in ancient America.’ «The varieties of maize cultivated, for example, by the Indians of Guatemala and Peru are closely adapted to their different altitudes, only a few sorts yielding good crops in the tropical lowlands. »**Tt has been erroneously stated that maize was the only species of grain known to the Americans before the conquest. In Chile, according to Molina, the mager, a species of rye, and the tuca, a species of barley, were both common before the fifteenth century, and as there was neither rye nor barley in pre-Spanish America it is evident that if they were common, even after the conquest, and not European grain, they were indigenous. In Peru the bean (two or more species) and quinua were common before the conquest, for I have frequently found them in the huacas, preserved in vases of red earthenware.’’ (Stevenson’s Travels, Vol. I, pp. 856-367. ) There are, however, many indigenous species of barley (Hordeum) in South America, some seventeen being listed as valid in the Index Kewensis. It is not impossible that some of these were cultivated, or at least utilized, before the coming of the Spaniards. It might have taken very little time for such a crop to be replaced by barley brought from Europe. Quinua, like the root crops, is inedible when raw. It contains an extremely bitter substance which has to be removed by long cooking, during which it is customary to change the water eleven or twelve times. FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 493 As long recognized by historians and ethnologists, maize was the most important factor in the material progress of ancient America, and the American civilizations remained on a much more strictly agricul- tural basis than those of the Old World, a fact not without practical significance to modern agriculture, since it undoubtedly conduced to the more careful selection and improvement of the many valuable plants which we owe tothe ancient peoplesof America. Subordinate only to maize from the agricultural standpoint was the domestication of the beans, while the materials for a developed culinary art and a varied and wholesome diet were furnished by a variety of minor products, like the Cayenne pepper, the tomato, the tree tomato (Cyphomandra), the pineapple, several species of the strawberry tomato ( Physal7s), the paw- paw (Carica), the granadilla (Pass/flora quadrangularis), the gourd, the squash, and the peanut. American fruit trees, such as the cus- tard apple and related species of Annona, the avocado (Persea), the sapodilla, Mammea and Lucuma, afford retreshing acids, beverages, relishes, or salads, but do not furnish substantial food like the banana. Contrary to the opinion of De Candolle there is every probability that the banana reached America from the west long before the arrival of the Spaniards, but it evidently did not come until after the agriculture and cultivated plants of America had spread into the Pacific. NO PASTORAL PERIOD IN AMERICA. ; Relying on the traditions of the peoples of western Asia and the Mediterranean region, many writers have assumed that animals were domesticated before plants, and that a pastoral stage marked the first step of primitive man from savagery toward civilization. There are, however, no indications of such a period in the agricultural history of the ancient peoples of America, nor among the *‘ oriental” nations of the Asiatic shores of the Pacific and Indian oceans. The straight- haired men of both continents were primarily domesticators and culti- rators of plants. The Chibcha people of the interior of Colombia attained a considerable degree of advancement without adopting a single domestic animal. The Peruvians and Chinese learned to use beasts of burden and animal fibers and skins, but their pastoral efforts were merely incidental to agriculture; they remained essentially vege- tarians, eating little meat, other than fish, and never taking up the use of milk. A settled agricultural existence made it practicable, however, to tame animals, and it may well be doubted whether any animal, with the possible exception of the dog, was domesticated by wandering savages. The lack of useful domestic animals in ancient America has been discussed by Payne“ and other historians as an evidence of the a History of the New World called America, Vol. II. 494 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. inferior intelligence and resourcefulness of the aboriginal peoples, but it seems that one tribe or another had domesticated all the American animals likely to be of value to civilized man; certain it is that Euro- peans, with three centuries of opportunity, have not added to the num- ber or uses, or extended the range of any American animals, except the turkey and guinea pig. On the other hand, the American Indians have not failed to appreciate the superiority of the domesticated ani- mals brought by Europeans, and the more enterprising tribes have adopted the hen, cat, pig, goat, sheep, cow, and: horse. Indeed, even nonagricultural Indians of our Western States have taken kindly to the keeping of herds of sheep and cattle, and have thus assumed the pastoral state, illustrating, perhaps, the manner in which, in ancient times, domesticated animals spread more rapidly than cultivated plants from the agricultural East into the Mediterranean region. Nomadic hunters or fruit eaters would not be likely to domesticate anything themselves, but offered the choice of plants or animals already thoroughly tamed and improved by selection, they are more likely to take the animals first as requiring a less radical change of food and habits of life. The milk and flesh of their herds would still be sup- plemented by the game, honey, wild fruits, and other edible plants which might be encountered in searching for pasture for their flocks, after the manner of the patriarchs of the Old Testament. Dates, figs, and other fruit trees mignt receive some attention from such wander- ers, but the more successful they might become as shepherds the less likely they would be to take up the planting of cereals or of other her- baceous crops, which, in the absence of fences, would be appropriated by their animals before the owners could make even an initial experi- ment. It is accordingly significant that the origin of the agricultures and civilizations of the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates is no longer sought by ethnologists with Semitic shepherds or more northern peo- ples, but with a seafaring race which has been traced to southern Arabia, and whose language has been found to have analogies with the primitive Malayo-Polynesian tongue of Madagascar.“ OTHER INDICATIONS OF TRANS-PACIFIC COMMUNICATION. The American origin of agriculture could ask for no more striking testimony from Old World archeology and ethnology than the recently discovered fact that the primitive culture race of Babylonia, which brought ‘‘ letters, astronomy, agriculture, navigation, architecture, and «Keane (Man, Past and Present, p. 250 et seq.) considers the language of Mada- gascar to be Polynesian rather than Malayan, and holds that the similarities between Madagascar and Arabia are not due, as has been supposed, to a recent contact during the Mohammedan period, but date back to the ancient Minzeans and Sabzeans, maritime peoples who had commerce with India, and who are now supposed to have worked the prehistoric mines of the South African ‘‘Ophir.”’ FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. = A495 other arts,” was ‘‘a short, robust people, with coarse, black hair; peaceful, industrious, and skillful husbandmen, with a surprising knowledge of irrigating processes.” “ It is a long reach from Babylonia to tropical America, but the com- munity of ancient food plants will prevent biologists, at least, from passing as a meaningless coincidence the fact that these early agricul- tural civilizations of Asia differed in no essential respect from those of our own so-called New World, not even in the physical characteristics of the people, so that the same words describe both equally well. If it be found that the same taro plant was in reality cultivated in ancient Egypt, Southern Arabia, Hindustan, Polynesia, and America, ancient human communication between these remote parts of the world is as definitely established as though coins of Alexander the Great had been dug up. It is no empty fancy, but the most direct and practical explanation of concrete facts, to believe that the robust, straight-haired ‘ace may have brought from America some of the plants they culti- vated in Asia. It was among such men that agriculture, navigation, and other arts of civilization reached high development in America at a very remote period. The ancient cultures of the Old World left traces of no such infancy and gradual growth as those of America. Egypt and Babylonia arose suddenly to civilizations further advanced than those of Mexico and Peru. That the Aztec and Inca empires were comparatively recent political organizations has caused many writers to forget that they incorpor- ated much more ancient culture. For centuries still unnumbered the Andean region of South America supported crowded populations. On the western slopes of Peru every inch of irrigable land was culti- vated—houses, towns, and cemeteries being relegated to waste places to save the precious soil. Irrigation was practiced with a skill and thoroughness unexcelled in modern times, though by methods closely duplicated in ancient Arabia, even including the boring of deep tun- nels for collecting subterranean water. To claim that the Polynesians, Malays, Phcenecians, Egyptians, Hindoos, or Chaldeans came from America would be a careless anachro- nism, to say the least, for the very terms of the problem place its solution far beyond the period in which these peoples, nations, and languages were differentiated. It is doubly unreasonable to expect any very close resemblance of languages or arts in the Tropics of Asia and America at the time of their discovery by Europeans, since change and diversification had continued on both sides of the Pacific. To accomplish the dissemination of the tropical food plants there was necessary only a primitive people with the skill in agriculture and navigation possessed by the Polynesians and Malays. It has long been “ Keane, Man, Past and Present, Cambridge, 1899. 496 FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. admitted by ethnologists that the remote ancestors of these races did overrun all the Tropics of the Old World, and the latest investigations warrant the belief that they made their influence felt also along the shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, where the civilization of the Mediterranean countries was formerly thought to have originated. It can not be declared impossible, of course, that this primeval migration from America took place at a time when there was more land 1 in the Pacific than now, as Belt and other geologists have held that there was, some thousands of years ago, but such Gonjectures are rendered gratuitous in view of the highly developed seafaring talents of the inhabitants of the Pacific islands and of the adjacent shores of America, from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. It is no farther from America to the inhabited islands of the Pacific than from Tahiti to Hawaii, a route traversed by the Polynesians.“ In ancient, as in modern times, the sea was not a barrier, but the most open way of communica- tion between distant regions; then, as now, the boat was the easiest means of transportation known to man. In time and labor of travel the islands of the Pacific were far nearer to Peru, for example, than many of the inland regions conquered by the Incas of Cuzco. More- over, the Peruvians told the Spaniards of inhabited islands in the Pacific, or at least gave sailing directions which enabled Quiros to reach the Low Archipelago. There was a tradition that one of the Incas had made a voyage of two years in the Pacific and returned with black prisoners of war. Apparently, too, they told the Spaniards that the banana was brought from this quarter, for Acosta gathered from the Indians that it was not a native of America but came from ‘* Ethiopia.” These historical incidents have been overlooked or disregarded, perhaps because such possibilities as an American origin of agriculture and a trans-Pacific dissemination of food plants have not been considered by writers on primitive man. The times, routes, and methods of travel | are, of course, questions to be approached by detailed studies of many kinds. For the present purposes it suffices to remember that the actual introduction of plants by human agency discounts in advance all objections on the ground of distances and difficulties of communica- tion, and justifies the fullest use of biological or other data in tracing the origin and dissemination of agricultural civilization in the Tropics of both hemispheres. The distribution and the uses of tropical cultivated plants support, it is true, the belief of ethnologists in the truly indigenous character of the peoples, agricultures, and civilizations of the western hemi- sphere, but they also testify to a very early colonization of the islands and coasts of the Looe ane Indian oceans from tropical America. oThe Sunione of Bole nesian ¢ ee re tie aL ea America has been discussed at length in Lang’s Polynesian Nation, Ellis’s Polynesian Researches, and Rutland’s History of the Pacific. FOOD PLANTS OF ANCIENT AMERICA. 497 Botanical evidence makes it plain that most of the plants shared by the people of the two continents originated in America, like numer- ous other cultivated species which remained limited to this continent. The primitive culture peoples of the tropical regions of ancient America were accustomed to the cooking, grinding, and storing of vegetable food, and were thus prepared to appreciate and utilize the cereals by agricultural experience lacking among the fruit-eating aborigines of the Old World, where there seems to have been no tendency toward a spontaneous development of agriculture. Civilizations have nowhere developed without the assistance of the farinaceous root crops and cereals, the use and cultivation of which are habits acquired by primi- tive man in America and carried in remote times westward across the Pacific, together with the social organization and constructive arts which appear only in settled communities supported by the tillage of the soil. DESERT PLANTS AS A SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER. By Frepertck V. Covi.ur. A stranger left alone in a desert would die of thirst, and yet there is water in all deserts, and both the native animals and the native races know how to find it. This water is gathered and stored by plants, which have built and filled their reservoirs for their own pur- poses, but which yield it up, when required, for the use of the animal world. 7 The extent of the root system in desert plants, by means of which they absorb their water from the soil, is often astonishingly great. In the Mohave Desert of California a branching cactus (Opuntia echinocarpa) 48 centimeters (19 inches) in height was found to have a network of roots extending over an area of ground about 5.5 meters (18 feet) in diameter.” The roots lay near the surface, at a depth of 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4+ inches), a situation which enabled them to take advantage of a single substantial downpour and, before the pre- cipitation had been again absorbed into the parched air, to suck up a supply of water sufficient, if need be, for a whole year’s use. Other desert plants send their roots deep into the ground for water, and a certain shrubby species of acacia found about Tucson, Arizona, pos- sesses, according to Professor R. H. Forbes, a double-root system, in which one series of roots spreads out horizontally, close beneath the surface, and a second series, sharply defined, goes directly downward into the soil. Such an arrangement enables the plant to seize upon water either from light precipitation or when deeply percolating under ‘dry stream beds. While the devices for absorption in desert plants are unusual, the mechanical contrivances by means of which these plants are enabled to retain the moisture they have absorbed are still more remarkable. Other factors being equal, the amount of water transpired, or evapo- rated, from a plant is proportional to the area of its green surface, which, in ordinary plants, is a foliage surface. A specimen of coffee plant (Coffea arabica) weighing 20.5 grams is found to have a leaf surface computed at 164,476 square millimeters, which gives a ratio of @Coyille, Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Vol. IV (Botany of the Death Valley Expedition), pp. 46-7, 1893. 499 500 DESERT PLANTS AS A SOURCE OF DRINKING WATER. 1 to 8,023. A specimen of bisnaga or barrel cactus (/chinocuctus emory?), in the conservatories of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, weighing 77,000 grams (170 pounds) and without leaves, has a green stem surface of 1,032,320 square millimeters, with a ratio of 1 to 13.4 (fig. 1). Thus for each gram of tissue the coffee plant, representing the ordinary vegetation of a humid climate, has a green surface 599 times greater than that representing a gram of tissue in the cactus; or in physiological terms, the coffee plant, other factors being equal, is provided with means for the transpiration of 600 times as much water as the cactus. Not only is the green surface of desert plants very much restricted in extent, but it has such a strue- ture as greatly to reduce the amount z of moisture transpired through it. Fic. 1.—Bisnaga or barrel cactus (Echinocactus The structure of an ordinary trans- OT ees eee a piration pore in a plant of humid habitat is shown in fig. 2. Through the courtesy of Dr. R. E. B. McKenney the structure of a pore of Lchinocactus emory?t is presented for comparison (fig. 3). It is to be noted that the cuticle of the latter is excessively thickened. Beneath the epidermis is a deep layer of hypodermis with very thick walled cells and small cell cavities. It can searcely be doubted that, except at the pores, the epidermal struc- ture is impervious to moisture eyen under the extreme desiccating conditions of the desert. Beneath the minute opening of the pore is an air chamber, the lower contracted end of which is made up of the walls of the green, moist interior cells of the plant. The portion of the walls of this chamber which lie within the hypodermis, Doctor McKenney has discovered, are cuti- Fie. 2—rTranspiration pore of nized, so as to be. impervious to moisture. ?7adescantiavinginica-” a, Bp ‘ fee 2 idermis; b, outer wall of epi- The cushion of air in the chamber is therefore dermal cell, d, cavity of epi- slowly receiving moisture at its lower end ermal cell 7, greem intenor : : : é tissue; g, guard cells of the from the interior water supply of the plant — transpiration pore: nh, trans- and slowly giving it off into the outer air when- Bess pea ever the two guard cells open the narrow slit Bot ? «1t follows from the inclination of the caleaneum that the length of the heel in projection diminishes as the arch increases; this well-established fact explains the apparent contradiction between these results and the opinion generally expressed that the negroes have a longer heel than Europeans. As M. Volkoy has shown, the men of the so-called inferior races haye in reality, anatomically speaking, the cal- caneum as a whole (and the heel itself) about equal to that of the Europeans when that bone is measured by itself and detached from its neighbors, but physiologically, since, as every one knows, we ought always in mechanics to measure the arm of the lever, it is longer in projection, which explains, as may be added parenthetically, the reason why the gastrocnemius muscle is longer and slenderer in the negro, shorter and thicker in the European. The well-known theory of M. Marey on this subject is completely confirmed by the figures of M. Volkov. THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FOOT. 2D) foot, this lesser process is set very low, being almost a continuation of the inferior surface of the caleaneum. The development of the arch in man had for its first effect the raising of this lesser process and then a reduction of its dimensions, the astragalus resting directly on the body of the caleaneum because of the approach of the latter to the anatomical axis“ of the foot. This approach is, in fact, another char- acter that varies with the development of the arch. In the anthropoids the heel is pushed strongly outward; in European man its axis coincides with the anatom- ical axis of the foot, and thus attains the position mentioned above and rep- resented in figure 12. Corresponding with the inverted position of the foot, the axis of the poste- Fig. 12.—Skeleton of the foot (inferior surface). I, Gorilla. rior surface of the ealea- II, Negro. III, European. c, Caleaneum; av, Anatomical neum is in tree dwellers axis (to show the deviation of the caleaneum). oblique from above downward and from without inward. As the arch becomes more completely formed, this axis becomes more and more perpendicular to the ground. It is not yet quite vertical in the Aus- tralian, but is so in the European. Men of the inferior races and new-born children have in this respect a position between the gorilla aid the European adult, and in the arrangement of the different ele- x d H 1 1 \ ° ments of the foot all is so Apert ae well correlated that this I] deviation, more marked in i SA is 8: anthropoids than in other ‘J apes, varies as does the divergence of the head of as the astragalus, which is = itself controlled by the at ach. freedom of movement of TIT UT TY, Wii /////// the first toe, another char- FIG. aoc oi the foot and lower leg, showing the acter of adaptation to arbo- torsion of the heel. I, Gorilla. II, European. 1, Calca- a neum; 2, Astragalus; 3, Tibia; 4, Fibula. real life. The adaptation of the arboreal foot to plantigrade walking and the development of the arch among the arboreals, also produced modifica- tions in the astragalus both as to its position and to its form; we will «The anatomical axis of the foot is the exact bisector of the angle C, correspond- ing nearly to the line which joins the middle of the posterior surface of the caleaneum with the space between the first and second toes. 5384 THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FOOT. cite first the already mentioned diminution, in the arboreal apes, of the angle which the body of the bone makes with its head, and we will also cite that peculiar torsion of the head of the astragalus, the major axis of which is in man directed from above downward and from with- out inward, while it tends to become horizontal in arboreals with feet having no arch, the apparent torsion in man being manifestly due to the approximation of the great toe and the upward thrusting of the lesser process of the calcaneum. Another very important modification is one to which M. Testut had the merit of first calling attention; that is, the displacement of the axis of the trochlear surface of the astragalus. Since the arboreal apes have an inturned foot they have an Scdnnealine whose trochlear axis tends to occupy a position farther and farther from the anatom- ical axis. {fn man, because the foot has changed to a position at right angles to the limb, the axis of the trochlear surface tends to approach the anatomical axis nearer and nearer; that is to say, to coincide with the bisector of the angle C (fig. 11). By this character, too, the infe- rior human races present, as always, interesting features of resemblance to the arboreal an- cestors. Since the trochlea of the astragalus fits, as is well known, into the tibial mortise, when its axis is displaced it must necessarily involve modifications in the position and form of the Fig. 14—Lowerend ofthe tibia (a, rear view: Biviews tl DIa. which has ciorsthis reason from below). I,Gorilla. II, Negro. III, European. guffered a certain torsion from without inward, whose effects are shown even as far up as the femur (see fig. 14). To conclude, the position of the foot is modified by the develop- ment of the arch—in climbers the sole is turned inward, inman it Is flat on the ground. It follows that the inferior tibial mortise must. look inward in the first, while in the two last it is horizontal, and here again the negro stands between the European and the gorilla. Ido not wish to abuse your patience longer, but, in terminating this too long exposition, in which the great abundance of details, on which | have been unable to expatiate, has, perhaps, been tiresome and difficult to follow, I think it will be useful to recapitulate and to sketch, in conclusion, what I understand to haye been the course of development of the human foot. The foot of monkeys, as you have seen, shows a number of charac- ters, which may be summarized as follows: It is turned inward, it is flat, its articulations are loose and mobile, its first toe is mobile and separated. From these general characters THE EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN FOOT. 535 it follows that the upper part of its calcaneum is turned outward and the trochlear surface of its astragalus is likewise oblique and looks outward; it also results from this that its caleaneum is flattened and provided with a long lesser process set near the ground; these occa- sion further modifications in the tibia, as we have just seen, and even in the femur. The foot of man, on the contrary, is placed at right angles to the axis of the limb—it is arched, its articulations are almost immovable, its first toe is closely attached to the others, all these arrangements tending to give the organ the solidity and flexibility required for biped locomotion. To these general features are added others of a special character, the principal of which are: The shifting of the cal- caneum and the trochlear surface of the astragalus into the anatomical axis of the foot, and the torsion of the tibia above mentioned; the first feature relates to the arboreal adaptation, the second is the result of a gradual improvement with reference to biped and plantigrade locomotion. The stages intermediate to these two conditions, which we find so clearly marked in the foot of the inferior races of men, prove incontestably that our foot is derived from an arboreal foot analogous to that of the monkeys of to-day, our remote cousins, which has left its traces’ in our species. Our convictions in this regard are confirmed when we see that the foot of new-born infants of our race reproduces the features of that of men of the inferior races, often assimilating even nearer than that to the arboreal, simian foot, especially to that of the gorilla, which appears to be decidedly the most nearly related to the human foot. The course of ontogeny here again reproduces that of phylogeny; comparative anatomy and embryology once more agree. In this investigation one chapter is yet wanting or, rather, may seem to you insufficiently developed—that is to say, one in which there would be investigated the feet of men belonging to the prehistoric races. M. Volkov has not yet been able to undertake this investigation, but it is probable that the results he may obtain by it will merely confirm those already secured; we have a right to suppose this, especially since M. Testut has found in the man of Chancelade a separated great toe like that of the lower human races of to-day and almost as marked as among the anthropoids. The arguments derived from every line of research would then be in substantial agreement. Toward what does the foot of man at the present day tend? Does: its arch tend to increase and its constituent parts to more firmly coal- esce? The question is a difficult one; it seems, however, that in our ‘ace, particularly among the females of our own country, the foot has attained the maximum of perfection for the functions required of it. sm 1903——35 7 i a) ‘ee My ieee ie = 7: ae -. Let 43 a " hay: ee cnt, fon - 3 i 7 : % THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED.¢ By THropore GILL. One of the most natural of the polymorphic groups of the animal kingdom is the class of mammals, but yet it was less than a century and a half ago that it was recognized. It was, in fact, the fruit of scientific research and logic and not of popular recognition. Popular and scientific classifications of the animal kingdom, far from being parallel or the one merely an extension of the other, have been often directly opposed. From the earliest times, the Aryan and Semitic peoples at least considered animals in aggregates with reference to the functions exercised rather than with reference to agreement in structural details; in the language of the naturalist, they segregated them by physiological characters rather than morphological ones. There was, too, a curious association with what were called the ‘*‘elements”—earth, water, and air. (Fire was without its animals, unless the fabled salamander be regarded as one.) This association was in olden times generally accepted. It appears in the Jewish tale of creation given in Genesis (i, 1, 2, 7, 9, 20, 24); it appears in the Roman mythology perpetuated in Ovid’s verse (Metam., I, lines 5-7, 91, 22, 72-75). In popular natural history, the hairy quadrupeds were associated with the scaly and naked ones as quadrupeds, the sea-dwelling cetaceans were combined with the scaly fishes in another class, and the volant bats were sometimes grouped with quadrupeds on account of their obvious likeness to mice, except for theewings, and sometimes with birds because they could fly. So all continued to be grouped through the ages. Aristotle did no better, or at any rate little better, than those preceding him and those following him for many centuries. The assertion of Owen that Aristotle fully recognized the class of mam- mals under the name Zootoca is without proper foundation. Long ago, in the American Naturalist (VII, 458), I showed that different passages in Aristotle’s book negatived such a statement and that the word zootoka was never used as a substantive. : a : : . @Much of the present article was published in September, 1902, in the Popular Science Monthly under the caption ‘‘The story of a name Mammals.’’ = Le 4 oF 538 THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE @DEA EXPRESSED. At last a very bright English naturalist, the greatest naturalist of the seventeenth century, John Ray, was suggestive in this, as in many other cases. Ray, in his Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadru- pedum et Serpentini Generis (1693, p. 53), gave an ‘‘Animalium tabula generalis” in which he bracketed the terrestrial or quadruped mammals with the aquatic as vivipara, and contrasted them with the ovipara or aves. The vivipara are exactly coextensive with what were later called mammalia, but the word vivipara was used as an adjective and not as anoun. This was a most happy suggestion, but it was long before it was acted on or before anyone advanced as far in the appreciation of the facts involved. Linneus, the Swedish naturalist, published the first edition of his Systema Nature in 1735, and in that and every succeeding edition up to the tenth adopted the idea current for so many generations, so far at least as the union of cetaceans with fishes was concerned. But in 1758 he at last caught on to the idea of Ray and for the first time separated the cetaceans from the fishes and combined them with the hairy quadrupeds in a special class. There was no name for that class; for though Ray had suggested the grouping of the two together, he did not propose a collective name. A new name, therefore, had to be given, and that was ‘‘mammalia.” Some curious mistakes have been made respecting this name. In the great Century Dictionary, a deservedly esteemed work, and which may generally be implicitly trusted, the etymology of mammalia is given as ‘‘ NL. (se. anémalia), neut. pl. of LL. mammals (neut. sing. as noun, mammale), of the breast: see mammal,” and, under mammal, we have ‘ta. and 2. [=OF. mammal=Sp. mamal=Pg. mamal, mam- mal=It. mammale, n.3 << NL. mammale, a mammal, neut. of LL. ” ° mammalis, of the breast, < L. mamma, the breast] All this is misleading, if not absolutely erroneous. The name ‘**mammatlia,” as just indicated, was first coined and used by Linnzeus, and was formed directly from the Latin; it had nothing whatever to do with French, Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian words. The concept of which the Linnean word is the expression is as remote from a pop- ular notion as could well be, and even the necessity for the word (or an analogous one) can be appreciated really only by the educated or, pro tanto, the scientifically educated. Buffon and Pennant, for exam- ple, could not realize the reason for its use. It is noteworthy that, in the Century Dictionary, even the very word that might have given the clew to the formation of **mammal” is cited, and yet the excellent professional etymologist who worked on it was not guided into the right path. With the hint given to him, he failed to see the point. Evidently, then, the etymology is not as obvious as it might seem to be. THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. 539 Often, indeed, in looking over etymologies, one must be impressed with the insufficiency of philological learning alone for the solution of knotty questions. A living knowledge of the objects named, as well as of their history, is often requisite for a full understanding of the significance or aptness of the names. It was one of the happiest inspirations of Linneus to segregate all the mammiferous animals—the hairy quadrupeds, the bats, the sire- nians, and the cetaceans—in a single class. No one before had appre- ciated the closeness of the relations of the several types, and there was no name for the new class (or concept) as there was for all his other classes. A name, therefore, had to be devised. It was another happy inspiration that led Linneus to name the class ‘“‘mammalia.” Those who are familiar with the works and ratiocination, and especially the nomenclature, of the great Swede may divine his thoughts and share with him in the execution of his ideas, although he did not give etymologies. For those ‘‘animalia” which are animals par excellence he would coin a name which would recall that fact. (Animal, be it remembered, is often used in popular converse in the sense of mammal. ) The name in question was evidently made in analogy with animalia. In animalia the principal component was cada, the vital principle, or animal life. (Old Nonius Marcellus well defined and contrasted the word—‘‘animus est quo sapimus, anima qua vivimus.”) The singular of the word was animal. In mammalia the essential component is mamma, breast: the singular should be mammal. The terminal element (-al) was coincident with rather than derived directly from the Latin suffix (-alis) which expressed the idea of resemblance or relationship; anyway, it was used in substantive form, and the idea of possession or inclusion was involved, as in the case of animal, capital, feminal, tribunal—all well-known Latin words. In fine, a mammal is a being especially marked by or notable for having mammze. The truth embodied in the word was almost immediately appreciated by most naturalists at least, and the class of mammals has been adopted ever since the Linnean period by zoologists. Naturally the new Latin name was to some extent replaced by names in the vernacular tongues of most nations. In the accommodating English alone the Latin word was adopted with only a change in its ending, and thus the class name ** mammals” was introduced, and the singular form—*tmammal]”—followed as a matter of course, and by chance (or rather the genius of language) exactly coincided in form with the singular of the Latin word. Not only had the name nothing to do with the alleged derivative Latin words—it was not admitted at all into the vernacular speech of France, Spain, Portugal, or Italy. The naturalists and lexicographers 540 THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. of those countries failed even to appreciate its etymological aptness and beauty. First, the French had to introduce a new word to cor- respond—mammiféres, or the breast-bearers. The other Latin races followed; the Spanish and the Portuguese with mamiferos, and the Italians with mammiferi. None of the words quoted in the Century Dictionary are even given as nouns in the ordinary dictionaries of those languages—not even in the great dictionary of Littré. Littré, however, has the words mammalogie, mammalogique, and mamma- logiste. Of course the Germans coined a word from their vernacular— Siiugethiere, or suckling animals. The cognate nations imitated—the Dutch with Zoogdieren, the Swedish with Digedjuren, and the Danes and Norwegians with Pattedyrene. But, although the English proved ultimately to be so ‘*accommo- dating,” the full acceptance of a name in the vernacular speech was long delayed. Very early the equivalent words had been cordially welcomed in the continental languages, but the users of English were chary in their admission of foreigners. Even the English word in plural form—**mammals”—was grudg- ingly admitted; the Latin form—‘*mammalia”—was long preferred. The chief translators of the Régne Animal rendered mammiféres by ‘*mammalia;” Blyth alone substituted ‘*mammalians” in its place. Owen, in his History of British Fossil Mammals, employed **mam- malia” in the text more frequently than ‘‘ mammals,” and yet he used the English form more than any of his contemporaries. Popular as well as scientific writers avoided the English word as one alien to the genius of the language. Some preferred the word ‘*mammifers” when they would use an anglicized term. By reason of the general ignorance of the etymology of the word ‘*mammalia,” and the dislike of it on account of the misapprehension that it was an imperfect or clipped word, one of the French natural- ists devised a substitute—‘*mammiféres”—and this early took root and has been universally adopted by French writers. It was to some extent adopted by English writers of the first half of the last century under the form ‘*mammiters.” Robert Chambers, in his anonymous Vestiges of Creation, frequently used it, and Hugh Miller, in his antidotes to the heresy of the Vestiges, sometimes did. Miller, in his Old Red Sandstone (1841), also accepted the singular form in his statement (Chapter IV) that ‘tthe mammifer takes precedence of the bird, the bird of the reptile, the reptile of the fish.” The use of the word, nevertheless, was never general. The derivative adjective, how- ever, was much more frequently adopted for a time. Lyell, in his Principles of Geology, almost invariably used the word **mammalia,” but accepted the adjective ‘‘ mammiferous” instead of ‘‘mammalian” and even of ‘‘mammaliferous.” (He admitted THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. 541 ‘“mammifers” in his Glossary, but did not otherwise use it.) This, naturally, was an example which others followed. It was not until the first half of the century had been past for some time that the English word came generally into use. In the most trivial fiction the Latin ‘‘ mammalia” was used instead of the English ‘‘ mammals.” An example of this may be given, inas- much as it will also serve to show how, by accident or design, a pos- sible solecism was avoided. Edgar Allan Poe, the precursor of Conan Doyle as author of ‘‘ detective stories,” in 1841 published a thrilling story of The Murders in the Rue Morgue. The supposititious narrator isan American resident in Paris, and has a French friend (M. Dupin) notable for the acuteness of his analytical and detective faculty. An unaccountable murder of two women was committed, and the police as well as professional detectives of Paris had been unable to solve the mystery. The amateur, M. Dupin, investigated, satisfied himself, and explains to his friend his solution. ‘* Read, now,” says Dupin, ‘* this passage from Cuvier.” The American summarizes in his own language: ‘‘It was a minute anatomical and generally descriptive account of the large fulvous orang-outang of the East Indian Islands. The gigantic stature, the prodigious strength and activity, the wild ferocity, and the imitative propensities of these mammalia are suffi- ciently well known toall. I understood the full horrors of the murder at once.” Now, as it was an American that gave the account, it was perfectly right, at the time in question, to use ‘‘mammalia.” But if Poe had put that word in the mouth of Dupin, or as emanating from the pen of Cuvier, he would have done violence to French usage. The scien- tific men of France as well as popular writers always used their ver- nacular *‘mammiféres;” and if the American would have translated to represent the French style he should have used **mammifers” or ‘‘mammals.” To have rendered it by ‘‘mammalia” (as many would) would have been paraphrastic, but not translation of the spirit of the French. The first writer to use the English word ‘‘mammals,” at least to any extent, was Dr. John Mason Good. In his Pantologia (Volume VIII, 1813) he formally introduced the English name, under ‘* Mam- malia,” in the following words: ; 66 In English we have no direct synonym for this term; quadruped or four-footed, which has usually been employed for this purpose, is truly absurd, since one of the orders have [sic!] no feet whatever, and another offers one or two genera that can not with propriety be said to have more than two feet. We have hence thought ourselves justified in vernacularizing the Latin term and translating ‘‘mammalia,”’ mammals, or breasted animals. In Volume XII, in the articles ** Quadruped” and ** Zoology,” Good also used the word ‘‘mammals” apropos of the classification of Lin- 549 THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. neeus, and in other places,“ and also in the article on **Quadruped,” the adjective **‘ mammalian.” The same Good, in The Book of Nature (1826) and in the second lecture of the second series, ‘*On zoological systems,” again specif- ically introduces it. Quadrupeds is not appropriate, ‘“‘and hence it has been correctly and elegantly exchanged by Linneus for that of ‘mammalia,’” and he concludes, ‘* As we have no fair synonym for it in our own tongne, I shall beg leave now, as I have on various other occasions, to render ‘mammals.’” He repeatedly used the English form elsewhere in The Book. I have been unable to find any use of the word in its singular number, however. The singular form, ‘* mammal,” has been indicated as rare or unusual. One might look through many volumes on mammals, as well as on general natural history, and not find it. As a matter of fact, however, it may be frequently used. Let us go, for example, into a laboratory when they are assorting a miscellaneous lot of bones gathered from some fossil ossuary. Such expressions may be heard as ‘* that seems to be a mammal bone;” ‘that 7s a mammal bone;” ‘‘that is a mam- mal bone;” ‘*that is a mammal bone”—or the substantive ‘* mammal”. alone may be used. Further, a whale may be alluded to as a gigantic mammal or a mammal giant. The earliest English author to use the singular form, so far as known, was Richard Owen. In his History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds (1846), for example, he alluded to a mastodon as *‘ this rare British fossil mammal” (p. xxii), and asserted that he knew ‘‘of no other extinct genus of mammal which was so cosmopolitan as the mastodon” (p. xlii); he said that ‘‘the myrmecobius is an insecti- vorous mammal, and also marsupial” (p. 40), and he claimed, condi- tionally, that *‘ the Meles taxus is the oldest known species of mammal now living on the face of the earth” (p. 111). Robert Chambers, in editions of the famous Vestiges of Creation, published afterwards, also used the singular number in several cases (e. g., Harper ed., pp. 110, 280), although in earlier editions (1844 et seq.) he used ‘‘mammifer” (e. g., p. 103). So, likewise, did Hugh Miller in his later works. In an extension of the statement respecting the succes- sion of the vertebrate classes already referred to, mammal is used instead of mammifer. In the chapter on ‘final causes” in The Foot- prints of the Creator (1847) it is claimed that an increase in size of the brain in comparison with the spinal cord is correlative with the succession of the animals; after the brains of the fish, reptile, and bird, ‘Snext in succession came the brain that averages as four to one— it is that of the mammal.” Elsewhere (Boston ed., p. 238) the singu- lar is also used and the plural ‘‘ mammals” often. “The volumes of the Pantologia are not paged, the alphabetical arrangement hay- ing been thought to supersede pagination. THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. 543 But some English authors who were willing to use a vernacular substitute for mammalia would have neither mammals nor mammifers. The Rev. William Kirby, in 1835, in the once famous Bridgewater treatise On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation of Animals and in the History, Habits, and Instincts, declined to accept either, but invariably used, as the English equivalent of mammalia, ‘‘mammalians.” Chapter xxrv is entitled ‘‘Functions and instincts. Mammalians;” in this, it is explained, ‘the whole body, constituting the class, though sometimes varying In the manner, are all distinguished by giving suck to their young, on which account they were denominated by the Swedish naturalist ‘mammalians’” (II, p. 476). In a footnote to this statement, Kirby adds, ‘*Cuvier calls them ‘mammifers,’ but there seems no reason for altering the original term.” We may cordially indorse the sentiment of Kirby, and, doing so, refuse to follow him in action and to adopt his modification of ** the original term,” and revert to the ge nuine original—mammals, or, in the singular, mammal. No instance of the use of the singular-- mammalian—has been found in Kirby’s work or in any of his successors’, nor does the singular form ‘‘mammal” occur in the Pantologia. There is, indeed, one instance of its use in the Vestiges of Creation (Harper ed., p. 284); but as it was followed by a plural verb, it was inadvertently used. The science which treats of mammals had to be named. Mammal- ogy was naturally thought of, but many objected to it. The French, who would not tolerate mammal or mammaux, although they had no objection to the analogous animal and animaux, on the whole took kindly to ‘* mammalogie ” or ** mammologie.” Substitutes, it is true, were offered; Desmarest proposed ‘* mastologie” and De Blain- ville *‘ mastozoologie,” and the latter was admitted by Littré to his ereat dictionary, but they did not secure a permanent foothold, and ‘*mammalogie” is the term now generally used. The objection to ‘*mammalogy” was and is that it is a hybrid and also a badly compounded and clipped word. It is formed of the Latin mamma (a breast or teat) and the Greek suflix, -Aoyvéa; the apparent meaning is a discourse on breasts rather than breast-bearing animals. Greek nouns also generally have the vowel ‘‘o” rather than ‘‘a” before the second component. There is no simple word Aoyéa in Greek meaning discourse, and the suffix in question is connected with the word Aoyos or, rather, the verb léy@. The only Greek word Aoyia (occurring in the first Epistle to the Corinthians, xvi, 1, 2) means ‘‘a collection for the poor,” and therefore Aoyéa is misleading and has misled several to my knowledge. The Greek words ** diko- logia,” ‘‘etymologia,” ‘*philologia,” and ‘*theologia,” of course are 544 THE NAME MAMMAL AND THE IDEA EXPRESSED. good precedents for the English words ending in ‘‘-ology ” and conse- quently we may use, as a suflix, -oyia (but not simply Adyéa) in explanation of the etymology. In view of all its faults, suggestions were made to correct the word to ‘*mammology ” if not ‘*mammalology.” Others would compound a name of two Greek constituents (470, a wild beast, and Novos). Therology was the result. Dr. John D. Godman, in his American Natural History (1824), entitled the first (and only published) part ‘*Mastology,” thus borrowing a word first used by Desmarest. The writer of the long article on ‘* Mammalia” for the Edinburgh Eney- clopedia (1819) coined the word ‘‘mazology” (aos, a breast, and Loyos, discourse). None of these words has found general admis- sion into the language. Notwithstanding the philological objections, mammalogy ‘of late years has been generally accepted, and general consensus establishes its right of being. On a previous page it has been affirmed that ‘‘animal is often used in popular converse in the sense of mammal.” One of the many cases that might be cited is furnished by a justly esteemed author in a recent number (March, 1904) of The Century Magazine. John Bur- roughs, in an article ‘On humanizing the animals” (p. 779), has con- trasted the word with birds. He says: ‘*There seems to be among the birds something that is like what is called romantic love. The choice of mate seems always to rest with the female, while among the unimals the female shows no preference at all.”- As the present article is intended only to show the use of words no comments are necessary, save to add that Mr. Burroughs excepts from his generali- zation ** certain birds of India and Australia.” The word animal is made to do duty, in the same article, both as the equivalent of the Latin ‘tanimalia” and ‘‘mammalia.” In the larger sense it is used (p. 773) apropos of ‘‘the wariness of wild creatures” and ‘*why flocks of birds, droves of beasts, and schools of fish act with a common impulse.” To contrast with other classes, ** beasts” is then the word used in place of ‘*tmammals.” How much better it would be to use ‘*mammals” in eyery case where such are meant. Ambiguity would be avoided; precision insured. There is need of the word, and English-speaking peoples are as well entitled to its use as all the other European nations are to employ analogous words. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. ¢ By N. Vascuipe and P. Rousseau. Among the problems attacked by modern experimental psychology, that of the mental life of animals has a prominent place, all the more important because upon its solution depends, in a great degree, the exactitude of our knowledge concerning the evolution of mental actiy- ity in the scale of life. We know very little about the minds or mental life of animals, and the scanty knowledge we possess concerning their intelligence is largely mingled with legend. Everyone who owns a dog thinks himself a psychologist and that he has made exact observations on animal mentality when he brings out a few simple phenomena that he calls ‘*experiments.” These are the defenders of the old maxim of the deep significance of simple observations. In another field we note the remarks of professional people, meet- ing everywhere with citations, after the manner of the illustrated journals, of thousands of methods of capturing animals, methods whose success is believed to indicate the possession by animals of a well-developed imagination. It has even been supposed that we can follow the complex processes of creative animal imagination! In this article we will give an account of the experimental investi- gations of the American psychologist, Mr. Edward L. Thorndike. Animal psychology has, up to this time, remained in a somewhat rudimentary state; those authors who have occupied themselves with studies of that nature have a tendency to explain the mental life of animals by associative processes. That life being essentially made up of reactions to impressions arising empirically, produced either by the influence of hereditary instincts or the personal experience of each animal, it seems unnecessary to appeal to phenomena of abstrac- tion and inference and to concepts in order to explain it. Our author considers that this general tendency is good. It is not, however, so regarded by all psychologists, and even those who hold it are still «Translated and condensed from the Revue Scientifique (Paris), June 13 and Sep- tember 12, 1908. 545 546 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. inclined to views that are too synthetical. We must study the for- mation of associations ina more fragmentary and analytical manner. We too easily content ourselves with words and vague formulas; it is common sense, not the scientific spirit, the spirit of criticism and analysis, that still makes laws in this very special domain of psychol- ogy. I call my cat to give her a saucer of milk to drink. What is the exact series of images developed in her mind from the moment when the sound strikes her ear to that when she decides to obey? To say that the animal has present in her intelligence a more or less com- plex process of association is to be contented with very little. We limit ourselves to saying that she does not reason—which appears quite evident—and yet that her acts accord with elements other than purely instinctive phenomena. To fix the meaning of the expression ‘process of sassociation” as applied to animals, to give it a positive signification, to ascertain what processes of this kind can be formed in their minds, and of what degree of complexity and delicacy, what would be the duration of such processes and the conditions of their formation—such is the problem, precise and clearly limited, that Mr. Thorndike“ set himself to solve. He has given us a clear statement of his method and a very complete illustration of it. Two qualities are found united in his work: On the one hand, the faculty of making us grasp the detail of his facts; on the other, that of bringing out clearly the scope and interest that this question presents for general and comparative psychology. Strictly from the point of view of method the older or even con- temporary psychology presents a number of grave defects. It tends toward a perpetual eulogy of animals, as with Romanes, for instance. Psychologists are too easily moved to astonishment and admiration. This disposition, which tends toward puerility, ends by falsifying the method itself, by leading to the choice of those facts only that excite admiration or enthusiasm. A more objective attitude is necessary. In the first place, most of the books do not give us a psychology, but rather an eulogy of animals. They have all been about animal intelligence, never about animal stupidity. Though a writer derides the notion that animals have reason, he hastens to add that they have marvelous capacity of forming associations; that human beings only rarely reason anything out; that their trains of ideas are ruled mostly by association, as if, in this respect, animals were on a par with them. The history of books on animals’ minds thus furnishes an illustration of the well-nigh universal tendency in human nature to find the marvelous wherever it can. We wonder that the stars are so big and so far apart, that the microbes are so small and so thick together, and for much the same reason wonder at the things animals do. Now, imagine an astronomer tremendously eager to prove the stars as big as possi- ble, or a bacteriologist whose great scientific desire is to demonstrate the microbes to be very, very little. Yet there has been a similar eagerness on the part of many ciative processes in animals. Series of monograph supplements to Psychological Review. Vol. II, No. 4, June, 1898. STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. 547 recent writers on animal psychology to praise the abilities of animals. This can not but lead to partiality in deductions from facts and more especially in the choice of facts for investigation. How can scientists who write like lawyers, defending animals against the charge of having no power of rationality, be at the same time impartial judges on the bench? @ Finally, even the writers who might have won valuable results have contented themselves with arguing against theories of the eulogists. They have not yet made investigations of their own. Further, animal psychology has been hitherto too much derived from anecdotes; authors cite only those facts that are exceptional, extraordinary, or considered as such, instead of which the normal and simplest cases should always be reported. Anecdotes also have the disadvantage of being rarely given at first hand. Finally, by their very definition they are unverifiable. PM . The method adopted should be an exclusively experimental one, and that alone is what Mr. Thorndike has used. It is essentially a method of observation and experiment, submitted, as in all such cases, to a certain number of constant precautions. It was necessary here more than elsewhere to avoid making generalizations from the indi- vidual to the species on observations of only a single case, to regu- late in a precise manner the conditions of each experiment as far as possible, and to use in these experiments only animals whose previous history was known, all of which precautions seem to have been ignored by preceding psychologists. This objective attitude once adopted, there were still some details to be arranged. It was necessary to formulate a plan—-to establish a certain number of constant points which, in the whole series of experiments, would serve as guides for the observer. Mr. Thorndike reduces these points to three, formu- lated as the three following questions, which constitute the logical structure of the method: 1. What is it the animals under observation do? 2. How do they do it? 3. What do they feel while they thus act ?? The theoretical aspect being thus settled, it became necessary to determine the material and psychological conditions of the experi- ments. The principle kept in view was to select an experiment or series of experiments which should be at once simple and at the same time significant. From a psychological point of view it was necessary to manage so as to have only a restricted number of known psycho- logical elements. Our author adopted the following ingenious strat- agem: Using for his experiments cats, dogs, and chickens, he deprived « Thorndike, pp. 3 and 4, 6 Thorndike, p. 5. 548 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. of food for some time—twenty-four hours, for example—the animal which was to be the subject of the experiment; then he shut it in a cage having a grating front; near by, on the outside, food for the animal was placed. The door of the cage, set into the grating, was moved by a mechanism which the animal had to operate in order to get out; once free, he could satisfy his hunger. In general, the animal was put into the box through a hole either in the back or the top. This hole was then covered over by a board. The door in the various cages could be opened either by a latch, a button, by pulling a cord, or by stepping ona platform. Sometimes it was fastened by two or three means, which had to be operated by the animal before its release was effected. When our author used chickens he sometimes modified his procedure. In place of having to open a door, the subject was placed in a small inclosure and had to surmount successively a certain number of obstacles—walk up steps, for example—to find its food and companions. The basis of the principle remains the same; the ani- mal has, in all cases, to form an associa- tion between the representation of the interior of the box presented by his senses and the series of movements which release it. hunger being the F1G. 1.—General model of a box (Box K). excitant. After the animal was shut up, its conduct was carefully observed. A double precaution was taken; first, to note if the subject of the experiment had or had not previously been subjected to the same or some similar experience; finally, which was quite easy with the arrangements adopted, to be quite sure that the animal was free from any influence of the observer; the ‘* personal equation” connected with the latter being entirely eliminated. It was only manifest in the theoretical interpretation of the experiment. The animal’s behavior was quite independent of any factors save its own hunger, the mechan- ism of the box it was in, the food outside, and such general matters as fatigue, indisposition, ete. Animals in doubtful health were not con- sidered. In order to be sure as to the psychological motive involved, the author, in the case of dogs and cats, did not experiment with them until they were in a uniform state of absolute hunger. Asa general rule, if the animal placed in the cage did not, after a certain time, STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. 549 succeed in getting out, he was taken out, but not fed; shortly after the experiment was recommenced with him. If, after a sufficient number of trials he failed to get out, the case was considered a failure. Enough animals were successively tried in each box to make it sure that the results were not due to individual peculiarities. As chickens could not be subjected to extreme hunger without danger of death, the author used for them, as a psychological motive, the dislike of loneliness, which is very great among those animals. The associations which it is thus attempted to form are entirely new to the animal; they are such as could hardly have been expe- rienced by it in the course of its past life, still they are not too remote from the ordinary course of its mental activities. They express the connection of a certain act with a certain situation and the will that results from that relation. The movements required by the act are those habitual to the animal; we may therefore consider the experi- ments as near as possible to the acts normal to the animal’s life. As the acts required are near enough like those reported by the anecdotic school, we may compare the results obtained by this method with those furnished by that school. The results are schematically expressed in a graphic manner by curves which permit a rapid comparison of many experiments or the following of them through their different stages. The arrange- ment of the method seems excellent; let us see now its results. IIL. — A. Experiments concerning association.— Ne 3in A. These have been directed with reference to" ?—Thormdike, P-I8, fg. 2 four principal inquiries: (1) How and under what conditions is asso- ciation formed? (2) What are the psychological elements that com- pose it? (3) What is the nature of the associations formed? (4) What is their complexity, number, and duration 4 ; 38 First. How and under what conditions 7s association Jtormedt—The experiments were made on 13 cats, whose ages varied from 38 to 19 months; on 3 dogs, of which one (No. 1) was 8 months old and the two others were adults, all three being of about the same height; about 10 chickens were also used. The behavior of the cats, with the exception of two, the oldest (No. 18) and one of a naturally apathetic disposition (No. 11), was always the same. All gave at first violent signs of discomfort when put into the box, clawing and biting at the bars, thrusting the paws out at any opening. These violent acts lasted eight to ten minutes. All manifested at first a desire to escape; they did not pay very much attention to the food placed outside. By dint of scratching and biting they all at last succeeded in touching accidentally the 550 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. button or the string that opened the door; a connection thus tended 3 oz Fic. 3.—Thorndike, p. 25, fig. 9. to be established between the act of opening the door and that of going out; gradually all the movements that did not result in the delivery of the subject, not being finally accompanied by the feeling of pleasure resulting from that deliverance, would be stamped out. The impulse@ that terminates in setting the subject at liberty would be stamped in by the resulting pleasure; this particular quality would cause it to predominate in the conscious- ness of the animal in 2 more or less exclusive manner; after many successful trials the cat would, when put into the box, immedi- ately claw the button or the bolt that closed its prison. Thorndike, loc. cit., p. 62. STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. oS) We give below some of the opinions of these trainers. They do not all agree, and besides they do not in any way impeach the very precise and scientific experiments of Mr. Thorndike. Question 1. If you wanted to teach a horse to tap seven times with his hoof when you asked him, ** How many days are there in a week ?” would you teach him by taking his leg and making him go through the motions A answered, ‘‘ Yes, at first.” B answered, *‘ No; I would not.” C answered, ‘‘ At first, yes.” D answered, ‘* No.” Question 2. Do you think you could teach him that way, even if naturally you would take some other way 4 A answered, ‘‘In time, yes.” B answered, **I think it would be a very hard way.” C answered, ‘‘ Certainly I do.” D answered, ‘*I do not think I could.” E answered, ‘‘ Yes.” Question 3. How would you teach him? A answered, **] should tap his foot with a whip, so that he would raise it, and reward him each time.” B answered, *‘I should teach him by the motion of the whip.” C answered, ** First teach him by pricking his leg the number of times you wanted his foot lifted.” E answered ambiguously.@ Let us compare the investigations of Mr. Thorndike with observa- tions made on the inhibition of instinets by habit. This phenomenon, very frequent among animals, has been noted by previous psychologists, and notably by William James in his Psy- chology. In this the animal, being able to perform two acts, one of which is simple and natural, the other imposed by habit, chooses the latter. In the boxes which Mr. Thorndike used the hole by which the animal was introduced was usually covered, so that it was obliged to go out at the door. Yet, after the association was once formed, even if the hole was left uncovered, the animal continued to go out at the door, although the opening of the latter was more difficult for it. The influence of association upon the inhibition of instincts may be exerted in two ways. Sometimes the instinct may wane by not being used; sometimes it is inhibited for the moment by a contrary dispo- sition. An instance of the former sort is found in the history of a cat, which, when placed in a box like those we have indicated, learns to open a door and escape. After enough trials, the board covering «Thorndike, loc. cit., pp. 71, 72. 560 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. the entrance hole is removed. The cat will still continue to open the door, but if at any time she happens to notice the hole she may make use of it occasionally, but not invariably. An instance of the second sort is that of a chick placed in a cage, A, separated by a wire screen from a box, D, in which were other chickens and food. After picking and seratching at the screen, the subject finally jumps to B, and, after a similar process, to C, then reaching D. After seventy-five or eighty trials the wire screen is removed. The chicken could now at will descend from A to D, or from B to D, or from C to D. ' Now, this singular phenomenon appears: He goes to the edge of A, looks down upon his comrades, but does not jump down into D, although nothing prevents him, and then goes into B, where he does the same. Finally, in spite of the removal of the screen, the chicken traverses the long route A, B:C, D. The instinct has been truly inhibited. The author observed but one case in which, after the wire was removed, the chicken, after looking over nine times to see his A comrades, decided, after seven minutes, to jump directly into D. VIII. D We can now attempt to make an out- CN ine ot the conception of the psycholog- Fic. 12.—Inhibition of instincts by cal life of animals as derived from these SLT ME A investigations. That life is, take it altogether, rather meager. The animal is not endowed with reason; the faculties of comparison and conception of similarity are wanting. He lacks ideas and tendencies which would, as a whole, constitute an original and free intellectual life; he has no memory of the past in the sense of a superior faculty by which he can recall at will psychological states that have disappeared, for the pur- pose of comparing or contrasting them with present states. The phe- nomena of association that constitute his mental life, while presenting a certain analogy with some human associations, remain very different from what they are in man. _ The animal lacks entirely the power not only of correlating ideas independent of a corporeal attitude and determinate exterior condi- tions, but also of varying, of combining associations originally formed under external influences. We should not, however, conclude from these investigations that the three species of animals here experimented with necessarily represent the totality of animals. It is especially notable that Mr. Thorndike has been unable to investigate monkeys. A similar study of these animals is much to be desired. The experiments here cited may at least aid us in establishing a criterium of the difference between animal and human intelligence. According to a widespread opinion, held especially by Mr. C. L. STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. 561 Morgan, the difference between these two kinds of intelligence con- sists simply in the greater complexity or simplicity of their associa- tion. The superior animals are supposed to be capable of construct- ing concepts more or less similar to our own, the association being the same both in them and in man. The aptitude for forming rich and complex associations constitutes intelligence, properly so called, as opposed to reason defined as a faculty of analysis. From the point of view of intelligence there is a regular gradation from man to the ani- mal. That which distinguishes them is the presence of that rational analytic faculty with which the faculty of speech is connected. We also meet men in whom that analytic faculty is but slightly developed and who nevertheless show a high degree of intelligence. In the human species these individuals are those whose mental life most closely approximates to that of the superior animals; there is an almost direct transition from one to the other. This theory can not be accepted. Human association is entirely transformed by the intervention of inference, judgment, and com- parison. It includes imitation, understood as a transferred associa- tion. Its elements may exist in our consciousness in an isolated man- ner, independently from the primitive association that united them, ete. Our author says in plain terms that ‘‘man is no more an animal with language than an elephant is a cow with a proboscis.”¢ The species or genera should be no more confounded from the psychological than from the physiological point of view. Progress from the psychological life of the animal to the mental life of man has been effected by transforming the direct connections between the terms of an association into indirect ones. It is essential to understand that an animal has not a continuous and free mental life. Its consciousness does not control the multiple series of associations which his life obliges him to form. Living in the present, his mind is powerless to grasp the past or to previse the future. He possesses only a fragmentary consciousness whose various elements are inter- connected only in a confused manner; at each instance of time the ego of the anima] is made up of the consciousness of an association directed with a view to an immediate practical action, an association whose terms are directly united, under the pressure of exterior circumstances; there is no continuity imposed from within. With man, on the con- trary, the elements of an association may be dissociated and isolated one from the other; they are not indissolubly bound up with the excitation that caused their appearance in consciousness, and with the reaction which responded to that excitation. There is thus a series of terms, very variable in number, but always considerable in each indi- vidual consciousness, which play freely, associating themselves with “Thorndike, loc. cit., p. 87. 56Y STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. each other in an original and independent manner. By memory, generalization, inference, etc., faculties properly human, the elements of past associations intervene in the play of the present elements, and this total may be organized with reference to a future action. An important investigation for comparative psychology would consist in attempting to find in the child and in the most elevated types of the primates the first traces of this transformation of directly practical association into a free and continuous mental life. We should thus be able to ascertain, not the legendary account, but the real history of the origin of our human faculty of association. ‘*Our work,” says Mr. Thorndike, ‘* has rejected reason, compari- son, or inference, perception of similarity, and imitation. It has denied the existence, in animal consciousness, of any important stock of free ideas or impulses, and so has denied that animal association is homologous with the association of human psychology. It has homol- ogized it with a certain limited form of human association. It has proposed, as necessary steps in the evolution of human faculty, a vast increase in the number of associations, signs of which appear in the primates, and a freeing of the elements thereof into independent exist- ence. It has given us an increased insight into various mental proc- esses.” It has convinced the writer, if not the reader, that the old speculations about what an animal could do, what it thought, and how what it thought grew into what human beings think, ‘‘ were a long way from the truth, and not on the road to it.” I believe that our best service has been to show that animal intellection is made up of a lot of specific connections, whose elements are restricted to them, and which subserve practical ends directly, and to homologize it with the intellection involved, in such human associations as regulate the conduct of a man playing tennis. The fundamental phenomenon which | find presented in animal consciousness is one which can harden into inherited connections and reflexes, on the one hand, and thus connect naturally with a host of the phenomena of animal life; on the other hand it emphasizes the fact that our mental life has grown up as a mediation between stimulus and reaction. @ Theoretical science may derive a profit from these conclusions; but the author thinks also that from all these investigations some of the results possess considerable pedagogical interest. The associative process requires the immediate personal experience of the animal. Why not apply this psychological proceeding to the education of the child? There are young minds that have not, at first, the theoretical intelligence for certain matters of knowledge that are taught, such, for example, as mathematical operations; often the teacher’s theo- retical explanation escapes them. Why not, in this case, have recourse to practical and personal ‘‘ training?” Pedagogical methods founded on imitation can not affect certain minds; for them the best «Thorndike, loe. cit., pp. 108, 109. STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. 5638 method of learning long division, for, example, would perhaps be to learn it in the form of numerous practical exercises. This method, like that of animal trainers, is founded on the formation of associa- tion by the repetition of the act. One of the essential laws of peda- ‘gogy ought to be that no restraint should be imposed upon children that is not based upon the subjective laws that govern the personal development of each child. IX. The method of investigation chosen by Mr. Thorndike has the great advantage of including in the observation only known elements, che sen in advance by the observer himself; it simplifies and makes clear the data of the crude experiment; it facilitates the interpretaticn of facts. Yet it is necessarily somewhat arbitrary; it neglects the actually exist- ing complexity. In the investigations considered, one single element, of a physiological rather than a psychological nature, dominated the conduct of all the subjects—that is, hunger. But is that state of phys- iological disturbance the most favorable one for studying the superior psychological life of animals? In studying states of consciousness closely associated with a physical need, has not Mr. Thorndike purely and simply eliminated in advance an entire side of that intellectual life, and precisely those forms, rudimentary without doubt, but perhaps really existent, of an original and free psychological development 4 Everyone knows how much our own mental life may be disturbed and upset by a disorder affecting an organic function. Notwithstand- ing the authority of Pascal, we are generally but little inclined to mathematical calculations while suffering with the toothache; poetic revery 1s not a common preoccupation of a man who is hungry. Now, other things being equal, was not this state of mental depression, which is intimately allied to physical suffering, the state in which Mr. Thorndike’s subjects, particularly his dogs and cats, were placed? A single feeling engrossed their consciousness—the feeling of the distress they suffered; it was like a state of mono-ideism which must disturb the normal course of their psychological development. The procedure of Mr. Thorndike appears to us very acceptable as regards the investi- gation of the conditions of the formation and nature of association— at least, in so far as he defines it—but it yet is necessary to complete the investigation by a study of subjects, free, as regards physiological necessities. As to the investigations regarding imitation, they seem to us much less conclusive. In the first place, Mr. Thorndike reasons as if the time during which the subject looks at the model corresponded to a time of real attention. Nothing could be less certain. Even when the subject sees the cat or the dog taken as guide escape from the cage, his own consciousness may be occupied by quite other matters 564 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. than the care of observing and retaining the movements accomplished by that guide. It is then that the consciousness of physical discom- fort becomes an obstacle to the development of psychological life. Doubtless the subject could have but one desire, that of getting out as soon as possible; but in order to give real attention to the acts of his comrade, to organize them into precise memories, the animal should be disembarrassed from the consciousness of physical suffering, which, however, does not leave him for an instant. He should be capable of the intellectual effort, anticipating the future and representing to him- self the series of movements going on before his eyes as being the con- dition of his own deliverance. If the time the animal takes to escape does not, then, vary in inverse proportion to these supposed observa- tions, it is not because the animal is absolutely incapable of imitating; it is because he has given no real attention. In order to put out of his consciousness the painful feeling of hunger that controls him and to impress upon his mind the consecutive acts of his guide, he must have a control over himself that is not possessed by any animals. It would, above all, be necessary for the subject to comprehend that these acts and movements were the only ones that lead to deliverance. But can we ask of an animal such an effort of intelligence and foresight ? Let us now consider the moment when, his guide having got out, the subject is, in his turn, placed in that part of the cage. The state of hunger that tortures it being present, what feeling can occupy its mind? Mr. Thorndike takes for granted that if the animal imitates he ought to execute in order the movements that he has seen accom- plished by the other subject. But nothing could be more contestable. The animal is already discontented from having been shut up; instead of being out, his suffering is now prolonged; the changing of his compartment has given him a momentary illusion of approaching liberty; now here he is again with the doors all shut. He inevitably becomes angry, and this new discontent is shown by the agitation, sometimes quite excessive, which the author has noted. If the sub- ject had at first some tendency to reproduce the acts of the model, such tendency would be immediately obliterated by this brusque dis- play of activity, the expression of his irritation. The cat and the dog do not immediately open the door, not only because they are incapable of judging as to the efficacy of their various movements, but also because the memory of acts accomplished before them is not sufli- ciently powerful to repress this overflow of useless action which arises from their anger; and when that anger has passed, the memory of these acts is already too distant to be utilized. This does not at all prove, however, that under more favorable conditions imitation would not take place; perhaps, indeed, the study of the play of animals might lead to conclusions different from those of Mr. Thorndike. STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. 565 It also appears to us that Mr. Thorndike’s definition of imitation is rather a narrow one; starting from this definition he concludes that imitation does not exist among animals. According to him, in order that there should be imitation the subject must exactly reproduce the same movement, the same gesture that he has seen. So (see text) cat No. 7 did not imitate cat No. 1, because the latter opened the door by pulling a loop with its teeth, while No. 7 pulled it with its paw. It seems to us, however, that the exact, complete reproduction of a movement is an example of imitation that is relatively difficult and quite complex; it is the perfect form of imitation, very common with man, who possesses a developed imagination. There may be some exaggeration in expecting to find it as perfect as this among animals. The subjects of Mr. Thorndike have not reproduced the movements of their model because they did not possess a sufficiently strong or lively faculty of representation. The experiments cited by us may likewise be interpreted otherwise than is done by the author. The point was to see whether the animal, guided by the author, would repeat the movement which the latter made him execute. It was required to open the box CG, closed by a button. It was shown that the subjects did not turn the button in the way they had been taught; they did not repeat identically the act which it was desired to teach them. But the essential matter is that there was formed in their con- sciousness the notion, even though vague, of a relation between the situation before them and the act of turning the button. Each subject would then translate this relation in a manner personal to himself— one would push the button with his nose; another would bite it, ete. In brief, we would not have an exact reproduction of the movements which had been taught—there would not be a perfect imitation; but the question remains unaffected, whether the primary, rudimentary form of imitation does not consist, in the experiments here cited, merely in a connection between a given situation and a possible direc- tion of movements. The button of the door does not appear to the subject as the central point on which the action depends; progress in imitation will consist in associating with the point the image of the special inovements executed by the animal that served as model. We must expect to find in them a trace of imitation, a tendency still vague in its manifestations, rather than a clearly established habit. The disadvantage of Mr. Thorndike’s method appears to us to be that he has transported into the domain of animal psychology the notion of imitation defined according to human examples. Unwittingly, Mr. Thorndike has not escaped the prejudice that consists in observing animals with preconceptions derived from the normal psychology of man. In this very question of imitation the problem appears to us to be that of seeking within the animal series to find what acts, what 566 STUDIES ON THE MENTAL LIFE OF ANIMALS. movements, may imply a tendency to imitation, what forms of imita- tion are met with among the superior animals—not to seek to know whether animals imitate as men do, or if they have the same imitative processes that we have. In spite of these few objections, the merit of these investigations appears very great. The method which is here inaugurated and the new views derived from them have already suggested other studies. As to the author himself, this beginning is full of promise, and we hope, in the interest of experimental psychology, that this promise will bear more fruit. ANIMALS THAT HUNT.2 By Henrt Coupin. The nimrods who, armed from head to heel, are going forth in a few days to contend with terrible partridge chicks and frightful rab- bits may not be aware that their methods of hunting are in use among animals. For the benefit of those who are perhaps ignorant regarding this fact we will explain. The toxote, for example, a fish in the rivers of Malaysia, has léarned how to shoot at a mark and well deserves its name of the archer, or the spitting-fish, which has been given it. Although aquatic it feeds upon winged insects. When it sees on the plants on the bank a silly insect gaping in the air it advances as near as possible to the object of its desires, fills its mouth with liquid, and closes its gills. Soon it raises its snout out of the water and, closing its jaws, shoots upon the insect a long thread of water—a veritable shower bath— which, falling back, washes the poor creature into the river, where he has not long to wait to be devoured. The remarkable part of this performance is the accuracy of the fish’s aim which very rarely misses. In Java and the neighboring countries people often carefully pre- serve the toxote in aquariums and amuse themselves by offering it flies, holding them some distance off so that it will shoot at them with its douche, to the great delight of the spectators. To obtain food another fish, the chelinous, proceeds in the same way with salt water, but he is less adroit, a fault which he possesses in common with many hunters. Yet he is always persevering. ’ If he misses his aim he tries again until he succeeds, unless the insect has withdrawn out of reach. Lying in wait for prey is practiced with great skill by a large num- ber of animals who have learned that in order not to frighten away the creatures which they wish to catch it is necessary to remain motionless. This is notably the case with crocodiles, which wait whole days without moving, hidden in the water or the grass on the shore, until their prey, deceived by their apparent quiet, comes to bathe or to slake his thirst. It is also the case with the python snake, 4Translated from the Revue Scientifique (Paris), August 29, 1903, pp. 274-277. | ‘ ao ’ >] } } sm 1908——37 568 ANIMALS THAT HUNT. that waits hanging from the trees by his tail so immovable that he can not be distinguished from the surrounding branches. When an animal is about to pass he lets himself fall upon it. Various leeches in Africa proceed in the same manner. In passing through virginal forests only too frequently one hears a sudden noise like hail falling on the branches. It is not falling hail, but leeches which hasten to attach themselves to beasts of burden and to men, from whom they ‘hasten to suck the blood. They were watching their chance, perched on the branches—-an odd dwelling place, by the way, for creatures that are generally considered aquatic. The bird of prey called the Pygargus sea eagle also waits till his victim comes within range. Audubon has picturesquely sketched him. ‘‘ Behold,” says he, ‘‘just at the bank of a great river the eagle, perched upright on the last branch of the highest tree. His eye, glit- tering with a somber fire, sweeps over a vast stretch. He listens, and his subtle ear is open to every distant sound. From time to time he casts a glance downward to the earth for fear lest even the light step of the fawn may escape him. His female is perched on the oppo- site bank, and if all remains tranquil and silent she admonishes him, by a ery, still to be patient. At the well-known signal the male partly opens his immense wings, bends his, body slightly downward, and answers her with another cry like a burst of maniae laughter. Then he resumes his upright position and again all is silent. Ducks of all sorts, teals, scoters, and others pass before him in swift flocks and descend the river, but the eagle does not deign to notice them; they are not worthy of his attention. Suddenly like the hoarse note of a clarion the voice of the swan resounds, still distant, but coming nearer. A piercing cry comes across the river from the female, not less active, not less alert than her mate. He shakes all his body vio- lently, and by several shakes of his head, aided by the action of the muscles of the skin, he in an instant arranges his plumage. Now the white voyager is in sight. His long snowy neck is stretched forward; his eyes are on the alert, vigilant as those of his enemies. His great wings seem to support the weight of his body with difficulty, though they beat the air incessantly. He seems so wearied in his movements that his legs are even stretched out under his tail to aid his flight. At the instant when the swan is about to pass the somber pair the male, fully prepared for the chase, darts down uttering a formidable ery. The swan hears it, and it sounds more terrible to his ears than the report of the murderous gun. This is the moment to appreciate the power which the eagle puts forth. He darts through the air like a falling star, and swift as light swoops on his trembling victim, who in the agony of despair tries by various evolutions to escape from the embrace of his cruel talons. He pretends death, makes feints, and would even plunge into the current. But the eagle prevents him; he ANIMALS THAT HUNT. 569 has known too long that by this stratagem his prey could escape, and he forces him to remain on the wing by trying to strike him from beneath.” - The beautiful bird that is known to all as the bee eater proceeds like those hunters who, on the shores of the Mediterranean, watch for game on its return from Africa. He posts himself near a nest of wasps or bees and snaps up these little stiletto bearers as they come out or return home. The baudroie prefers to catch by decoy. This rather large fish buries himself in the mud and lets only a sort of small flag appear, which is fastened to his nose by the medium of a long filament which floats as the water moves it. The little fishes in his neighborhood hurry toward this flag, thinking they have to do with an easy prey. When they are gathered in goodly number, disputing over this sweet morsel, the baudroie opens his huge mouth and swallows them down without further ceremony. Other animals are more refined and, in the hunt by decoy, prefer to use traps. It might be supposed that this method of hunting, which demands a certain intelligence, would be practiced by creatures of rather high organization. This is not so, since the humble insects employ it. The larva of the ant-Jion digs on the surface of the sand a large funnel, at the bottom of which he crouches; every insect which tries to pass roils down into the funnel and reaches the bottom, where at once it is snatched up by the larva. This is pit hunting. Moreover, if the victim seems likely to escape, he shovels at him quantities of sand which makes him fall still more quickly. The larva of cicindela acts differently, but with equal craft, in order to obtain the little insects necessary for his nourishment. He digs in the earth a vertical hole, in which he props himself like a chimney sweep climb ing up a chimney, in such fashion that his head, flattened and slightly hollowed, exactly stops up the orifice of the opening on a level with the ground. When a little creature is about to pass over this veri- table living trap the larva sinks down, at the same time dragging with him his victim, which he hastens to seize between his claws and to devour. Hunting with the aid of nets is, as we know, practiced with great ability by spiders, who stretch their webs, which are sometimes irreg- ular, sometimes of marvellous regularity, in our gardens and houses. Some await their prey, keeping to the middle of the web. Others, more prudent, hide in a little silken cell well concealed in a hole of the wall. Most of them trust to the strength of their threads and to the glutinous substance with which these are moistened. Whena victim is taken, the spider often prevents it from struggling by enveloping it with delicate threads. If it is small, however, he con- tents himself with killing it and sucking it up on the spot or after 570 ANIMALS THAT HUNT. dragging it into a corner. There exists in Madagascar a spider which, for a long time, puzzled the naturalists. Its web is rather like that of our Epeira diademis, but it is noticeable that at the center there is a great thread of silver white, a veritable cable, bent in zig- zag. What could possibly be the use of this? One could watch the web for a long time without seeing the creature make use of it; when a victim is taken, the spider is content to wind him about with small threads. Yet the cable is undoubtedly of use to the spider, for if it is removed he hastens to make another. M. Vinson at last, after long observation, succeeded in solying the question. One day when he was examining for the hundredth time the tricks and the manners of the spider, he saw a great grasshopper jump into the midst of the web. At the same instant the spider, darting upon the cable, began with the greatest swiftness to wrap it about the insect. The victim was too large to be held by the simple threads; the cable was there to bind him securely. The ant-eater depends less on the power of skill, and, like a child, limes his game. He puts out his long sticky tongue and flattens it on the ground; all the insects that pass stick to it, vying with each other, and when the heap is sufficiently thick, the ant-eater draws his long tongue in and swallows them all. At other times he plunges his lingual appendix into ant-hiils and draws it back laden with ants. Coursing is very frequent among mammals, notably among wild dogs, wolves, and foxes. According to F. Houssay, wild dogs follow their prey in immense packs. They excite one another by their bay- ings at the same time that they frighten the game and half paralyze its power. No animal is agile nor strong enough to be sure of escaping them. They surround him and cut off his retreat in a most skillful manner; gazelles, antelopes, despite an extreme lightness and swift- ness, are overtaken at last; wild boars are quickly run down; their rough defense costs some of the assailants their life, but these also become the prey of the pack that falls upon the quarry. In Asia these wild dogs are not afraid to attack even the tiger. Many, without doubt, have their backs broken by a blow from his paw, or are strangled by being seized by his jaws, but the death of comrades does not diminish either the courage or the hunger of the surviving assailants. Their number is such, moreover, that the great beast, overrun, covered by agile enimies who cling to him and cover him with wounds, finally succumbs. Wolves likewise hunt in large packs. Their boldness, when hunger presses them in the bad season, is well known. In time of war they follow army corps to attack stragglers and devour the dead. In Siberia they follow sledges on the snow with a redoubtable persever- ance and the pack is not restrained by the corpses of their comrades who are shot down. Aside from these fatal battles, wolves seem to ANIMALS THAT HUNT. 571 have the power of combining for actual stratagems. Sometimes a pair hunt together. If they meet a flock, knowing that the dog will defend bravely the creatures intrusted to him, that he is vigilant, and that his fine sense of smell will bring him upon them long before the herdsman is aware of them, they attend first to him. The wolves approach, warily keeping out of sight; then one of them abruptly shows himself and attracts the attention of the dog, who rushes upon the wolf and pursues it with such eagerness that he does not perceive that, during this time, the second thief has seized a sheep and dragged it into the wood. The dog finally gives up his attempt to vie in swift- ness with the fugitive and returns to his flock. Then the two confed- erates again meet and share their prey. In other cases a wolf will hunt with his mate. When they wish to take a roebuck, one of the pair—the male, for example—follows it and directs the chase so as to make the prey pass near a place where the female is hidden. She then springs forward and continues the chase while the male wolf rests. It is a veritable organized relay race. Of necessity the strength of the roe 1s exhausted, and he can not equal the ardor which his pur- suer, quite fresh, displays in the chase. He is taken and put to death. The male has meanwhile approached the place of the feast in a more leisurely manner and comes to claim his share of the booty. By what we have now said, it is clear how analogous to our own methods of hunting are those which are in use among animals. That the picture may be complete, 1t is necessary to cite the poachers, which will not be difficult, for they are legion. I will only mention one of them—the most audacious—the stercorarius, a sea bird that is often seen on the seashore following gulls, sea mews, and terns as if he would devour them. Such is not his purpose. If you follow him with a glass you see him torment these unhappy birds unceasingly, until they let fall into the sea a whitish, greenish mass, which he seizes and swallows in an instaht. The early witnesses of this per- formance imagined that this mass was nothing else than the dejection of the sea bird, and therefore concluded that the stercorarius had a singular method of alimentation (whence the name). But in reality that is not the explanation. The mass rejected is a fish only just swallowed by the bird, who is forced by the stercorarius to regurgi- tate it; to this end the latter follows without rest and strikes his quarry violently on the head until the booty is abandoned to him. If the bird resists, which rarely happens, he strangles it and tears it to pieces. oI pea : . , | %— oe : nr = HPs i ee = a P . i ‘a (ap liees tae ee % : _ a i : ' has eee J ve rio at . , ; 1% ity ; r =~ : = : . — i] 7 : - : 7 J j gh ' 7 a = ‘ — € ; A aa << Al , ———— = — ; A - i i 7 c 2 ‘; 4 4 — ) ~~ “tha f a ; ‘. , 7 : : <7 AD . | i a ; — - a al) i, . f - e FLAMINGOES’ NESTS. ¢ By Frank M. CHAPMAN. Not very many years ago, so little did we know about the nesting habits of the flamingo, it was commonly believed that the incubating bird straddled the nest when hatching, letting her legs hang down on either side! The observations of H. H. Johnston? and Abel Chapman ? on the European species (Phewnicopterus antiquorum) and of Sir Henry Blake* on the American species (P. ruber) proved the absurdity of this belief by showing that incubating birds folded their legs under them in the usual way, but we still know very little about the nesting habits of these birds. Largely with the object of studying the flamingo on its nesting grounds I went to the Bahamas in April of the present year, accom- panied by Mr. Louis Agassiz Fuertes, the well-known artist. At Nassau we joined Mr. J. Lewis Bonhote, of Cambridge, England. Mr. Bonhote was formerly governor’s secretary in the Bahamas, when he acquired a knowledge of the islands which was of the greatest value tous. He had already made a reconnoissance in search of flamingoes’ nesting retreats, and with the aid of one of the few natives who was familiar with their whereabouts had succeeded in reaching a locality on Andros Island, at which the birds had bred the previous year. It is not my purpose to recount here the various adventures which befell us while cruising about the Bahamas in a very comfortable 50-ton schooner, and I proceed ut once to a description of our experi- ences with the flamingo. Flamingoes are late breeders. It is not improbable that the time of their nesting is dependent upon the rainy season, which, in the Bahamas, begins about the middle of May. Consequently we deferred our trip to the locality previously visited by Mr. Bonhote until the middle of May. Then we anchored our schooner at the mouth of a certain channel, and, loading our small boats with needed supplies, rowed for the better part of a day, pitching our tents toward evening on a low, slightly shelving shore with a background of dense, scrubby eee Exploration of the surrounding country showed that it yas regularly frequented by flamingoes in numbers during the nesting «Reprinted, by permission, from Bird Tore. The Mac millan Company, Harris- burg, Pa., and New York, Vol. IV, 1902, pp. 177-181. >The Ibis, 1881, p. 173; 1883, p. 397. ¢ Nineteenth Century, 1887, p. 886. 574 FLAMINGOES’ NESTS. season. Within a radius of a mile no less than eight groups of nests were discovered. ‘They showed successive stages of decay, from the old nests, which had almost disappeared before the action of the elements, to those which were in an excellent state of preservation and were doubtless occupied the preceding year. Some were placed among young, others among fully grown, mangroves, and one colony, probably inhabited in 1900, was situated on a sand bar 200 yards from the nearest vegetation. All the colonies found contained at least several hundred nests, and the one on the sand bar, by actual count of a measured section, was composed of 2,000 mud dwellings. What an amazing sight this settlement must have presented when occupied, with the stately males, as is their habit, standing on guard near their sitting mates! Flamingoes in small flocks containing from 3 or 4 to 50 individuals were seen in the vicinity, but it remained for Mr. Bonhote’s negro assistant to discover the spot which had been selected by the birds for a nesting site in 1902. Climbing a small palm, an extended view was had of the surrounding lagoons, sand bars, and bush-grown limestone; and he soon exclaimed, *‘Oh, Mr. Bonhote, too much, too much filly- mingo!” Less than a mile away, indeed, was a flock estimated to contain at least 700 of these magnificent birds, which Mr. Bonhote approached so cautiously through the thick growth of mangroves, that he was fairly upon them before they took wing. They had not then begun to build, but the open spaces among the mangroves were closely dotted with nests (see illustration), which apparently had been occupied the preceding year and in some of which old eggs were seen. Here, some days later, nests were found in the early stages of their construction; but, to our great regret, circumstances compelled us to leave before they were completed and we did not, therefore, see the birds upon them. However, we learned some things regarding the nesting habits of flamingoes which, in view of our comparative igno- rance of the ways of these birds at this season, it may be worth while recording. In the first place, although the birds return to the same general locality year after year, they apparently use a nest only one season. This seemed proven by the nicely graduated series of groups of nests which we found, each one of which, beginning with those best pre- served, seemed about a year older than the other, and by the fact that the birds were building fresh nests near numbers of others which were seemingly as good as new. The thousands of nests seen were built of mud, which the nests in process of construction showed was scooped up from about their base. In fact it is difficult to conceive of a flamingo carrying mud. In selecting a nesting site, therefore, the bird is governed by the condi- tion of the ground, which, to be serviceable, must be soft and muddy. ‘TT ‘Id Ul UMOYS ST ‘S}SoU Q0N0'Z JUOGB paulB}UOD YOIyA ‘AUOT[OD OATVUD OY] JO MOLA VY “OOGT UL pordnd90 Udeq DABY OF PoAdT[aq AUO[OD B JO WB “SSOONINVIS SO SLSAN | ‘ Panes) 6 lal Valict ‘uewdeyg— E96 ‘Woday ueluOsY}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Chapman. PLATE II. * Se ee FiG. 1.—COLONY OF ABOUT 2,000 FLAMINGO NESTS. A section of this colony is shown in PI. I. Fig. 2.—FLAMINGO NESTS AMONG MANGROVES. Believed to have been occupied in 1901. FIG. 3.—PART OF A FLOCK CONTAINING 37 FLAMINGOES. Photographed with a 14-inch lens at a distance of about 250 yards. Enlarged 4 diameters, (05) FLAMINGOES’ NESTS. 5 For this reason, as I have suggested, the time of the breeding season may be regulated by that of the rainy season; the heavy, tropical downpours not only moistening the earth, but doubtless raising the water sufficiently in this exceedingly low, flat country to slightly flood large areas. While the birds, therefore, must build near, or, indeed, in the water, they guard against complete submergence of their home by building it high enough to protect the egg from possi- ble danger. The popular conception of a flamingo’s nest makes it not more than 6 or 8 inches in diameter at the base, whence it tapers to a truncate, hollowed top nearly 2 feet in height. I saw no nest, how- ever, over 12 inches high, and most of them were not over 8 inches high. ‘The average basal diameter was about 13 inches, that of the top about 10 inches. It is possible that the height of flamingoes’ nests, like that of the mid-chimneys to the burrows of fiddler crabs, may depend upon the amount of rise and fall in the neighboring waters. This is a point to be ascertained by subsequent observations. Flamingoes are wonderful birds. Their brilliant coloring and large size, habit of perching and flying in files, and the openness of the country which they inhabit, all combine to make a flock of flamingoes one of the most remarkable sights in bird life. Indeed, so far as my experience goes, it is the most remarkable sight in bird life. They are very shy and can be approached closely only when they are unaware of your presence. Attempts to use a telephoto lens in photographing birds about 200 yards away failed because of the force of the trade winds over the mangrove flats. Even at this distance the birds are large enough to make a strip of glowing color, in strong contrast to the blue water before and the green mangroves behind them. ‘This is near their danger line, and if one attempts to approach more closely without cover there is a sinuous movement along the whole line as the long, slender necks are raised and the birds regard the cause of their alarm. Soon a murmur of goose-like honkings comes to one’s ear; then the birds begin, in slow and stately fashion, to move away step by step, and if their fears are not allayed the leader will soon spring into the air and, followed by other members of the flock, stretch his long neck and legs to the utmost and begin a flight which usually takes them beyond one’s view. As the birds raise their wings, displaying the bright feathers below, the effect is superb beyond description, the motion showing their plumage to the best possible advantage. It is surprising how far, under the proper light conditions, even a small flock of flamingoes may be seen. Long after one can distinguish the individual in the waving, undulating line of birds, they show pink against the sky like a rapidly moving wisp of cloud which finally dis- solves in space. — 1 s ‘ ° %) - as 7 6 ——— oy > @ , _ ’ . ~ es ah : sis ig UPON MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN RHYNCHOTA AND OTHER NONSOCIAL INSECTS.¢ By G. W. KirKa.py. Since my brief note on this subject (Entom. 1902, vol. xxxv, pp. 319-820) I have seen a lengthy paper by the celebrated J. H. Fabre [5]? on ‘* Pentatomas,” in which he ridicules De Geer’s account, and consigns the whole recital to the limbo of fairy tales. I have therefore looked up the literature of the subject, and have now summarized it, in the hope that some of the readers of The Ento- mologist may be disposed to give the phenomena their attention during the ensuing months. ORDERS OTHER THAN RHYNCHOTA. The earliest reference to parental care in nonsocial insects appears to be that of Goedaert [9], who states that the mole crickets ((@7ry/lot- alpa gryllotalpa Linn.) take particular care of their eggs, raising up the nests in a hot. and dry season so that the young almost touch the surface of the earth, and are thereby cherished by the sun’s heat; con- trariwise they sink the nests down when the air is cold and moist. They also act as unceasing sentinels round the nest. Résel [22] cites the above account, and gives a colored sectional drawing of the nest and eggs. Audouin [1] states that all authors agree in saying that the mole cricket takes the greatest care of its young, but Goedaert is the only author [ can trace who relates his personal observations. The discovery of the maternal solicitude of the earwig (/orficula auricularia Linné) by Frisch [6], confirmed and extended by De Geer [S], Rennie [21], Kirby and Spence [14], Camerano [4], etc., is so well known and authentically established by recent observations, that it is not necessary to dwell uponit. Sharp [23] states that Labidura riparia ‘‘ is said to move its eggs from place to place, so as to keep them in situations favorable for their development,” but I have not been able to trace the original source of this statement. Burr [3] also notes that ‘‘a certian entomologist [Colonel Bingham] once told me that in « Revised by the author from The Entomologist, vol. xxxv1, May, 1903, pp. 118-120. 6 These numbers refer to the bibliography at the close of the paper. 577 Nits) MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. Burma, while sitting round the camp fire one night, they disturbed a large earwig who was guarding a little batch of eggs. Her first care was not for herself, but for her eggs. She showed great concern for their safety.” In the Hymenoptera I do not refer to the well-authenticated instances of maternal providence inthe Sphegide and other families, this notice being confined to actual personal and continuous care. A summary of the former will be found in Sharp [24], page 111... Of the latter there is one instance, viz, Perga lewis’i Westwood, a Tasmanian sawfly. The habits of this tenthredinid were related [16 and 17] by R. H. Lewis, who informs us that the eggs, in number about 80, are placed trans- versely in a longitudinal incision between the two surfaces of a leaf of a species of eucalyptus. On this leaf the mother sits till the eggs are hatched. She follows the larve, ‘‘ sitting with outstretched legs over her brood, preserving them from the heat of the sun, and protecting them from the attacks of parasites and other enemies.” It should be noted, however, that broods accidentally or purposely deprived of the mother appeared to thrive just as well. These observations have been briefly confirmed by Froggatt [7]. In the Coleoptera, the only instances known to me occur in the Scolytide, among the Ambrosia beetles, and a consideration of these scarcely comes within the scope of this notice, since they are not non- social insects. The reader may be referred to Kirby and Spence [14] and Hubbard [25]. Mr. R. South and Mr. L. B. Prout are not aware of any instance among the Lepidoptera, and similar advice has been given me by Mr. G. H. Verrall and Mr. J. E. Collin of the Diptéra and by Mr. W. J. Lucas of the Neuroptera. Research on the literature of the Thy- sanoptera, Anoplura, Thysanura etc., has failed to trace any such records. ; I must here also express my thanks to Messrs. W. F. H. Blandford, C. O. Waterhouse, C. J. Gahan, W. F. Kirby, and Drs. G. Breddin and D. Sharp for information and hints. RHYNCHOTA. The earliest Rhynchotal notice is that of Modeer [18]. In speaking of * Cimex ovatus pallide griseus,” he distinctly affirms that the eggs are laid in June on the common birch, in number from 40 to 50, so that the mother can cover them when she sits over them. She does not abandon them except for brief refreshment, and can not be removed except by superior force. The eggs are hatched at the end of June, and the maternal care is still exercised, for she protects them against the male, whose attacks and the defense of the mother are circumstantially related. The great De Geer [8] confirms and expands the observations under the head of Cimew betule (he gives MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. 579 (. griseus Linné as a synonym!). Boitard [2], in his Curiosités d’Histoire Naturelle—a work unknown to me—embellishes these accounts, according to Fabre [5], by noting that when it rains the mother leads her young under a leaf or under the fork of a branch to shelter them, and covers them with her wings. Montrouzier [19] observed the habits of Oceanian Scutellerinz, a subfamily not closely allied to the Acanthosomatine (in which the birch bug is included). His remarks have been recently translated in The Entomologist [15]. Montrouzier appears to have been unaware of the researches of Modeer and De Geer. Douglas and Scott [20] quote a letter addressed to the former by E. Parfitt, inclosing an adult female and young ones indentified as Acanthosoma griseum. This letter circumstantially verifies De Geer’s observations, which, so Parfitt states, were unknown to the English entomologist. These habits were still further con- firmed in great detail, in three notices [10, 11, and 12], by Hellins, a well-known and most careful observer. Last year I contributed to The Entomologist [15] a translation of Montrouzier’s observations [19], and noted ‘*a species of Spudeus (?)” sent by Doctor Willey from Birara (New Britain), of which I had under my care for study alcoholic specimens apparently confirming the generally accepted opinion. ‘These specimens belong to the Pen- tatomine Coctoteris exiqguus Distant, a determination kindly confirmed for me by the author of the specific name. So far the five original observers—viz, Modeer, De Geer, Mon- trouzier, Parfitt, and Hellins—agree that the female bug does show parental affection during a comparatively considerable period, and the first named declares that this is, in part at least, directed against the assaults of the male; but in 1901 J. H. Fabre—the ‘‘immortal Fabre” of Darwin, and one of the foremost of modern field observers—has published a lengthy document [5], in which he declares De Geer” to be mistaken. The gist of Fabre’s paper is as follows: The vray bug? is rare in Fabre’s neighborhood. He found three or four specimens which’ he placed under a bell jar, but they did not oviposit, though eggs were laid by the green [== Palomena prasinus (Linné)]|, red and black speckled [== Hurydema ornatus (Linné) |, and yellowish [sp. 4];°¢ and Fabre continues: ‘‘In species so closely allied, parental care in one ought, at least in some details, to be discovered also in the others.” It can not be too strongly expressed that the last three are not at all closely related to the gray bug, for the last named belongs to the “The Swedish master and Boitard are the only authors mentioned by Fabre, and he appears to be unaware of the independent observations of Montrouzier, Parfitt, and Hellins. » Elasmostethus griseus (Linné)=Acanthosoma interstinctum of Saunders’s ‘‘ Hemip- tera Heteroptera of the British Isles.’’ ¢ Fabre calls these all ‘‘Pentatoma.”’ 580 MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. Acanthosomatine, the other three to the Pentatomine, subfamilies distinguished apart by considerable and important structural differ- ences. Fabre declares that in these species ‘‘the mother paid no attention to her brood; the last egg laid in its place at the extreme end of the final row she left, careless of the trust; she no longer busied herself with it, and returned no more. If the chances of roaming bring her back, she walks over the heap and passes on, indifferent. * * * This forgetfulness must not be considered as a possible aberration due to captivity. In the full freedom of the fields I have discovered divers broods, among which are found, perhaps, that of the gray bug. Never have I seen the mother mounted over her eggs, as she ought to, if her family required protection as soon as hatched. The mother is of roving inclination and facile flight. Once flown far from the leaf which received the treasure, how, two or three weeks later, will she remember that the hour of exclusion approaches ? How will she rediscover her eggs, and how again distinguish them from those of another mother? It would be incredible—such prowess of memory amid the immensity of the fields. **Never, 1 say, is a mother surprised stationary near the eggs that she has fixed on a leaf, and, more convincing still, the total brood is divided into clutches scattered haphazard, so that the family in its entirety is formed of a number of tribes lodged here, there, and at distances sometimes considerable, but impossible to fix precisely. To rediscover these tribes at time of hatching, earlier or later accord- ing to the date of oviposition or the forwardness of the season, and then to reassemble in one flock from the four corners of the universe all the little ones, so feeble and moving so unsteadily—there are in this evident impossibilities. Suppose that by chance one of the groups is discovered and recognized and that the mother devotes herself to them. The others must in that case be abandoned—and they do not prosper the less. What, then, is the motive for this remarkable maternal zeal with regard ‘to the care of one of the groups when the majority are left? Such singularities inspire mistrust. **De Geer mentions groups of 20. These would certainly not be the complete family, but just a tribe resultant from a partial oviposi- tion. A Pentatoma, smaller than the gray bug, has given me in a single batch more than 100 eggs. A like fecundity ought to be the general rule when the mode of living is the same. Beyond the 20 observed, what became of the others abandoned to themselves? ‘* Despite the respect due to the Swedish savant, the caresses of the mother bug and the unnatural appetites of the father, devouring his little ones, ought to be relegated to the same limbo as the childish tales which encumber history. I have watched in an aviary (voliére) as many hatchings as I wished. The parents were near at hand, under the same roof. What do they all do in the presence of the young? MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. 581 Nothing at all. The fathers do not dash to drain the juices of their brats. Neither do the mothers rush to protect them. One flits about the latticework (treillis) |? metal gauze|, one settles down to refresh- ment at the rosemary, while another walks over the groups of newly hatched youngsters, which he tumbles head over heels, without any bad intention, but without any discretion. ‘The little beggars are so small, so feeble, that, passing by, he grazes them with the end of his foot and overturns them. Like turned turtles, they vainly kick about; no one heeds them. ‘During three months’ assiduous observations I have not noted the slightest appearance of the maternal solicitude so celebrated by the compilers. The newly hatched bugs, packed one against the other, remain stationary for several days on the empty eggs; there they acquire a firmer consistency and brighter coloring. Hunger comes; one of the youngsters leaves the group in search of refreshment; the others follow, happy in their mutual proximity, like sheep at pastur- age; the first in moving sets in motion the whole band, who set out for tender places where they may implant their beaks and imbibe; then they all return to their natal place for repose upon the empty eggs. Expeditions in common are repeated over an increasing radius, till at last, somewhat strengthened, the society separates and breaks up, never to return to its place of birth. Henceforth each one lives in his own way. What, then, would happen if, when the troop moves away, there should encounter them a mother of slow gait, a frequent case among the sedate bugs? The young ones, I suppose, would confi- dently follow this chance leader, as they follow those among them- selves who are the first to take to the road. There would then be some similarity to a hen at the head of her chickens. This casual occurrence would lend an appearance of maternal cares in a stranger heedless of her bundle of brats. **The good De Geer appears to me to have been duped in some such manner; a little color, involuntarily embellished, has completed the tableau; and then are vaunted in books the family virtues of the gray bug.” Fabre has been led into error, first, by his ignorance of systematic rhynchotology—as I have previously remarked, the form of bug which De Geer had under observation belongs to a subfamily not closely allied to that embracing the bugs watched by Fabre; secondly, by his negligence of previous literature, except that of De Geer (and inci-_ dentally Modeer) and Boitard; yet we have an independent observer, Montrouzier, ignorant, apparently, of all previous similar records, who notes a like habit in yet another subfamily, more remote still from either, and that almost at the antipodes of Europe. Moreover, De Geer’s accounts are explicitly corroborated by two competent field entomologists whose integrity and capacity have never before been 582 MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. questioned, and one of these (Parfitt) was by his own account ignorant of any literature on the subject. So that Fabre’s gibe at messieurs the compilers has failed to score. Boitard’s account may perhaps be treated a little incredulously, and possibly also Modeer’s interpretation of the paternal gymnastics. In my opinion, at least, it will be neces- sary to have much more direct refutation of De Geer, Hellins, and Parfitt than the observations of even Fabre on species of another subfamily. | With regard to Fabre’s asseveration that he never once found a female ‘*Pentatoma” stationary near the eggs, this is cireumstan- tially contradicted by the precise observations of Hellins and Parfitt in Elasmostethus. Neither has the French author proved his theory, upon which he establishes so large a part of his assumptions, that the Pentatomide (or at least some of them) oviposit in more than one place. It is to be regretted that be did not examine the oviducts of one of the females observed by him. Moreover, it does not appear that Fabre marked any of the female Pentatominz observed by him so as to recognize them in the event of any ‘‘chance” returns to the original spot. Fabre also says, ‘* A Pentatoma smaller than the gray bug has given me in a single batch more than 100 eggs,” and insists therefore that De Geer’s record of 20 in the gray bug could have been only a partial laying! This confines the subject entirely to the Rhynchota; now we have also, as noted above at the beginning of this paper, records of the devotion of the mother earwig (and of more species than one), records as well authenticated as such could well be, not only in written litera- ture, but from living observers who have not considered it worth while to register what has always appeared as a thoroughly firmly founded fact. The occurrence in Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa seems also authentic, while the recent confirmation by Froggatt, after seventy years’ interval, of Lewis’s observations on Perga lewis establishes this remarkable case beyond doubt, and it is especially interesting to note that in other Australian species of the same genus entirely differ- ent larval habits are known to obtain; the latter is another argument against Fabre. What is there of incredibility in the whole recital ? What a limited demonstration of affection, or at least of intelligent power, compared with that displaved by the social Hymenoptera and Neuroptera! Fabre argues as if parental solicitude and the sense of direction were unknown among the insecta, and his sneer at the inad- equacy of the memory of the mother bug to rediscover the original place of oviposition is remarkable enough from the historian of the habits of the Hymenoptera. To conclude, Fabre may prove to be right, and Goedaert, Frisch, Modeer, De Geer, Kirby and Spence, Rennie, Montrouzier, Boitard, Lewis, Parfitt, Hellins, Camerano, Froggatt, and Bingham, all, to a MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. 583 man, wrong; but even if so, Fabre has proved nothing at present beyond the fact that the females of two or three species of Pentatom- ine, not particularly closely observed by previous authors, did not manifest any regard for their progeny during his observations. It is perhaps not the ‘*good De Geer” who ‘*has been duped,” but Fabre, who has been led astray by his ignorance of the systematics and bibli- ography of the Rhynchota. AppENDuM (March 30, 1904).—Since the above was published vari- ous confirmatory evidences in support of my views have been found. H. Schouteden [26] has noticed my paper at some length and men- tions two papers previously unknown to me. He further relates an sarly observation of his own on the gray bug in Belgium, where he noted a female brooding over its eggs and holding on tightly, without emitting any odor, when seized in the fingers. Reiber and Puton [27] cite the case of a female of the same ‘sit- ting on its freshly emerged young ones on a birch leaf.” The Abbé Pierre [28] also cites ne experiences of this species, confirming the foregoing accounts. Miss Murtfeldt [29] describes the devotion of a membracine, Anty/ia@ senuata, from Central Missouri, feeding chiefly on Ambroséa (ragweed). Her observations on this H/omopteron entirely accord with the previous recitals. Finally, my friend Mr. E. E. Green writes to me from Peradeniya, Ceylon (May 29,1903). I take the liberty of quoting his words: ‘*The female of feonil of the leaf-haunting reduviids—e. ¢., Hndochus cing- alensis and allied forms—remain near their egg clusters until these are hatched. The young are at first gregarious, and the parent may usually be seen on the same leaf, watching over them like a hen with her chicks. It seems possible that she may catch insects to provide them with food, but I have no evidence of this.” With regard to other insects, Barrett [30] writes: *‘The female of the northern mole cricket (Gryllotalpa borealis) is said to care for her young until they reach the second molt.” No reference is given. Rennie [31] states that the eggs and young of the mole cricket ( Gry/- lotalpa gryllotalpa) are *‘exposed to depredation, and particularly to the ravages of a black beetle who burrows in similar localities. The mother insect, accordingly, does not think her nest secure till she has defended it, like a fortified town, with labyrinths, intrenchments, ram- parts, and covert ways. In some part of these outworks she stations herself as an advance guard, and when the beetle ventures within her circumvallations she pounces upon him and kills him.” The raising of the nests by Gryllotalpa is also mentioned by 8. S. Rathvon. (Ento- mology in Rep. Coma. - Agr. U.S. for 1862 (pub. Is63); P- 379.) « Unfortunate ae written Hutilia TheGeanle sm 1903 38 584 MATERNAL SOLICITUDE IN INSECTS. Outside Hexapodous Arthropoda, Mr. R. C. L. Perkins informs me that the myriapod Scolopendrella (lucasi?) may often be seen in the Hawaiian Isles, coiled round its young, protecting them; while Hux- ley (Introduction to the Study of Zoology, Internat. Sci. Series, XXvul, pp. 42 and 351-2) discusses the affection of certain crustacea for their young. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ORIGINAL PAPERS, &C. [1] 1885.—J. V. AupouIN, Historie naturelle des Insectes, ix, p. 196. (Quotes Goedaert on the mole-cricket. ) [2] 1836.—P. BorrarD, ‘‘ Etudes d’ Historie: Réalités fantastiques.’’ See Der Zoologische Garten, 1901, p. 166 et seq. 606 MUSK OXEN IN CAPTIVITY. sary, as in the spring of 1903 the chamois attacked his companion so boldly and vigorously that he broke off the tips of both horns, and yet he is just as warlike as ever. Originally the ground within the inclosure was partly overgrown with grass and partly covered with gravel. The hoofs of the musk ox were not sufficiently worn upon this soft ground, and they had to be cut and trimmed. The last cutting took place on September 24, 1901, when the animal was about sixteen months old. Each time he had to be bound and thrown down, and as the projecting horns might be injured and such violent measures also made the animal yet more untamable, quite sharp stones were spread upon the surface of the inclosure in order to make it similar to that of east Greenland. This was apparently a good method, for, since then, the hoofs have been worn off sufficiently and in a natural manner by daily moving about upon the hard ground. Our pictures (pl. rv, figs. 1, 2) show the last cutting, September 24, 1901. In the first picture the musk ox is seen with a noose about his nose and his legs tied together. A keeper holds his head down by grasping his right horn. To the left stands Professor Sand, of the veterinary school, with a knife in his hand. In fig. 2 the professor is seen bending over the animal while busy cutting the hoofs. The food of the musk ox consists of ground oats and wheat bran, with a very little white bread cut in pieces, besides hay (grass in sum- mer) and willow and elm branches throughout the year. He eats not only the leaves, but is especially fond of the bark, which he strips from even quite small branches, less than a centimeter in diameter. Tannic acid is as necessary for the digestion of the musk ox as it is for the moose. His droppings are globular, like those of deer, goats, and sheep. Che quantity of food taken can not be determined because the chamois and the goat are fed together with him. Yet he takes care to preserve for himself his favorite parts—that is to say, the branches. The musk ox does not drink much and is in the habit of putting his feet into the drinking water; possibly inherited from a habit of cool- ing the feet in melting snow water. On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean the famous arctic explorer Greely captured 4 musk calves as long ago as 1881-1884, at Lady Franklin Bay north of Great Bear Sea. It was, however, impossible for him to provide food for them and take them with him. In March, 1898, Mr. C. J. Jones fitted out a small expedition to the’ barren lands, a portion of arctic North America, for the purpose of capturing musk calves. He succeeded in taking 5 of them, which he and his white companions drove southward. For two days and two nights they were obstinately pursued by arctic wolves, who wished to snatch their booty from them. When at last they got rid of the Smithsonian Report, 1903 —Schiott. PLATE Ill. Fia. 7.—Musk OX IN COPENHAGEN, 3 YEARS OLD, JUNE, 1903. Fig. 8.—YAK COW AND CALF. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Schiott. PLATE IV. Fi@. 9.—PREPARING TO CUT HOOFS OF MUSK Ox IN COPENHAGEN, SEPTEMBER 24,1901. FIG. 11.—TWO-YEAR-OLD Musk Ox, NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, AUGUST, 1902. MUSK OXEN IN CAPTIVITY. 607 wolves they fell asleep, exhausted, and when they awoke they found that some Indians had killed all their calves, having the superstitious fear that all the musk oxen would leave the country, following after their stolen comrades. These two fruitless attempts had considerably diminished the interest taken by the Yankees in these animals when it was again excited by the news of the fortunate capture made by the Norwegians. During the winter of 1900-1, an American whaler, Capt.. H. H. Bodtish, was forced to pass the winter on the North American coast of the Arctic Ocean. In March, 1901, he sent ashore a part of his force, accompanied by Eskimo hunters. Ata distance of 30 English miles from the coast they encountered a herd of musk oxen with 4 calves. They succeeded in capturing all 4, but unfortunately 2 of them were almost immediately killed by the sledge dogs. The two surviving ones were tied fast upon two sledges, taken to the coast and got safely on board ship. The dogs succeeded, however, in killing still another and only the last one, a heifer calf, survived. It was fed with ship’s biscuit, willow twigs, and grass collected on the coast, and at last it was safely brought to San Francisco. The owner asked $3,000 for it (about 11,000 kroner or 12,000 marks), but found no purchaser at that high price. Concerning this matter so many telegrams were exchanged that the shares of the Western Union Telegraph Company straight- way rose in value! Finally a wealthy man purchased the calf and pre- sented it to the New York Zoological Park. On March 12, 1902, one year after it was taken, it arrived there. A short time after it was photographed, and our picture shows how it appeared when about 2 years old. Its horns then measured 10 inches (24 centimeters) taken along the curvature. It is remarkable that this cow, taken from the western part of the continent, has itself a light spot upon its forehead, the specific charac- ter that Lydekker has assigned to the so-called Ovbos ward, and that is especially thought to distinguish the musk oxen of east Greenland from those of the continent, which are not usually so marked. This specific character does not, therefore, appear to be constant. It has long been known that the size and character of the light spots on the foreheads and backs of individuals of the same region and the same age are subject to much variation. This has already been placed beyond doubt by the experienced Danish zoologist, Herluf Winge, in his excellent work on the mammals of Greenland. In connection with this there may also be mentioned Dr. J. A. Allen’s article in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. I am sorry to say that the New York Zoological Park did not long enjoy this rare animal. In August he was taken with an inflammation 608 MUSK OXEN IN CAPTIVITY. of the lungs, and, after an illness of a week, died in spite of all the efforts of the veterinary surgeons. A month later Peary brought to the park a small calf which he had captured in northeast Greenland. It died three weeks afterwards because of an abscess on the back, which had doubtless arisen from a small wound unobserved under the thick fur. We have here a case similar to that of one of the calves brought to Jemtland in 1900. But our antipodes on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean may con- sole themselves with the reflection that they possess the only musk oxen that are at present living ina wild state upon the globe. We rightly say at present, for how long will this self-supporting animal be able to prolong its life and propagate its race, even in the desolate and inhospitable regions to which it has been driven? How long, indeed? The insatiable enemies of the musk ox, the arctic wolf and man—the most ravening wolf of all creation—follow on his tracks and incessantly thin his ranks. Unfortunately, the ice does not always protect the east coast of Greenland against the landing of hunters as well as it did in 1901 and 1902. We hope that the attempts at acclimatization which are now being made in Sweden, at the instance of Professor Nathorst, will be crowned with success. That excellent naturalist and unwearied arctic explorer conceived the idea that the musk ox might be domesticated and his extraordinarily fine wool utilized. The impetuous temper of the animal will, however, probably make such an undertaking very onerous; at any rate, much patience and the work of several genera- tions will be required for its success. Posrscript.—Professor Nathorst states, April 7, 1904, that of the pair caught by Kolthoff the cow died in the autumn of 1903 of a liver complaint (intestinal worms), upon which the bull was taken to Jemtland to be bred swith the cow left there. Together with this decrease of the number of musk oxen in Europe we can report an aug- mentation, as the Norwegians have been successfulagain. Capt. Johan Thjeldson, of the steamer Laura, belonging to Magnus K. Gicever, brought home to Tromsé at the end of August, 1903, 5 live musk calves. These were all caught in east Greenland. The first one was caught in the Musk Ox Bay, where Kolthoff in 1900 had found a num- ber of oxen, and where now they met with only half a score. At Cape Graah they came across a flock with 3 calves. Having destroyed the adult animals, they caught the calves in nets. One of them, however, had been grazed in the belly and died a few days after. At Mackenzie Bay they caught 2 more calves. These 5 animals (1 bull and 4 heifers) were placed in a paddock at Tromsé6. One of them was smaller than the others and rather delicate. She died in November, whereas the others were getting on well. Unfortunately, one of the heifers strangled itself later on in an attempt to get out of the paddock. The young MUSK OXEN IN CAPTIVITY. 609 bull’s legs are said to be bad, possibly from rheumatism, owing to the moist climate. The musk ox in Copenhagen also suffered from that the first autumn. He is getting on splendidly, but has not shown the slightest sign of interest in any of the females (yak cow and Frisian sheep) proffered him. One of the surviving heifers from Tromsé is now (July 15, 1904) in the garden at Copenhagen, having been secured at a cost of 3,000 kroner, so that at present the garden has the unique distinction of possessing a pair of these animals. Unfortunately the female is yet too young for breeding. The other heifer is in the zoological garden at Hamburg. From recent information it appears that there remains in Sweden but one specimen, a cow born in 1900, and that the bull in Norway has also succumbed. FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA.¢ By O. F. Herz. [About the middle of April, 1901, the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg was informed by V. N. Skripitsin, governor of Yakutsk, of the discovery of a mammoth in an almost perfect state of preservation frozen in the cliff along the river Berezovka, the right tributary of the river Kolyma, about 200 miles northeast of Sredne- Kolymsk (about 800 miles westward of Bering Strait and some 60 miles within the Arctic Circle). Thanks to the courtesy of Finance Minister Witte, 16,300 rubles were assigned for the prompt dispatch of an expedition to examine and secure this valuable find. O. F. Herz, a zoologist of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, was appointed chief of the expedition; E. V. Pfizenmeyer, a zoological preparator of the same institution, and D. P. Sevastianoff, a geolog- ical student of the Yuryevck University, his assistants. The expedi- tion started from St. Petersburg on May 3, 1901, and its chief reached the mammoth region on September 9. On August 28 the expedition was joined by Mr. Horn, a police official from Sredne-Kolymsk. | August 31-September 5.—Upon reaching Mysova, on the Kolyma River, I was informed that the Cossack Yavlovski had but a few days previously gone to the mammoth region, about 85 miles distant, hav- ing understood that the academy expedition would not reach Sredne- Kolymsk before winter, and that upon his return, in three or four days, I should be able to continue the journey. Yavlovski arrived on September 3, and though the tidings he bronght were somewhat dis- couraging, there was yet hope for success. He had intended to visit the mammoth region in the spring, but had been hindered by serious illness, from which he only recently recovered. Were it not for this mishap he would have covered the find with stones and earth, and thus prevented it from injury by rain and beasts of prey. Owing to «Extracts translated from report of O. F. Herz, chief of the expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, to the river Berezovka for excaya- tion of frozen mammoth. Entire report in Russian in Bulletin of the Imperial Academy, St. Petersburg, April, 1902 (fifth series, vol. xv1, No. 4). All dates are in old style. 611 GED FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. unfortunate circumstances, Yavlovski tells me that rains during the summer had washed a mass of earth down the slope in which the mam- moth lies, so that bones were torn from the hind part of the body, the entire back was exposed, and most of the head skin was devoured by bears and wolves. At the first examination the trunk was already gone. Yayloyski reported that he had collected all the bones lying about, placed them on top of the animal, and covered all with earth and stones, so that no more damage would be likely to result before my arrival. As he saw no hair or wool on the exposed parts, he thought that either there had been none or else it had been washed away by the rains. I am very sorry I could not see the Lamut, S. Tarabykin, who dis- covered the mammoth, but he was absent at this time. I can therefore give the details of the discovery only as related to me, as follows, by Yavlovski: About the middle of August, 1900, while the Lamut Tarabykin was chasing a deer, he found a mammoth’s tusk, weighing about 166 English pounds, a little above the present find, and continu- ing the search soon discovered the well-preserved head of a second mammoth protruding from the ground, upon which, however, there was but one tusk. On account of the superstitious fear that the Lamuts have of whole mammoth bodies, whose excavation they believe produces sickness, Tarabykin returned to his tent, about 15 miles dis- tant, and told of his discovery to the two Lamuts, M. Tapchin and V. Dietkovy. These two men visited me twice at the place of discovery, and after persistent inquiry informed me that at the time of finding the animal the skin upon its head had already partly decayed, and that there was no trunk, or ‘‘ nose,” as they described it. The Lamuts said that at the part where they chopped off the tusk, on the day fol- lowing the discovery, there was left only a small piece of decayed skin. They believed that the head had been exposed for about a year before they found it, but insisted that they had never seen it before, as it was the first time they had visited the place, and that in general they had never before in their lives seen a mammoth. We must observe that the Lamut Tapchin was over 90 years old. At the end of August, 1900, all three Lamuts repaired to Kolyma, where they sold the two tusks to Yavlovski, telling him that the smaller tusk, weighing a little over 63 pounds, belonged to a mam- moth which was probably still in the ground in a good state of preservation, but which they dared not touch. The Cossack Yay- lovski, being the more intelligent man, understood the importance of this discovery and agreed to meet them on the 1st of November and go with them to see the mammoth. He told the Lamuts that if what they related was true he would report it to the Emperor, which might result in the fitting out of an expedition to transport the entire animal to St. Petersburg. This satisfied the Lamuts, but it is to be regretted FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 613 that Yavlovski did not then instruct them to cover the mammoth with earth. Early in November, 1900, Yavlovski, accompanied by the Lamuts, visited the mammoth. He cuta piece of skin from the head, a similar piece from the left thigh, and secured a small portion of the stomach, with its contents, and brought these, together with the tusk, to Sredne-Kolymsk as proofs of the discovery, giving them to the assist- ant police commissioner, N. L. Horn, who decided to convince himself of the importance of the find and then to report the matter to the governor of Yakutsk. The parts mentioned were therefore forwarded to the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, where they were due after our departure. “In the middle of December, Horn and Yavlovski together examined the mammoth and reported the matter to the governor of Yakutsk, who in turn forwarded Horn’s report to St. Petersburg. September 11, 1901.—It was so warm to-day that the soil became loose and easily handled, and I was able to begin the work of excava- tion. The mammoth is located a third of a mile from our tents and 35 meters above the present level of the water, on the left bank of the river Berezovka. The body lies in a cliff that faces east and extends fora mile in a semicircle. The demolished portion of the cliff inclines toward the river at an angle of 35° from the upper layer of earth, over which extend the ‘‘taiga,” or Siberian marshy forest. The surface of the cliff is 113 meters wide and 55 meters high. The body of the mammoth is 62 meters back from the bank of the river. According to measurements I took in different places the upper strata of earth, covered with a layer of moss, is 30 to 52 centimeters thick. Beneath this isa loamy mass, one-third loam and two-thirds earth, averaging 2 meters in thickness, though in some places more than 4 meters thick, mixed with stones, roots, and pieces of wood, with lamellar plates of ice, 15 to 18 centimeters thick, stretching through the mass. Underneath this alluvial layer there is a vertical wall of ice, which stands free for a distance of 5 meters, and in some places even 7 meters above the mammoth. This ice wall probably inclines to the river at the same angle as the entire cliff region. I intend to investigate this wall later. Upon this supposed ice incline are huge shapeless earth masses and mounds, evidently moved downward dur- ing heavy rains by the gradual thawing of the ice wall, as well as by the water which falls from the upper ‘‘taiga” and from the hill, 120 meters high, that rises in the rear of the wall about a sixth of a mile from the river bank. According to the Lamut natives of the region, the head of the mammoth was exposed two years ago by this down- ward movement, or by the breaking away of a considerable mass of earth; the rest of the body was exposed only at the end of August, 1900. 614 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. After taking some pictures I commenced to open up the mammoth mound. The skull was soon exposed. Unfortunately most of the head skin had been devoured by carnivorous animals during the past summer. To my greatest surprise I found well-preserved food frag- ments between the teeth, which serves as proof that our mammoth, after a short death struggle, died in this very position. The fact that what we found was food and not substance carried in recently was later proved by comparing it with the stomach contents. Upon the left half of the bone between the jaws I could see marks of the ax which the Lamuts used in chopping off thetusk, and could thus determine definitely that the tusk that I had seen in Sredne- Kolymsk was from this particular mammoth, for I had carefully measured and studied the cuts upon it. The right tusk evidently had fallen out long ago, for I could find no traces of its forced severance from ‘the head. The lower jaw. which was fast in the ground, lay upon a large piece of skin, which appeared later to belong to the upper part of the chest. I first gave orders to carefully remove the mound of earth about the mammoth, beginning with the head. At a depth of 68 centi- meters we found the left fore leg, still covered with hair on all sides up to the humerus. The epidermis had apparently completely rotted, but on account of the moist earth the hair still clung to the skin. In a frozen condition we may perhaps succeed in getting it to St. Petersburg. So far as a preliminary examination can determine, the hair on the tipper part of the left fore leg consists of a yellowish-brown crumpled under coat 25 to 30 centimeters long, with a thi¢k upper bristle-like coat, the hairs of which have ragged ends, are rust-brown, and 10 to 12 centimeters long. The left fore leg is bent, so that it is evident that the mammoth tried to crawl out of the pit or crevice into which he probably fell, but apparently he was so badly injured by the fall that he could not free himself. Further excavation exposed also the right fore leg, which had become turned almost horizontally under the abdomen during the animal’s fall. Only a very insignificant portion of the upper bristly coat was preserved upon this leg, while the yellowish-brown under coat was preserved in several places. Upon the left hind leg I also found portions of decayed flesh, in which the muscular bundles were easily discernible. The stench emitted by this extremity was unbear- able, so that it was necessary to stop work every minute. A thorough washing failed to remove the horrible smell from our hands, and yet we were obliged to perform part of our task with bare hands. September 12.—After we removed the earth from under the left leg the thick hair on the under side came to view, especially that on the foot joint. Some of this hair fell off with the earth, but the larger “GNNOY SVM HLOWWYV|A) SHL SYSHM “YSAIY VNAOSSYAG SHL AO MNVG 3HL NO T1IVAA JO ‘| aLV1d ‘ZI9H—' E061 ‘Hoday ueiuosyyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Herz. PLATE II. o¥, Gavin. “wee THE POSITION OF THE BODY OF THE MAMMOTH (HEAD AND ForRE LEGS) ON THE CLIFF. FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 615 part will be saved by bandages. In the midst of the yellowish-brown under wool, which in color resembles the summer coat of a young camel, there are very thickly set hairs of the bristly coat 10 to 12 centimeters long. The color of this hair on the under side of the leg may best be described as roan, while that on the outer and inner side up to the middle of the forearm is dark brown, somewhat lighter at the ends. Five hoof-shaped blunt nails could also be seen at the end of the digits. The wool of the left hind leg, varying in color from rust-brown to roan, was not so thick as upon the fore leg, judging by the loosened remains of the hair, and the yellowish-brown under coat was here a little shorter. The length of the ragged end hairs varies from 4 to 12 centimeters. The roots of the hair had rotted away together with the epiderimis. After midday we dug away the mound of earth to a depth of 2.4 meters on the right side of the mammoth. In the mound, lying between the upper layer of earth and the vertical ice wall, roots and other parts of trees and also bowlders were found lodged. Under this layer of earth, 24 meters thick, I first struck water ice 18 centi- meters thick, caused by a thaw; then a thin layer of earth; under this again another layer of ice, and then the right fore leg of the mammoth came to view. The wool that had probably covered the upper side of this leg was entirely gone, most likely torn away by the sliding masses of ice and earth. The same was true of the wool on the other sides of the animal. The right fore leg was so placed as to indicate that the mammoth after falling had supported himself on this leg while attempting to step forward with the left one. We concluded that while in this stand- ing position he became exhausted and died on this very spot, and that he had by no means been washed there by the water from elsewhere. The presence of a thick wool shows that the animal was well adapted to endure cold, and it is improbable that he died from hunger, for a large quantity of fragments of food was in his stomach. His head faces south. September 13.—To-day we took photographs. I searched the vicinity for bones of other animals and found horns of the northern deer lying about everywhere. September 14.—In an effort to find remnants of the trunk, I ordered that the mound be opened up farther south and southeastward, but I did not find them. This part was no doubt exposed before the rest and had long ago either decayed or been devoured. I examined every shovelful of earth, but I found only indefinite fragments of very brit- tle hair, and that was all. A bone found 1.82 meters to the south of the right cavity was sub- sequently determined to be a part of the skull of a northern deer, sm 1903 40) 616 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. After dinner I began clearing the ice away from the right side. Near the outside of the right fore leg the ice was brownish in color, with bubbles, and 23 centimeters thick, and 27 centimeters thick over the sole of the right fore foot, which also faced the south, as did the left hind leg. Beneath both legs there was a layer of ice 3 centimeters thick, which, after the final loosening of the animal, was found to extend beneath the entire body. From the right hind leg northward, in the direction of the highland, the ice ran thicker, being at first 54, centimeters, while 86 centimeters from the sole it was 71 centimeters thick; then came the earth layer. The ice layer, 71 centimeters at its thickest part, extends to the middle of the right side of the abdomen, where it becomes 10 centimeters thick. A very interesting discovery was made at a distance of 13 centime- ters from the upper edge of the sole of the right hind foot, namely, the very hairy end of the tail, which was subsequently thawed out and examined. (See September 21.) September 15.-—The snow has completely disappeared off the cliff. I stopped further excavation, however, in order to resume it when my companions, who were left behind, shall arrive and Mr. Sevas- tianoff can make the geological survey. In order to be able to dis- member the mammoth after severe cold weather has set in, I am dis- posed to build over the animal a structure that can be heated, and for this purpose I will order, one of these days, the cutting and planing of timber. Meanwhile I covered the animal with tarpaulin to protect it from possible snowing under. September 16.—During clear weather I made a trip to the top of the hill eastward of here and brought from there some specimens of mountain flora. I append a sketch of the Berezovka as seen from there. September 17.—The cliff region extends along the loop made by the Berezovka and along the deep channel of this river a half mile farther south, where it gradually becomes lower. During spring high tide masses of earth are detached from the cliff. Further geological research will determine how the cliff region was formed, and yet, although I am not a geologist, I regard it my duty to here express my personal views. According to my opinion, the entire cliff region rests upon a glacier, which was disintegrating and in which there were deep crevices. The water that flowed down from the **taiga,” or from the neighboring hills, mixed with earth, stones, and pieces of wood, gradually filled these crevices. The whole was later covered with a layer of soil, upon which a rich flora doubtless devel- oped that served as excellent food for mammoths and other animals. Whether this flora was identical with the present flora can be deter- mined only when the food fragments found in the mouth and stomach of the mammoth shall have been examined and compared with the NOILVAVOXY AVILYVd YSLIY HLOWNVIN SHL 4O MGSIA AGIS "HHI AaLV1d ‘ZIQGH— E061 ‘Moday uRluosyyWS “LSVQ FHL WOYS MAIA ACIS ‘NOILVAVOXA AVILYVd YS14Y HLOWWY|) SHL ‘A| alvid ‘ZI2H—' E061 ‘oday uRIUOSsY}ILUS FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 617 plants I collected on the cliff. The upper layer of earth was at that time probably not yet everywhere firm enough to support the weight of mammoths, and. probably our specimen broke through into a erevice, which would account for his position and for the fracture of such heavy bones as the pelvis and the right forearm. After falling, 0 yy aut Symvount 1 er, 2 _ if ort Fit § Pohmasny 3 Feomirny & ae ge ‘ 5 ak 2 7uk S . ee AN *% Hi ab ae 5: ‘< Fic. 1.—Map of the region where the mammoth was found. 1. The river Kolyma. 2. The settle- ment of Mysova. 38. The river Mysovka. 4. Asmall stream. 5. First night quarters. 6. Mount Blindo. 7. Hill, 420 meters above sea level. 8. Second night quarters. 9. Hill, 375 meters above sea level. 10. Third and fourth night quarters. 11. River Beresovka. 12. River Siver. 13. Place of finding the mammoth. 14. River Kuchurata. 2-13. Route from Mysoya to the place of finding the mammoth—about 85 miles. The dotted line marks the return route. the mammoth no doubt tried to crawl out, the position of both fore legs being peculiarly like that of an animal making such effort, but the injuries were so serious that his strength gave way and he soon perished. The pit, 4 meters square, dug with the spade after the mammoth was removed, showed that the ice wall must be quite deep, 618 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. probably reaching below the channel of the river. Ata depth of 1.7 meters in this pit I found ice similar to that of the upper part of the ice wall. About 100 meters north and even lower than the mammoth’s grave there is an ice cliff covered by a layer of earth 25 meters thick and structurally identical with the upper wall. The exposed ice is brown- ish earthy in color and contains numerous air bubbles, some of them elongate, averaging 2 to 5 millimeters in length; others spherical, averaging 1} to 2 millimeters in diameter. Among the bubbles, which are often connected, there are thin layers of sand or clay that in places form small lumps. Deeper down in the cliff the ice becomes more solid and transparent, in some places entirely white and brittle. After remaining exposed to the air even fora short time this ice again assumes a'yellowish-brown color and then looks like the old ice. The ice, on the other hand, which is formed from melted ice and snow is always transparent, white, and hard, and on account of the longer vertical air bubbles, which attain a length of over 20 millimeters, assumes a streaked appearance. That the ice wall was formed from snow I regard as unlikely, because the entire mountain faces directly east, and throughout sum- mer is subjected to the sun’s rays to such an extent that a considerable portion of the snow must have been melted by these rays as well as by the heated mass of stones of the neighboring mountain crest. Do we not see here before us primitive or, as Baron Toll puts it, stone ice, which resulted from the previous glacial period It is difficult to presume here the formation of a glacier valley that could have attained a height of 50 meters, for such a damming of the water as would cause the formation of a valley can not be admitted when the depth of the Berezovka is taken into consideration. September 18.—To-day we moved from the tents into the new winter house, built under my instructions in the woods, in a place pro- tected from the northern winds. Toward evening we succeeded in establishing ourselves and felt quite comfortable, supping near the fireplace in a well-warmed room. September 19.—In several pits in the earth I found well-preserved parts of Betula nana, which no longer grows upon elevated places, though in well-protected spots one occasionally finds stems about as thick as a man’s arm. The timber asssigned for the building of a house over the mammoth is already cut and prepared and we can commence putting it up as soon as our fellow-travelers arrive. Despite the fact that the mammoth is in a frozen condition, the stench emitted is very disagreeable. September 20.—At the exact hour of my prediction Mr. Pfizenmeyer arrived this afternoon with the rest of the transport equipment. To HL33a, YVIOW SJHL NASML3G (/) SLNVNWAY GOO4 HLIM HLOWWV|A) ZHL SO TINS a “A aLvid ‘Z19H— ' E061 HodsaYy UBIUOSUILUS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Herz. PLATE VI. LEFT FOR SOOT OF MAMMOTH. Smithsonian Repert, 1903.—Herz. PLATE VII. Fig. 1.—RIGHT HINDFOOT OF MAMMOTH. Fig. 2.—LEFT FOREFOOT OF MAMMOTH. FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 619 my surprise, Mr. Sevastianoff was not with him, as he returned from Mysova to Sredne-Kolymsk, together with Mr. Horn. September 21.—To-day, in the winter house, we. began to thaw out the tail end, which we found on the 14th instant, but soon stopped the work as all the hair threatened to fall off. This tail end is 22 centi- meters long and the hairs at the extremity, penetrating an icy-earth mass, are 10 centimeters long. The hairs stand in bunches around the end of the tail. When warmed, however, these separate from the skin, together with the epidermis, only at the very end. Part of the hair is still fast in the skin. The hairs on the basal end of the tail and a little farther down are dirty yellow ocher in color, while those at the distal end are black. The thin ends of the hair are partly broken off. The hairs at the middle of the tail end are a very few centimeters longer than the others, and their color is ocher at the base, then black, and at the very end passes into whitish. September 25.—Vhe building over the mammoth is fast advancing toward completion. As we proposed to build this structure below the upper wall of the skull, we removed the latter, after which we could take out the remnants of food from between the molars on the left side. These remnants appear masticated and apparently do not contain parts of pine needles or larch, but only fragments of various grasses. The imprint of the tooth crenations is well preserved upon the food bits. There is also a small quantity of food upon the well- preserved tongue, but I can secure this only when the lower jaw is removed. The most devoted mother could not carry her child more carefully than I carried these fragments of antediluvial fauna to our winter hut. When the Lamuts discovered the mammoth they could not see the fragments of food, for the lower jaw was then still in the ground. This was confirmed by Tarabykin’s companions, whom I questioned closely on this point. September 26.—To-day 1 took the principal measurements of the mammoth as they are given in the accompanying drawings. I also collected the plants that are partly under the snow. September 28.—TYo-day we finished the roof of the house over the mammoth. September 30.—To-day we made the first experiments in heating the house, and the arrangement appears to be excellent. However, we have yet to build a wooden partition, so that the animal may not be exposed directly to the fire, however low it may be. But in order that the mammoth should not freeze it is necessary to keep a steady fire day and night. October 1.—As it was found too dark in the house, a second open- ing was made near the door. To serve as window panes we placed pieces of ice in both openings and hung an elk’s skin over the door. 620 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. October 2.—We began this day to clear the earth away from the occiput and back. Doing this we exposed several broken ribs. We also dug up several lumbar vertebree which had been torn out by wild beasts or else forced out by the sliding earth. Under the right middle part of the abdomen, which was still covered with earth, we found a yellowish-brown underwool 20 to 30 centi- meters long, which, however, was so crumpled and mixed with earth that we saved only a small portion of it. We also collected and deposited in a bag the underwool and bristles from the right cheek. The latter are 20 centimeters long and-broken N W E S 42 § ee SS) ‘ih NS TN i Fic. 2.—View of mammoth from the South, Sept. 25, 1901, distance 4.5 meters. a—b=1.29 M.; e—d=0.52 M.; e—f=0.28M.; b—g=0.44 Mm. (sole of foot); h—i=0.37 m. (sole of foot). 1. The left foreleg and hair. 2. The left hind leg. 3. Right fore leg. 4. Right hind leg. 5. Left tooth cavity. 6. Right tooth cavity. 7. Ax incision. 8. Part of cheek skin. 9. Eye. 10. Under skull epidermis. 11. Skin. off at the ends; the color varies from black to pale blonde; the black hairs predominate, and are lighter toward the ends. October 3.—After removing the last layer of earth from the back, the remains of food in the stomach were exposed. The latter was badly decayed. We could not continue our work here owing to the solidly frozen condition of everything. After dinner we removed the right side of the abdomen in order to permit the access of heat from the eee into the interior of the body. October 4.—Before noon we removed the left shoulder blade and FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 621 part of the ribs, and then cleaned part of the stomach, which contained an immense quantity of food remnants. The walls of the stomach first exposed were dark coffee-brown, almost black in color, and were badly decayed and torn, even where they were not injured mechan- ically. In the afternoon we severed the left fore leg between the shoulder and forearm in hopes of saving the wool, which still clung to the leg, and which might have fallen away during subsequent thawing. Besides, this amputation was made necessary by the left side of the abdomen. October 5.—To-day we first skinned the left side and exposed several ribs, which were mostly very well preserved. The stomach with its contents is becoming more and more exposed, while the other organs are destroyed. Then we skinned the head, of which the following parts were preserved: The cheeks, the right eyelid with the deep eye- lash fold, part of the skin from the sinciput, three-fourths of the upper lip, and the very well-preserved under lip. This latter was also beset by scattered spines or bristles, which, however, adhered to the ground and were mixed up with other hair, so that it was impossible to pick them out. The skin from the head, which was already decayed in several places, we immediately treated with alum and salt. In the afternoon we removed the left shoulder, upon which, how- ever, we allowed the tendon and muscular fibers to remain. The flesh from under the shoulder, which is fibrous and marbled with fat, is dark red in color and looks as fresh as well-frozen beef or horse meat. It looked so appetizing that we wondered for some time whether we should not taste it, but no one would venture to take it into his mouth, and horseflesh was given the preference. The dogs cleaned up whatever mammoth meat was thrown to them. The layer of fat beneath the skin is 9 centimeters thick. It is white, odorless, spongy, and readily cut. The flesh between the ribs and skin, as well as the membrane under the ribs, could easily be pulled off in separate layers without special effort. The skin on the left shoulder is 19 millimeters thick, and on the right side 23 millimeters. The big bunches of hair that stuck in the frozen ground near the lower lip, and which belonged to the chin and chest, are 36 centimeters long, torn as they are. Estimating the broken-off ends to be one- third the entire length (based on the thickness of the hair at the break), we may assume that these hairs were approximately 50 centimeters long. The bristly hairs which stuck in the ground immediately behind the lower lip are black, while those pointing to the fore legs are ash-blonde in color. In view of the fact that it is impossible to pick out these hairs uninjured, I shall save the entire clod of earth in a frozen state. 622 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. Of length similar to that of the above-mentioned hairs is the hair shed from the outer side of the left shoulder blade, which I removed. Judging by the remnants of the separate hard bristle-like hairs that I observed on the skin, they were of the same length, extending per- haps along the back. Beginning with the destroyed epidermis, up to the very ends, these hairs are ashy or pale bionde in color. The shoulder bore the longest hair found thus far, and is probably what has been erroneously called the mammoth mane. The applicability of this name will be possible only when it shall be proven that no other part of the mammoth was covered with such long hair. The hairs upon the belly are reddish-brown at the base, chestnut- blonde in the middle, and yellowish at the ends. The hairs on the left cheek are 23 centimeters long, partly chestnut- brown to black, partly blonde. The under wool is not so thick as on the other parts of the skin, the hairs being yellowish as everywhere else, and 35 centimeters long. The bristle-like hairs of the spine retain their elasticity so long as they remain in the fresh air, but in the temperature of our winter house they hardened instantly and became very brittle. I keep every- thing, therefore, in the fresh air. October 6.—We bandaged the left fore leg, packed it in hay, then wrapped it in sackcloth, so that all the wool will probably remain intact. In Sredne-Kolymsk we shall, in addition, sew all these things up in skins, of which I have not enough here. From the stomach we removed about 27 pounds additional of food remains. We then amputated the right fore leg above the shoulder blade, cut it open down to the forearm and removed the shoulder bone, which was broken in the middle, evidently injured when the mammoth fell. We would gladly have transported the leg intact, but for its too great weight for one dog sled. The flesh and fat are well preserved and will be packed for shipment. No hair was found on the outer and anterior sides of the right fore leg, and from the under side of this leg I sueceeded in saving only what I found in beautiful layers in the ice. I collected bits of blood, which resembled small pieces of potassium permanganate. When melted, these bits turn into dirty dark-red spots, which are easily washed off. To the touch they resemble coarse dry sand. Similar blood occurs also between the stomach and the sternum, whereas blood that was taken from above the sternum and the shoulder blades had a bright clay-yellow color, and to the touch felt like chalk. Separated by a layer of cotton, I put these two kinds of blood in a bag. The stench is not near so intolerable as during the first two days, possibly because we have grown accustomed to it. FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 623 October 7.—To-day we first packed up the right leg and then resumed the cleaning of the stomach. Those parts of the stomach that were exposed to the air for any length of time tear even when most cautiously touched, exactly like the membrane beneath the ribs. I succeeded, however, in removing from the body a considerable portion of the stomach with its contents, which I take with me in a good state of preservation. In the afternoon we succeeded in exposing that part of the body which we could not reach before, and which lay all the time in the frozen ground. This part was 9 centimeters lower than the left fore- arm, and 13 centimeters lower than than the sole of the left hind foot, and proved to be the protruded male genital, 86 centimers long above and 105 centimeters long below; 10 centimeters above the urinary meatus; the diameter of the flattened-out penis is 19 centimeters. October 8.—The more the hind part becomes free the more difficult becomes the work. The left side of the broken pelvis was removed. The flesh beneath the pelvis is still frozen and hard as stone, just like the flesh about the shoulder blades. Near the stomach there is a lump of ice which we must remove little by little. The cross bone or sacrum was found intact. October 9.—This morning we cut off the left hind leg and the right hind one this afternoon. The thigh bones, which were severed with great difficulty from the frozen meat that surrounds them, were so strongly connected with the tibia that it was necessary to cut all these bones out together and dismember them the next day. The color of the hair of the right hind femur varies from rust- brown to black. Best of all preserved was the hair in the skin fold between the genital and the left hind leg. The crumpled hair of the under wool is 30 to 35 centimeters long; the bristly hair is 32 centi- meters long. I saved some pathological growths from the right shoul- der bone, also some layers of hair with exact descriptions as to their position on the body. October 10.—After removing about 270 pounds of flesh we started the raising of the abdominal skin, which turned out to be still quite bulky and which we had decided must be cut up. After raising the piece of skin, which weighed about 470 pounds, we discovered, to our greatest joy, the entire tail of the mammoth, and by means of it explained the other puzzling point. The joy that possessed us at this new discovery was so great that, lowering the skin to the ground again, we gave three loud cheers. We could not decide to cut up the still intact piece of skin, as we wished to be able to bring this interesting object intact to the academy. The tail is short, and consists evidently of 22 to 25 caudal vertebre. It is not as long as the drawing made under Von Brandt’s supervision, 624 FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. and more nearly resembles the tail drawn by Boltunoff, though it defective in other respects. The hard bristly hairs, which are broken off to about one-third thei length, indicate that the end of the tail was covered with long hair that became fastened in the layer of ice underneath the entire body These hairs were drawn out of the ice, however, with great care They are 20 to 25 centimeters long, and, like the bristly hair on th W kere ees ead: Fic. 3.—Side view of mammoth from the east. a—b=1.90 M.; b—c=0.41 M.; d—e=2.04M.; f—g=2.85 m.: h—i=0.85 M.; h—k=0.52 m.; 1—k—m=0.42 M.; m—n=0.13 M.; n—o=0.32. 1. The left fore leg and hair. 2. Right hind leg. 3. Under wool. 4. Abdominal fold. 5. Left-tooth cavity. 6. Incision ofthe ax. 7. Molarteeth. 8. Food remnants. 9. Tail. 10. Shoulder. 11. Ribs. The upper dot- ted line indicates the edge of the skin on the right side. The lower, the position of the skin of the abdomen and tail. The tail lies 41 centimeters lowerthanb. 1.9 meters below the tail was pure ice. anterior side of the left fore leg, rust brown in color, their somewhat darker color being due to deterioration under the influence of dam p- ness. Some of the hairs are half a millimeter in diameter at the base of the tail. On the under side of the tail they stood closer at the very end and sides. The length of the tail, measured on the under side, is only 36 centimeters, while its circumference at the base is 32 centimeters. "GNNO4 SVM LI HOIHM NI NOILISOg 3HL NI GALONYLSNOOAY 'OYNESUALAd “LG NI WNASNW IWOINO1O0Z 3H1L NI VMAOSSYSG WOUF HLOWW VIA “WA SLV1d ‘T1aH— €06| ‘}oday UelUOsYyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Herz. PLATE IX. FRONT VIEW OF MAMMOTH SKELETON FROM BERESOVKA, MOUNTED IN THE ZOOLOGICAL MUSEUM IN ST. PETERSBURG. FROZEN MAMMOTH IN SIBERIA. 625 The width of the anal opening is 28 centimeters, and the length of the somewhat drawn-out skin extending between the base of ne penis and that of the tail is 1.32 meters. The base of the tail, together with the anus, were located 41 centi- meters lower than the under side of the left hind tibia. The reason that Boltunoff, in his drawing, figured excrescences on the fetlocks, which indicate the presence of rudimentary metacarpal or metatarsal bones, is explained by the fact that the mammoth he saw in all probability had just such a mass of hair at the bend of the leg as this mammoth found on the Beresovka. October 11.—To-day we performed the last operations on the mam- moth, after which all the parts were brought into the winter house and securely packed away for transportation. A SUMMARY OF GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES.¢ By Emite G. Racovirza. To avoid repetition in the description of the habits of the different species which we have observed, I propose to group in this chapter a certain number of ideas relative to the life of the whales in general. There is much yet to be done on this subject. Many questions have not been answered, many even have not been asked. It will there- fore be useful-to sum up in the following pages what is known on this subject and what I have been able to observe myself, and to group the questions systematically. Whales are terrestrial mammals that are modified for an exclusively aquatic life. The whale seeks its food in the water, but is obliged to breathe in the air. From these two facts springs all the very special biology of these creatures, as well as the characters of their organization. My most numerous and, I believe, most novel observations have had for their principal object the necessary respiratory movements of whales. These movements are very regularly performed and very characteristic for each species. The greater part of this chapter will be devoted to them; the remainder will comprise a description of some other movements which have no bearing on respiration. 1 have entirely neglected their reproduction and manner of taking food, because I have had no personal experience on these matters. RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS. The respiration of land mammals is accomplished by means of in- spirations and expirations succeeding each other at obviously regular intervals; but when a land mammal plunges into the water its respira- tory rhythm changes. To aseries of rapid inspirations and expirations there succeeds a very deep inspiration; then the respiration is sus- pended during immersion. Upon returning to the surface the diver makes a long expiration, succeeded by a series of rapid inspirations «Translated by Frederick W. True from the Zoology of the Voyage of the Belgica, Cetology, 1903, pp. 5-19. 627 628 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. andexpirations. This respiratory rhythm, which land mammals utilize only accidentally, forms the normal rhythm of the respiration of the whales, and, I may add, of all terrestrial vertebrates which are modi- fied for an exclusively aquatic life (for example, the leatherback turtle, the water snakes, etc.). The whale, having returned to the surface after a long immersion, emits then a prolonged expiration, makes a short inspiration, dives a little, reappears to breathe, dives again, and thus many times in suc- cession; then he makes a long inspiration and plunges into the depths for a considerable time. I will now analyze successively all these movements. ee A.—EXPIRATION, OR ‘* SPOUT.” This is the only part of the act of breathing which has attracted the attention of the whalers, and they have given to it the special name of ‘* souffle” in French, or ‘* blow” or ‘‘spout” in English. 1. The moment at which the ** spout” ts produced.—Expiration is produced exactly at the moment when the summit of the head, on which the blowhole is placed, arrives at the surface. Therefore, in general, it is the protuberance of the blowhole which indicates the presence of the animal. It is, moreover, at this moment the most prominent part of the body, because whales have the faculty of pro- truding this part of the blowhole. (I have proved this for the whale- bone whales, and it is probably true of the toothed whales.) The movement of the protuberance of the blowhole is very rapid, and Buchet (1895) is the only one who has pointed this out. Whalers told him, indeed, that when a whale blows ‘*‘the blowhole forms a very large protuberance,” which disappears when the animal is dead. In Balenoptera musculus L. (the sulphurbottom) the median region of the back often appears before the protuberance of the blowhole. In the sperm whale that which appears first is the dorsal [hump], according to the opinion of Beale (1839), who appears to have care- fully observed these animals. As to the porpoises and the ziphioid “whales, it is possible that their blowhole is not extensible, but it is also the top of the head which appears first above water. 2. Duration of the spout.—The duration of the spout is variable and depends on the size of the whale. The large whales spout longer than the small ones, and the first spout after sounding is much longer than the intermediate spoutings. I have estimated it at five or six seconds for Balenoptera musculus L. (the sulphurbottom) and at three or four seconds for the humpbacks. Beale (1839) mentions six seconds for the sperm whale. As to the porpoises, the duration of their spout does - not exceed two seconds. Whatever the length may be, the spout always lasts longer than the inspiration. I will return to this subject in connection with the second part of the respiratory act, THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 629 3. Noise of the spout.—The noise produced by the spout is also very variable in intensity, in accordance with the size of the animal. Scarcely perceptible in Delphinus delphis Li. (the common dolphin) and its allies, it becomes very loud in the small finbacks, louder still in the right whales and the humpbacks, and of a force truly extraordi- nary in a Balenoptera musculus L. (sulphurbottom) of great size. This sound has been compared with good reason to the noise made by steam escaping from a pipe under pressure; from a brass pipe, I may add, because very often the spouts of the finbacks possess remarkable sonorousness. It is not a true emission of voice, because whales have no vocal cords, but a simple vibration caused by the expul- sion of air under pressure. The effect is often produced even in man when the nose is for any reason obstructed by foreign substances. It is not rare, indeed, to observe whistling sounds which, with a due allowance for difference in proportions, are of the same nature as the more or less musical sounds produced by whales. It is in this way that I explain the bellowings so often described as occurring among cetaceans. I ought, moreover, to mention that among certain por- poises it may be that there are special dispositions of parts which produce noises in a constant manner. 4. Form and appearance of the spout.—The form and appearance of the spout depend much on the force with which the air stored in the lungs is expelled; they depend also on the rapidity of motion of the animals and the state of the atmosphere. Among small whales the spout is invisible, or very little visible, and the whale must exceed at least LO meters before its spout will be visible. The appearance of the spout is that of a mass of white and pearly vapor. When it is calm and cold and when the whale is quiet or moves gently, the spout rises vertically in the air in a column more or less slender according to the species. The right whales emit a very large spout and the finbacks a small one. As the upper part of the column becomes enlarged the spout takes the form of a very much elongated cone, but before the end of the expiration the summit of this elongated cone spreads out, its outlines become vague, and the terminal part is transformed into a sort of cloud. At the end of the expiration the spout detaches itself from the blowhole, rises gently in the air, and the lower part disappears; it seems to gather itself together into the upper cloud, and finally the upper cloud also dissolves. This is noticed especially in the case of the first spout after sounding, which is always more forceful. On the other hand, in expirations during the intervening appear- ances at the surface the column formed by the spout is less high, the cone which it forms is much less elongated, and its duration in the air is much less. When the wind blows or when the animal is in rapid 630 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. motion, the column inclines backward and takes on the appearance of a glass tear. ; Ancient authors often figured the spouting of different species of whales, but these figures are as naive as false. One sees that these venerable cetologists believed that the whales threw up water through the blowhole, because their figures reproduced conscientiously the appearance of jets of water and fountains gushing. Baer (1864) was the first to give a figure obviously exact of the spout of a finback and of its transformations. He has, nevertheless, drawn it too eylin- drical. In reality its form is distinctly conical. Henking (1901, figs. 1 and 2) has perfectly given the appearance of the spout of a Bale- noptera physalus I. (common finback), and the inclination which he has given it is certainly due to the rapid progression of the animal. The highest spout is that of Balenoptera musculus L. (the sulphur- bottom), in spite of what Rawitz (1900) says, who only attributes to it | meter. All the eyewitnesses agree on this subject, and I estimate further on the height of the spout of this animal at favorable times at 15 meters (49 feet). The largest spout is that of Balena mysticetus Li. (bowhead). The right whales, finbacks, and humpbacks throw up vertical spouts in ‘alm weather, the sperm whale spouts inclined forward at 135° (Beale, 1839), and the large porpoises a very short spout, also inclined. One reads often in authors that the spout of the finbacks and the right whales is double, but if one goes to the sources—that is, to the writings of eyewitnesses and not to those of compilers—one sees that nothing is in general less proved. Beale (1839) declares plainly that the spout of the sperm whale is simple and is distinguished on that account from the spout of the other whales, which is double, but this seems to apply only to the right whales. Thiercelin (1866, vol. 1), who seems to have been a conscientious author, declares expressly that the southern right whale throws ‘ta double column of white vapor, more or less thick, which rises in the form of a V, of which one branch is shorter than the other.” Other observations seem to confirm this. It is otherwise with J/egaptera (humpbacks) and Balenoptera (tin- backs). Baer (1864) declares that he has observed that the spout of Balenoptera is simple, and that, moreover, one only sees it double in looking at the animal from in front. Rawitz (1900) has also seen the spouts of the humpbacks and of Balenoptera musculus and physalus single. Henking (1901) also figures it single in B. physalus. I have always seen it simple, although humpbacks and finbacks have spouted very near to me, both front view and in profile. It seems to me that we have to do here with an a priori idea, sug- gested by the fact that these whales have two openings in the blowhole. But as these openings are very near together, and as the diameter of the column formed by the spout is relatively considerable, it seems to me THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 631 difficult to believe that the spout of each orifice can preserve its indi- viduality. It is not possible, then, to see them separately, even when one observes the animal from in front, the only position in which one can theoretically distinguish this duality. 5. Nature of the spout.—The greatest uncertainty has reigned for a long time as to the nature of the substance thrown out by the whales when spouting. Aristotle (History of Animals, viir, 2) declares that ‘Sat the same time that it (the dolphin) takes in the water and ejects it through its blowhole it has a lung, through which it receives the air and breathes.” The real nature of the cetaceans was thus estab- lished at this early day, but at the same time also the idea that these animals throw out water through their blowholes. Pliny (Natural History) did much to cause this last belief to be adopted by citing some definite cases. He shows the ‘ physeter * * diluviem quandam eructans.” (Liber rx, cap. tv.) He even mentions having seen a killer whale fill and swamp a boat with his spout,—‘* quorum unum (navigium) mergi vidimus, reflatu belluz oppletum unda.” (Liber rx, pap. VI.) Although this idea is absolutely false, it was adopted without dis- cussion, and only at the beginning of the nineteenth century was the notion abandoned, not, however, without contest and without its reap- pearance from time to time. Thus F. Cuvier (1838) still admitted it. And actually even Bruce (1896), who was the naturalist of the Balena, maintained it, and Dahl (Henking, 1901, p. 3, note 7) is said to have established it very recently in the case of a cetacean which he believed to be a sperm whale. So far as I know, it was Fabricius (1780), the conscientious observer, who first expressly said that whales expel only air charged with vapor, and, following him, I will mention, among those who are authorities in cetology and have themselves observed cetaceans, Scoresby (1820), Baer (1826 and 1836), Beale (1839), Bennett (1840), Holboll (Eschricht, 1849), Baer (1864), Thiercelin (1866), Brierly, Haglund, Torrell (Lilljeborg, 1866), Seammon (1874), and all recent cetologists. : The proofs that whales do not expel water through the nostrils, but air saturated with vapor, like all mammals without exception, are many and of different kinds. I will give a brief summary of them, taking notice of those already given by cetologists and adding those derived from my own observations. The spout has neither the form nor the appearance of a jet produced by water escaping under pressure, but very much the flocculent appearance of a cloud. It is seen that this cloud is blown along by the wind, like ordinary vapor; it is seen to spread out and dissolve in the air and not to fall in a cascade as it would if it were water. It is absolutely impossible for a conscientious observer to doubt the sm 1903 41 632 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. reality of these evidences, however little he has witnessed whales blow- ing close at hand. An observation of this kind alone should suffice to decide the question, but I have another proof furnished by a more direct observation. On January 28, 1898, the Belgica was in Charlotte Bay (Gerlache Strait). We were surrounded by a great school of humpbacks, and I located myself with the photographic apparatus on a stage which projected about 2 meters over the gunwales of the ship. One of the humpbacks came up suddenly under the stage to spout, and I was entirely enveloped in the animal’s expiration. Under these con- ditions I was well situated to know whether the humpbacks eject water or air. I can assure Dahl, Bruce, and all who persistently remain followers of Aristotle and Pliny that there was not the least bit of water in the expiration of this whale. I was struck in the face by a warm and humid wind of a fetid odor, to the consideration of which I shall return later on. The anatomical structure of the larynx, of the back of the buccal cavity, and of the blowhole prohibits the expulsion of water. We know, indeed, that among all the cetaceans the extremity of the larynx is prolonged into a very long appendage, which, penetrating deeply into the canal of the blowhole, completely fills the cavity. This arrangement is a marvelous adaptation to the necessity which there is for whales to swallow their prey under water.. The respira- tory organs are thus completely separated from the digestive organs in the back of the buccal cavity, the food passing into the esophagus on each side of the larynx, while the water or the substances with which it is filled are not able to penetrate into the larynx. This being established, it is not easy to see how the water can be expelled through the blowhole, which is completely closed. On the other hand, one asks in vain what may be the force which could project this water to such considerable heights as are observed in the case of some spouts. How is the whale able to produce the necessary pressure in its mouth? The conformation of this cavity does not permit, in fact, a complete closing of the mouth even among the toothed whales; on the con- trary, it is formed in such a manner as to allow the passage of water. The whalebone whales have in the corners of the mouth veritable gutters, which are especially well developed in the humpback and are useful to these animals in expelling the water in which their food floats. Thus, in order that the water may be thrown out through the blow- holes to a great height, it is necessary that it be previously held in the lungs. I believe that even the most fervent partisans of Aristotle’s ideas would recoil before such a supposition. But there is one case in which a liquid is thrown to a considerable height through the blowholes. That is when the whale is wounded in the lungs. In this case a jet of blood is often thrown to great height. THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 633 This phenomenon is not peculiar to whales; it is presented by all ani- mals whose lungs are torn or for any reason filled with blood. Many conscientious observers, however, think they have proved that the spout sometimes falls in drops of water. Baer (1864) says that Captain Kotzebue has seen a whale spout so near the ship that the spout spread out over the deck, which was covered with little drops, but these drops were never sufliciently numerous for the water to collect in a stream. Thiercelin (1866, t. 1) relates that from the spout of the right whale there fall some small drops of ‘‘ oily matter” and a certain quantity of water. Lilljeborg (1866) cites Haglund, who has seen drops of water fall from the lower part of the cloud formed by the spout, and Torrell, who declares that a little water fell from a spout onto the deck of the ship, the water probably produced, he adds, by condensation of the vapor. All these observations, and others which I have not cited, have been made in the polar regions, where the temperature of the air is very low. They could therefore be explained easily by the very rapid condensation of the water contained in the spout. Many other explanatory hypotheses have been put forward. It is claimed that the animal having blown before the protuberance of the blowhole is completely emerged, the spout draws with it a part of the surface water and vaporizes it. Baer (1864) does not admit this view. He observes, very justly, that whales do not spout until the blowhole is out of the water. On the other hand, the results of an experiment which he made appeared to him conclusive. He blew under water with a curved tube and proved that the water was not carried up except when the orifice of the tube was very close to the surface. It seems to me that the experiment of Baer demonstrates just the opposite of what he claims. He has, indeed, demonstrated experi- mentally that water can be drawn up under certain conditions, and one can hardly suppose that these conditions are never realized; on the contrary, it is very probable that they may be sometimes realized. Baer himself figures a killer which draws up some little drops of water with the spout. I believe, then, that such occurrences are possible. But many authors, and Baer among others, have proposed a differ- ent explanation. They also believe that the small drops of water which fall from the spout are from water drawn up, but derived from that which accumulates in the depression of the blowhole. Rawitz (1900) combats this view at length with arguments based on the obliquity of the orifice of the blowhole, which is in the form of a slit, and on the inclination of the protuberance of the blowhole. I am of the opinion of Rawitz, but for a reason which seems to me better than his, because it is unanswerable. We have seen above that the blow- hole of the whalebone whales is drawn out during the spout into a 634 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. conical projection, which does not present the least depression in which water could accumulate. Other authors have attributed the origin of the little drops of water to that which penetrates into the tube of the blowhole. I do not see any impossibility in this in principle, but would simply remark that the seals and penguins that I have observed close at hand never exhib- ited this phenomenon. «I do not see why the nostrils of the cetaceans should be less well organized than the nostrils of these animals. I hardly need say that this last explanation is merely an hypothesis which is not based on direct observation. The belief of earlier authors that the whales spout water is certainly based on defective observations and on the blind credence which was accorded to all the stories of Aristotle and Pliny. It seems to me that it is not the same as regards modern authors. I believe. that with a part of these at least the influence of an a priori idea has been determinative. To explain the visibility of the spout of the large whales in the polar regions is an easy matter. It is only necessary to show that it is common to all the mammals which are found in those regions and that the phenomenon is observed in winter even in tem- perate regions. The condensation of water vapor contained in a state of saturation in the warm expired air produces a ‘‘cloud” (buée) upon contact with the cold air. It is then natural to associate the spout of a whale with a normal ‘‘cloud,” only that it is larger, on account of the size of the animal. This explanation will not suffice, however, in the case of cetaceans whose spout is visible even in high temperatures. It is well known that the sperm whale is found in the tropical seas, where the tempera- ture of the air is often 30° C., and yet the spout of these animals, although less considerable than that of the large polar whales, is, nevertheless, perfectly visible. It is this difficulty of explaining the visibility of the spout of the large whales in high atmospheric tem- peratures which has led some authors to affirm that the spout is liquid. There is also another difficulty which presents itself when one attempts to go to the root of the matter. It may be asked why the spout is not visible among the smaller whales if it is a simple ‘* cloud” (buée). Rawitz (1900) seeks the explanation of the visibility of the spout in tropical regions in the high temperature which the cetaceans are said to possess. He sayson page 94: ‘‘The temperature of the blood of the large whalebone whales—I believe Kiikenthal or Guldberg has made the observation—surpasses the highest fever temperature of man.” But this reference is altogether erroneous. It was Guldberg (1900) who published the work to which Rawitz referred, and from this memoir it appears very evident that the temperature of the cetaceans THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 635 is inferior to the normal temperature of man. Indeed, muscular or rectal temperatures have quite indisputably given 35.4° C. for Balenoptera musculus Comp. (common finback), according to Guldberg, and 35.6° C. for Delphinus delphis Cuvier (common dolphin), accord- ing to Richard and Neuville, and the temperature of the liver (the warmest organ of the body) 37.8° C. in Phocena communis (harbor porpoise), according to Davy. Guldberg states on page 69: ‘* We may therefore regard a temperature of from 36° to 37° C. as the normal temperature of the cetaceans rather than 38° to 39° C.” He means the temperature of the liver, which is certainly higher than that of the lungs and of the air which is contained in them. If, therefore, the temperature of the cetaceans is sensibly inferior to that of man, it is much lower than that of the majority of land mammals, which have a temperature varying around 39° C. This agrees perfectly with what I have found for the seals and penguins (Racovitza, 1900, p. 206), animals in all points comparable from a physiological point of view. I would therefore place in opposition to the assertions of Rawitz this general law: The temperature of mammals and birds modified for an aquatic life, in which the body is surrounded by an insulating layer of fat, is inferior to the temperature of their terrestrial allies. These aquatic animals do not produce more heat wherewith to counteract the cold of the medium which they inhabit, but they lose less. The fat which envelopes them prevents the loss of heat to such an extent that a seal which has been dead for twenty-four hours and exposed to a temperature of —20° C. has the viscera still warm (Racovitza, 1900, p. 207), and a Balenoptera sibbaldi (sulphurbottom) three days after its death gave 34° C. in the muscles and the blood (Guldberg, 1900). I would remark here that the fat in cetaceans, seals, and penguins is not reserve matter, as in terrestrial mammals, but a veritable organ of defense against cold, and I shallsupport with proofs, in a memoir which I have in preparation on seals and penguins, this opinion, which seems a veritable paradox—that aquatic animals which have been almost exterminated on account of their fat are lean animals. The explanation given by Rawitz is, therefore, at fault, and, further- more, if it were true it would not explain why the spout of the small cetaceans is not visible, since the difference between the temperature of their body and the external temperature in the intertropical regions would be sufficient, according to his hypothesis, to produce condensation. My friend, Doctor Portier, chief of physiological investigations at the Sorbonne, has suggested an explanation which seems to me a good one. The effects of confining gases are known by well-estab- lished physical experiments. All gases under pressure which are suddenly liberated undergo an instantaneous reduction of tempera- 636 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. ture, and it is certain that the phenomenon of the expiration of ceta- ceans can be compared from every point of view with the phenomena presented by gases under constraint. There is, in effect, a vast pul- monary reservoir inclosed in a powerful thoracic cage, communicating with the exterior by an orifice much reduced in comparison with the capacity of the lungs, and this orifice is opened suddenly at the moment of expiration. The proof that the air is expelled under strong pressure is that the spout rises to a very great height and especially that its emission produces a harsh sound, so characteristic that all authors have compared it to the escape of steam under pressure. This idea of Portier’s seems to me to explain admirably all the peculiarities of the spout; thus, the spout of the small whales is not seen because their muscular power is feeble and the air escapes under a minimum pressure. The expiration which follows the first appear- ance of the whale after sounding is more forceful than the others, because the animal at the moment of diving has expanded its lungs more strongly than for ordinary immersions and consequently the air is under a more considerable pressure. I do not wish to maintain that the refrigeration consequent upon the phenomenon of restraint is the sole reason of the visibility of the spout. It is necessary to make a distinction. In the Tropics it is certain that the condensation of the vapor is due solely to refrigera- tion caused by restraint, but in the polar regions the phenomenon of the buée complicates the causes of this appearance. 6. Odor of the spout.—As 1 have already remarked in another place (p. 632), the odor of the spout of the humpback is nauseating, and confirmation of this observation will be found in Baer (1864), Lilljeborg (1866), Jouan (1882), and other authors whom it is unneces- sary to cite here. Jouan (1882, p. 12) remarks, indeed, that this is observed especially among the large species of cetaceans, and that the spout of the sperm whale is particularly fetid, as it provokes nausea and ‘* produces the effect of a blister on the skin.” I leave to this author the entire responsibility of this last assertion, and would recall simply that the fetidness of the spout is habitual in the large whales and is not peculiar to the humpbacks. I have attributed this bad odor somewhat rashly to the bodies of the animals which have decomposed in the whalebone of the baleen whales, a fact often observed. Fishes found in the mouth of Bale- noptera physalus (common finback) in process of decomposition have been cited, but in addition to the fact that this hypothesis can not be applied to the sperm whale, which is without whalebone, it is also incompatible with the arrangement of the respiratory canal, which is completely isolated from the cavity of the mouth. It is necessary, therefore, to look for the source of infection in the respiratory appa- ratus itself. THE SPOUTING. AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 637 B.— INSPIRATION. Inspiration is effected immediately after expiration, without an interval. The protuberance of the blowhole is always the only part which appears at the moment on the surface, but its form is now quite different. . The orifice in the whalebone whales, instead of being situ- ated on the conical eminence as it is during expiration, is now wide open and the protuberance of the blowhole is so much flattened as to be confounded with the regular contours of the head. This disposi- tion is very clearly shown in the photographs [not here reproduced]. In the toothed whales the modification is less, but the orifice of the blowhole must be wider open than during expiration. The duration of the inspiration is always less than that of expira- tion, which can be readily understood. During expiration the orifice of the blowhole is small, and the air, though projected, it is true, with violence, is expelled in a column of small diameter. During the inspiration, on the contrary, the orifice is wide open that the air may be taken in suddenly. The whale has probably acquired this faculty of very rapid inspiration in order that it may be exposed for a less time to the penetration of water into the respiratory apparatus. I have been able frequently to confirm this extreme rapidity of inspiration in the finbacks, the humpbacks, and the porpoises, and many accurate writers have noted it as well as myself. Thiercelin (1866, vol. 1) states that among all the cetaceans ‘‘the expiration is very much longer than the inspiration,” and again, ‘* but in all cases, as soon as this operation has ceased, the blowhole appears to sink so much that it is necessary to know that the animal needed to inspire in order not to suppose that it confined itself to the first phase of its function [of breathing].”. Henking (1901) has observed among the sulphurbottoms (LB. musculus) that ‘*the inspiration plainly follows [the expiration] with extraordinary rapidity, and the sounding of the whale occurs very quickly after the projection of the spout.” Beale (1839) says that immediately after the sperm whale has blown the inspiration takes place very quickly, because the snout descends. Kiikenthal (1903) also maintains from theoretical considerations, on which I do not wish to insist, that the inspiration must be very short. But Rawitz (1900, a) compels us to give attention anew to his statements. He asserts that the inspiration is longer than the expira- tion and deeper. On what does this author rely as the basis for this statement? It can only be his own observations, but one can con- vince oneself as regards their accuracy by running over the lines I have devoted to the humpback. .And what is the meaning of an inspiration deeper than an expiration? Does Rawitz imagine that, everything considered, the whale introduces a larger volume of air into its lungs than it rejects? He denies also the enlargement of the 638 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. orifice of the blowhole during inspiration, a negation more unfortu- nate as the fact is undeniable, and he accompanies this opinion. with an argument which can not be admitted. He says, in effect, that this enlargement of the blowhole can not serve to accelerate the inspira- tion in any considerable degree since the nostrils remain always very narrow compared with the quantity of air inspired. Thus, according to Rawitz, the difference between the volume of air which can be taken in by a narrow orifice and that taken in by an orifice ten times as wide is inconsiderable! I leave to him the responsibility for such a conclusion. The entrance of the air into the lungs of the large cetaceans as well as the expirations produces a certain sound, which is not a *‘ voice,” but simply a sound produced by the strongly inspired air passing through the relatively narrow orifice. Sometimes, however, the noise is more harsh, resembling a dull whistle, and with proper allowance it resembles that produced sometimes in the nasal canals of terrestrial animals which are clogged with mucus or any foreign matter. It is unnecessary to say that the cetaceans breathe air alone, and that they are as much inconvenienced as any land animals when the water penetrates into their respiratory organs. C.—THE INTERMEDIATE IMMERSIONS. When a cetacean has respired, as seen above, it dives, executing a rotating movement indicated by the curvature of the body more or less extended, and thereupon continues to advance under water. There is seen, then, at the surface after respiration, which has been indicated by the presence of the protuberance of the blowhole, the slight con- cavity which marks the rudimentary neck in these animals, then the back always convex for a distance approaching the posterior extremity more or less, according to the species. Thus the right whales show a large part of the back, extending posteriorly beyond the point where the dorsal fin is located in those cetaceans which possess this part. In the humpback the back is also shown to a point behind the dorsal fin. In the finback the dorsal fin is not shown, but the sperm whale shows its dorsal hump and the porpoises their dorsal fins. The immersion of the animal proceeds from in front backward, always ina curved line, and the cetacean disappears without having shown its tail in any case. The period of disappearance is longer or shorter, according to the species, but never exceeds a few minutes. Then the protuberance of the blowhole reappears, the whale respires, shows its back, and disap- pears again. The number of these intermediate immersions before sounding varies according to the species. In general, the whalebone whales execute but few, the toothed whales very many. In all ceta- ceans, however, they are characterized by the following: (1) The THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 639 expiration and inspiration, respectively, are shorter than the first expi- ‘ation after sounding and the last inspiration before sounding, and these respiratory actsare less deep; (2) the interval between reappear- ances is very short; (8) the animal dives only to a slight depth, a few meters at most, and generally it keeps immediately below the surface; (+) the posterior part of the body is always invisible; (5) the whale during the time it remains under water progresses quite rapidly, usually in a straight line, but sometimes in a circle when in a narrow bay where space is limited. The object of these movements is easy tounderstand. ‘The cetacean does what all diving animals do. Before plunging, for a very long time, it makes many rapid respirations, which permit it to reoxygenate its blood, which has become more or less carbonated since the last sounding; it also permits the animal to surcharge its blood with oxy- gen for the succeeding immersion. It follows that the cetaceans which make the greatest number of ordinary inspirations before sounding are those which should be able to dive deepest, or at least those which should be able to remain longest under water. In thisregard it is the sperm whale which appears to hold the record, for its divings inter- mediate between soundings are very numerous—60 or 70, says Beale (1839)—and it is also the whale which remains submerged longest, an hour and ten minutes to an hour and twenty minutes, or rarely an hour in the case of large males. The long submersion should be very important for this whale to enable it to procure its food, which con- sists of large cuttle-fish, animals living at a great depth, the pursuit of which must be long and arduous. The habits of the bottle-nosed whales (//yperoddon) are similar to those of the sperm whale, and the number of immersions intermediate between two soundings is very large among them also, as will be seen later. D.—SOUNDING. When the animal has its store of oxygen, it makes a very deep inspiration in order to carry with it as large a quantity of air as possible. In this also, the cetaceans are not exceptional, but follow the course of all diving animals. The back of the whale is shown immediately, much higher above the surface than in intermediate immersions. The curve formed by the dorsal line is very convex, the rotating movement more pronounced, and the back disappears from the anterior part to the posterior part. What follows is character- istic for each species. The right whales, the humpbacks, and the sperm whales show their flukes above water; at this time the head is directed downward and the axis of the body obliquely. The flukes are waved in the air two or three times and the animal disappears. The finbacks do not show their flukes, but describe a strong curve 640 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. approaching a circle. The porpoises jump out of the water and describe an elongated curve in the air, descending head foremost, with the body extended. The whale dives at once obliquely and disappears for a time longer or shorter, according to the species, but rarely for less than a quarter of an hour. It reappears and spouts very powerfully and long. The sounding is characterized, then, among all cetaceans by the fol- lowing peculiarities (1) It commences with an inspiration deeper than any other, and ends with an expiration which is also very strong; (2) the posterior part of the body executes special movements; (3) the whale dives to a great depth; (4) it remains there very long before it appears again. E.—THE TRACK. Every time a large whale disappears below the surface, it leaves behind it a slick (grasseur), which is especially plain when the water is but little agitated. This ‘‘slick” is unquestionably an extremely thin layer of oil, which spreads on the surface of the water and gives it the well-known mirror-like appearance. This fact has been observed and recorded many times already, and there can be no doubt as to its interpretation. It is difficult, however, to understand the origin of this oily sub- stance which the whale leaves behind, for anatomists who have studied the skin of the cetaceans (Delage, 1885; Kiikenthal, 1889; Rawitz, 1899, among others) have proved the complete absence of sweat glands or sebaceous glands. The oil can not, then, be derived from secretions of the skin. Inthe common doJphin, a species which I have examined in this particular, the skin is entirely without a trace of oil; it is perfectly dry and does not leave any mark on a well-cleaned glass. It follows, therefore, that this oil must have some other origin. The following observations may, perhaps, put us on the track of the truth. Thiercelin (1866, vol. 1) says regarding the southern right whale: ‘‘Some little drops of oily matter drop from the spout.” If this observation is veritied—for it can not be admitted without hesitation—it gives us the source of the ‘‘ slick” mentioned; but another observation which I made in Gerlache Strait appears to me to supply a more plausible explanation. I noticed at the surface of the water, among the fin- backs and humpbacks of the strait, some irregular masses of a red color surrounded by ‘‘ slicks.” They were without doubt the excre- ments of these animals. The seals and penguins had similar excre- ments, the color of which is explained by the fact that the food of these animals consists of Huphausia (a small thysanopod crustacean), which is abundantly provided with red pigment. The Huphausia, like all planctonic animals, possesses numerous small globules of oil in its tissues, which must serve as floats in animals which pass their lives in THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 641 the water. This being so, the waste products of digestion of the mammals and birds which feed upon them must contain oil. It is therefore possible that the large whales excrete small quantities of oily matter, which may be the origin of the ‘‘ slicks” observed. VARIOUS MOVEMENTS EXECUTED BY CETACEANS. The movements thus far analyzed are the habitual movements, and, so to speak, permanent in the normal life of the whales, but there are others which these animals execute under certain conditions which are special, or exceptional in their lives, and which we must now analyze. A, Leaps and gambols.—These movements are observed among many cetaceans, but especially among certain species, in connection with which they constitute a genuine specific character. The hump- back is especially prone to leaping out of water, which will be described in detail in a subsequent chapter. The finbacks do not appear to indulge in these gambols, but they enter into the habits of the sperm whale (Beale, 1839). American and English whalers have coined a word to designate the action of leaping out of water among large whales. They call it ‘* breaching.” The small porpoises spring out of water and are known to follow vessels under way and to outstrip them in speed. Large finbacks are also mentioned which have fol- lowed boats for a very long time (Rodler, 1888). L. Resting on the surface.—Right whales and humpbacks have the habit of remaining motionless at the surface of the water. The whalers pretend that it is for the purpose of sleeping, but this asser- tion needs to be confirmed. It appears from the published observations that this resting on the water is but rarely observed. I only saw it once during three seasons which I passed in Gerlache Strait, when our vessel was constantly surrounded by humpbacks. It has never been observed with certainty among the finbacks or porpoises. This seems to me to indicate that it can not be interpreted as a function so normal and periodic as sleep. But it properly may be asked whether whales sleep at all. I am inclined to answer this question negatively. During our sojourn in Gerlache Strait and among the icebergs we heard the whales blow at all hours of day and night, confirming Jouan’s observation of 1882. I often observed porpoises following the boats at night, while on the other hand, Delphinus delphis Li. (common dolphin) caused havoe in the fishing apparatus used for taking anchovies and sardines at all times and at all hours of the day and night. Rodler (1888, p. 274) reports that a steamer was followed by the same school of cetaceans from Cape Horn to Liverpool, and Moseley (1892, p. 9) declares that a humpback (J/egaptera) followed the Cha/- lenger many days. During these voyages the whales must have swum 642 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES, actively, which excludes the possibility of sleep, even if we admit that the necessary movements of respiration could be automically per- formed, as Jouan supposes (1882), for it is not possible to maintain that the whales could follow automatically a ship the course of which is variable. ; It is possible to form three hypotheses regarding the sleep of whales. One can suppose, first, that they sleep at the bottom of the sea. Buchet (1895) is of this opinion, and believes what the fishermen told him on this subject, for he says: ** They [the whales] often emerged suddenly all around the ship without having been seen at a distance.” This applies to the heavy whales and the porpoises which would sleep at night. The fact which Buchet reports as a proof of the correctness of his opinion is explained in quite another manner. It is not a mat- ter for astonishment to see animals suddenly appear, which swim as much as 12’miles an hour (Scoresby, 1820) and can remain under water more than half an hour. The opinion of Buchet can not be accepted for many reasons. Ceta- ceans could sleep but poorly at the bottom of the sea, since they are obliged to ascend to breathe. When they inhabit deep seas they could not sleep, for the cetaceans do not dive to a great depth. Their skin is so delicate that the contact with the bottom would be injurious to them. I do not believe, therefore, that this first hypothesis can be maintained. I will note here merely for reference a curious work of Barkow (1802) which is connected with the hypothesis which I am about to examine and which contains the following conclusions: ‘*‘The summer life of the whalebone whales is preéminently the life of the mammals depending on atmospheric lungs; their winter life preéminently a sub- marine life, depending on the abdominal vessels (Darmgefiissleben).” This author therefore considers the cetaceans as hibernating animals, which pass a part of their existence at the bottom of the sea. He reaches this strange deduction as a result of erroneous conclusions, regarding which I will not enter into details here. The second hypothesis that can be put forward is also improbable, namely, that the cetaceans sleep at the surface. It is well known, indeed, that the cetaceans, which are heavier than the water, could not maintain themselves at the surface except by swimming. The genus Balena makes the single exception—the right whales float, but they float on the back (which is very much heavier than the belly) if they do not maintain themselves actively in the natural position. This brings matters to the same point as in the case of the heavy cetaceans—in the one instance as in the other the blowhole would be below the surface. The third hypothesis is much more plausible. In sleeping whales execute automatically the movements necessary to respiration. It is well known that horses in harness can sleep perfectly well while pull- THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 643 ing a wagon, and that even a man can sleep while marching. There is nothing, therefore, which, a priori, could prevent our accepting this hypothesis, but we have seen that the observations cited at the begin- ning of this paragraph tend rather to cause us to hold that the cetaceans do not sleep at all. If I dwell on this subject, it is merely to show its interest and the small amount of data we possess for the solution of the problem. C. Migrations.—Cetaceans have often been seen in the open sea, traveling straight ahead, without sounding; in these cases they are following a course in search of a new feeding place, or perhaps for the needs of reproduction. CONCLUSIONS RELATIVE TO MOVEMENTS. From this brief inquiry relative to the movements of cetaceans, it results that these movements vary according to the species. It is this point which seems to me especially important from a practical point of view, and in the chapters which follow I shall demonstrate, with suitable proofs, that it is certainly so, for the species I have been able to study. I lay down the principle, therefore, that the movements of cetaceans in the water are specific. In combining the results derived from observation of movements, with data supplied by dimensions, form, and color, one becomes able to recognize readily every kind of whale withas much certainty as if one had the animal at one’s disposal to dissect—an opportunity which presents itself but rarely. THE DEPTH TO WHICH CETACEANS DIVE. I will pass in closing this chapter to the consideration of a funda- mental question in the biology of the Cetacea—the depth to which they dive. There are no direct observations for the solution of this problem and those cetologists who mention it incidentally content themselves with assertions without proofs. All give very high fig- ures, and Kikenthal (1900, p. 197) pretends even that cetaceans can dive more than 1,000 meters (3,281 feet), but without mentioning on what he bases this assertion. I donot believe that this depth can ever be attained by these animals; on the contrary, I believe that they can not exceed a maximum depth of 100 meters (828 feet). Let us examine into what takes place when a cetacean dives. First.—The pressure of the water: It is necessary not to forget that the cetaceans have an aérial respiration—that their pulmonary cavities are filled with air. On the other hand, we know what takes place when a mammal is submitted to a pressure of several atmospheres; the gases dissolve in large quantities in the blood, and when the pressure is relieved suddenly the surplus of dissolved gas can not be eliminated by the lungs; the gaseous bubbles form in the capillaries, which arrest the circulation of the blood and cause death. For man, the 644 THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. limit of depth to which he can venture without danger is 30 meters (98 feet)—that is to say, the pressure of three atmospheres. No mam- mal confined under nine atmospheres and suddenly released has sur- vived this treatment; therefore, 90 meters (295 feet) is a limit which no terrestrial mammal can reach. It may be admitted, however, that the whale is accustomed little by little to depths more and more. con- siderable, and in his case to increase the depth he can reach, but it is not possible to believe that he can annihilate entirely the physical law of solution of gases in liquids proportional to pressure, nor that he can prevent the disengagement of these gases when the pressure ceases. Therefore, in giving to the cetaceans, in view of this supposed adapta- - tion, a power three times as great as that of the human organism, we must be close to the truth. I believe, indeed, that this limit of 100 ~ meters which I have assigned to the cetaceans is rather exaggerated. Second.—The weight: The density of the body of the cetaceans is less than that of the sea water in the right whale and the sperm whale; it is a very little superior in the other cetaceans, which sink when killed. To go down, therefore, it is necessary that the whale should swim to the bottom. Furthermore, the living cetacean carries an enormous quantity of air in its lungs, which tends to make it rise to the surface. : That being so,.one can imagine the effort required of a cetacean to plunge to 1,000 meters. It is an effort so enormous that it certainly surpasses the animal’s muscular power. One should not forget that a man, whose body is much denser than that of a whale, has to load himself with a very considerable weight when he wishes to dive into the sea to depths which exceed a few meters. .I recall that the cos- tume of a diver weighs 80 kilograms. This is another consideration which prevents me from believing in the 1,000 meters of Kiikenthal. Third.—Light: We know that the light of day does not penetrate deeper than 300 meters (984 feet) and that, furthermore, at this depth only the chemical rays of the spectrum make their effect felt. One may say, indeed, that practically, for the eye of a mammal, the illumi- nated zone does not. pass 50 or 60 meters. If sight is unnecessary. to the cetaceans which feed upon the plancton, it must, on the contrary, be indispensable to those which feed on fish and cephalopod mollusks. What would they do, then, in the depths beyond the limit of illumi- nation that can be utilized? fourth.— Food: Whales do not dive for pleasure, they dive in search of food. But what could they find at 1,000 meters? The fishes on the banks scarcely inhabit great depths, and the zone where the plancton is very abundant—that in which the crustaceans live which serve as food is the zone of the diatoms, that is, the illuminated zone—extends to about 100 meters, That there is plancton below this zone is not THE SPOUTING AND MOVEMENTS OF WHALES. 645 doubtful, but why should the cetacean dive down there if it finds what it needs with less exertion? Fifth.—The fishing ground: The cetaceans seek in general the proximity of the coasts, and very often they are seen preferably in places of little depth. In these places they execute their movements as usual; they remain under water as long as when in the open sea, and if they remain there so long it is not in order to have time to reach great depths, as has been said, but simply because they require this time to procure food. These, then, are the considerations which cause me to reject entirely the ideas of those who believe that the cetaceans can dive to great depths. I believe, on the contrary, that the cetaceans dive some dozens of meters, and 100 meters seems to mea limit which can hardly be exceeded. The only direct observation that I have been able to find which is worthy of confidence confirms this opinion. The Japanese take whales in nets, and in a book on the whale fishery, dating from 1829 (Mobius, 1893), I find the following passage: ** Whales which dive deeper than 18 hiro (27.4 meters) can not be taken in nets except where the bot- tom does not exceed this depth, but as the Semikoujira (Balena japonica, right whale of Japan) does not dive below this depth it can be captured in nets at all depths.” We see, then, that the right whale does not dive below 28 meters. The right whale is the one whose density is the least, so that when dead it floats; the others dive below 28 meters, but does anyone suppose that the difference can be so great between animals so closely related, having the same habits and the same structure, as to permit that one can not exceed 28 meters while the other can exceed 1,000 meters ¢ PROBLEMS ARISING FROM VARIATIONS IN THE DEVEL- OPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS.? By Prof. Jounson Symineton, M. D., F. R.8., F. R. 8. E. It is now nearly twenty years since anthropology attained to the dignity of being awarded a special and independent section in this association, and I believe it is generally admitted that during this period the valuable nature of many of the contributions, the vigor of the discussions, and the large attendance of members have amply justified the establishment and continued existence of this section. While the multifarious and diverse nature of the subjects which are grouped under the term anthropology gives a variety and a breadth to our proceedings which are very refreshing in this age of minute specialism, I feel that it adds very considerably to the difficulty of selecting a subject for a presidential address which will prove of gen- eral interest. A survey of the recent advances in our knowledge of the many important questions which come within the scope of this section would cover too wide a field for the time at my disposal, while a critical examination of the various problems that still await solution might expose me to the temptation of pronouncing opinions on subjects regarding which I could not speak with any real knowledge or experi- ence. To avoid such risks I have decided to limit my remarks to a subject which comes within the range of my own special studies, and to invite your attention to a consideration of some problems arising from the variations in the development of the skull and the brain. Since the institution of this section the development, growth, and racial peculiarities of both skull and brain, and the relation of these two organs to each other, have attracted an ever-increasing amount of attention. The introduction of new and improved methods for the study of the structure of the brain and the activity of an able band of experimentalists have revolutionized our knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the higher nerve centers. The value of the results thus obtained is greatly enhanced by the consciousness that they bear the promise of still greater advances in « Address by the president to the anthropological section of the British Association at the Southport meeting, 1903. Reprinted from Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1903. 647 sm 1903——42 648 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. the near future. If the results obtained by the craniologist haye been less marked, this arises mainly from the nature of the subject, and is certainly not due to any lack of energy on their part. Our cranio- logical collections are continually increasing, and the various prehis- toric skulleaps from the Neanderthal to the Trinil still form the basis of interesting and valuable memoirs. While the additions to our general knowledge of cerebral anatomy and physiology have been so striking, those’ aspects of these subjects which are of special anthropological interest have made comparatively slight progress and can not compare in extent and importance with the advantages based upon a study of fossil and recent crania. These facts admit of a ready explanation. Brains of anthropological interest are usually difficult to procure and to keep, and require the use of special and complicated methods for their satisfactory examination, while skulls of the leading races of mankind are readily collected, preserved, and studied. Hence it follows that the crania in our anthropological collections are as numerous, well preserved, and varied as the brains are few in number and defective, both in their state of preservation and representative character. It may reasonably be anticipated that improved methods of preservation and the growing recognition on the part of anthropologists, museum curators, and collectors of the impor- tance of a study of the brain itself will, to some extent at least, remedy these defects; but so far as prehistoric man is concerned we can never hope to have any direct evidence of the condition of his higher nerve centers, and must depend for an estimate of his cerebral development upon those more or less perfect skulls which fortunately have resisted for so many ages the corroding hand of time. I presume we will all admit that the main value of a good collec- tion of human skulls depends upon the light which they can be made to throw upon the relative development of the brains of different races. Such collections possess few if any brains taken from these or corre- sponding skulls, and we are thus dependent upon the study of the skulls alone for an estimate of brain development. Vigorous attacks have not unfrequently been made upon the cranio- metric systems at present in general use, and the elaborate tables, compiled with so much trouble, giving the circumference, diameters, and corresponding indexes of various parts of the skull, are held to afford but little information as to the real nature of skull variations, however useful they may be for purposes of classification. While by no means prepared to express entire agreement with these critics, I must admit that craniologists as a whole have concentrated their atten- tion mainly on the external contour of the skull, and have paid com- paratively little attention to the form of the cranial cavity. The outer surface of the cranium presents features which are due to other factors than brain development, and an examination of the cranial cavity not THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 649 only gives us important information as to brain form, but by affording a comparison between the external and internal surfaces of the cranial wall it gives a valuable clew to the real significance of the external configuration. Beyond determining its capacity we can do but little toward an exact investigation of the cranial cavity without making a section of the skull. Forty years ago Professor Huxley, in his work On the Evidence of Man’s Place in Nature, showed the importance of a comparison of the basal with the vaulted portion of the skull, and maintained that until it should become *‘an opprobrium to an ethno- logical collection to possess a single skull which is not \bisected longi- tudinally” there would be ‘‘no safe basis for that ethnological craniology which aspires to give the anatomical characters of the crania of the different races of mankind.” Professor Cleland and Sir William Turner have also insisted upon this method of examination, and only two years ago Prof. D. J. Cunningham, in his presidential address to this section, quoted with approval the forcible language of Huxley. The curators of craniological collections appear, however, to possess an invincible objection to any such treatment of the specimens under their care. Even in the Hunterian Museum in London, where Huxley himself worked at this subject, among several thousands of skulls, scarcely any have been bisected longitudinally or had the cranial cavity exposed by a section in any other direction. The method advocated so strongly by Huxley is not only essential to a thorough study of the relations of basi-cranial axis to the vault of the cranium and to the facial portion of the skull, but also permits of rasts being taken of the cranial cavity, a procedure which, I would venture to suggest, has been too much neglected by craniologists. Every student of anatomy is familiar with the finger-like depressions on the inner surface of the cranial wall, which are described as the impress of the cerebral convolutions; but their exact distribution and the degree to which they are developed according to age, sex, race, etc., still remain to be definitely determined. Indeed, there appears to be a considerable difference of opinion as to the degree of approxi- mation of the outer surface of the brain to the inner surface of the cranial wall. Thus the brain is frequently described as lying upon a water bed, or as swimming in the cerebro-spinal fluid, while Hyrtle speaks of this fluid as a ‘‘ligamentum suspensorium” for the brain. Such descriptions are misleading when applied to the relation of the cerebral convolutions to the skull. There are, it is true, certain parts of the brain which are surrounded and separated from the skull by a considerable amount of fluid. These, however, are mainly the lower portions, such as the medu la oblongata and pons Varolii, which may be regarded as prolongations of the spinal cord into the cranial cavity. As they contain the centers controlling the action of the circulatory and respiratory organs, they are the most vital parts of the central 650 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. nervous system, and hence need special protection. They are not, however, concerned with the regulation of complicated voluntary movements, the reception and storage of sensory impressions from lower centers, and the activity of the various mental processes. These functions we must associate with the higher parts of the brain, and especially with the convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres. If a cast be taken of the cranial cavity and compared with the brain which had previously been carefully hardened in situ before removal, it will be found that the cast not only corresponds in its general form to that of the brain, but shows a considerable number of the cerebral fissures and convolutions. This molding of the inner surface of the skull to the adjacent portions of the cerebral hemispheres is usually much more marked at the base and sides than over the vault. Since the specific gravity of the brain tissue is higher than that of the cerebro-spinal fluid, the cerebrum tends to sink toward the base and the fluid to accumulate over the vault; hence probably these differ- ences admit of a simple mechanical explanation. Except under abnor- mal conditions, the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid between the skull and the cerebral convolutions is so small that from a cast of the cranial cavity we can obtain not only a good picture of the general shape and size of the higher parts of the brain, but also various details as to the convolutionary pattern. This method has been applied with marked suecess to the determination of the characters of the brain in various fossil lemurs by Dr. Forsyth Major and Prof. R. Burck- hardt, and Prof. Gustav Schwalbe has made a large series of such casts from his craniological collection in Strassburg. The interesting observations by Schwalbe” on the arrangement of the ‘* impressiones digitate ” and ‘*juga cerebralia,” and their relation to the cerebral convolutions in man, the apes, and various other mammals, have directed special attention to a very interesting field of inquiry. As is well kuown, the marked prominence at the base of the human skull, separating the anterior from the middJe fossa, fits into the deep cleft between the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, and Schwalbe has shown that this ridge is continued—of course in a much less marked form—along the inner surface of the lateral wall of the skull, so that a cast of the cranial cavity presents a shallow but easily recog- nized groove corresponding to the portion of the Sylvian fissure of the brain separating the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe. Further, there is a distinct depression for the lodgment of the inferior frontal convolution, and a east of the middle cranial fossa shows tke three external temporal convolutions. We must now turn to the consideration of the relations of the outer surface of the cranium to its inner surface and to the brain. This @Uber die Beziehungen zwischen Innenform und Aussenform des Schiidels, Deutsches Archiy fiir klinische Medicin, 1902. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 651 question has engaged the attention of experts as well as the **man in the street” since the time of Gall and Spurzheim, and one might naturally suppose that the last word had been said on the subject. This, however, is far from being the case. All anatomists are agreed that the essential function of the cranium is to form a box for the sup- port and protection of the brain, and it is generally conceded thax during the processes of development and growth the form of the cranium is modified in response to the stimulus transmitted to it by the brain. In fact, it is brain growth that determines the form of the cranium, and not the skull that molds the brain into shape. This belief, however, need not be accepted without some reservations. Even the brain may be conceived as being influenced by its immediate environment. There are probably periods of development when the form of the brain is modified by the resistance offered by its cover- ings, and there are certainly stages when the brain does not fully occupy the cranial cavity. At an early period in the phylogeny of the vertebrate skull the structure of the greater part of the cranial wall changes from mem- branous tissue into cartilage, the portion persisting as membrane being situated near the median dorsal line. In the higher vertebrates the rapid and early expansion of the dorsal part of the forebrain is so marked that the cartilaginous growth fails to keep pace with it, and more and more of the dorsal wall of the cranium remains membranous, and subsequently ossifies to form membrane bones. Cartilage, though constituting a firmer support to the brain than membrane, does not possess the same capacity of rapid growth and expansion. The head of a young child is relatively large, and its skull is distinguished from that of an adult by the small size of the cartilaginous base of the cranium as compared with the membranous vault. The appearance of topheaviness in the young skull is gradually obliterated as age advances by the cartilage continuing slowly to grow after the vault has practi- cally ceased to enlarge. These changes in the shape of the cranium are associated with corresponding alterations in that of the brain, and it appears to me that we have here an illustration of how the conditions of skull growth may modify the general form of the brain. Whatever may be the precise influences that determine skull and brain growth, there can be no doubt but that within certain limits the external form of the cranium serves as a reliable guide to the shape of the brain. Statements such as those by Dr. J. Deniker,¢ ‘‘that the inequalities of the external table of the cranial walls have no relation whatever with the irregularities of the inner table, and still less have anything in common with the configuration of the various parts of the brain,” are of too general and sweeping a character. Indeed, various observers have drawn attention to the fact that in certain regions the “The Races of Man, p. 53. 652 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. outer surface of the skull possesses elevations and depressions which closely correspond to definite fissures and convolutions of the brain. Many years ago Sir William Turner, who was a pioneer in cranio- cerebral topography, found that the prominence on the outer surface of the parietal bone, known to anatomists as the parietal eminence, was situated directly superficial to a convolution of the parietal lobe of the brain, which he consequently very appropriately named ‘the convolution of the’ parietal eminence.” Quite recently Prof. G. Schwalbe has shown that the position of the third or inferior frontal convolution is indicated by a prominence on the surface of the cra- nium in the anterior part of the temple. This area of the brain is of special interest to all students of cerebral anatomy and physiology, since it was the discovery by the illustrious French anthropologist and physician, M. Broca, that the left inferior frontal convolution was the center for speech, that laid the scientific foundation of our present knowledge of localization of function in the cerebral cortex. This convolution is well known to be much more highly developed in man than in the anthropoid apes, and the presence of a human cranial speech bump is usually easily demonstrated. The faculty of speech, however, is such a complicated cerebral function that I would warn the ‘‘new” phrenologist to be cautious in estimating the loquac- ity of his friends by the degree of prominence of this part of the skull, more particularly as there are other and more reliable methods of observation by which he can estimate this capacity. In addition to the prominences on the outer surface of the cranium, corresponding to the conyolutions of the parietal eminence and the left inferior frontal convolution, the majority of skulls possess a shal- low groove marking the position of the Sylvian point and the course of the horizontal limb of the Sylvian fissure. Below these two other shallow oblique grooves indicate the line of the cerebral fissures which divide the outer surface of the temporal lobe into its three convolu- tions, termed ‘‘superior,” ‘‘middle,” and ‘‘inferior.” Most of these cranial surface markings are partially obscured in the living body by the temporal muscle, but they are. of interest as showing that in certain places there is a close correspondence in form between the external surface of the brain and that of the skull. There are, however, distinct limitations in the degree to which the various cere- bral fissures and convolutions impress the inner surface of the cranial wall, or are represented by inequalities on its outer aspect. Thus over the vault of the cranium the position of the fissure of Rolando and the shape of the cerebral convolutions in the so-called motor area, which lie in relation to this fissure, can not usually be detected from a cast of the cranial cavity, and are not indicated by depressions or elevations on the surface of the skull, so that surgeons in planning the seats of operations necessary to expose the various motor centers have THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 6538 to rely mainly upon certain linear and angular measurements made from points frequently remote from these centers. The cranium is not merely a box developed for the support and pro- tection of the brain, and more or less accurately molded in conformity with the growth of this organ. Its antero-lateral portions afford attachments to the muscles of mastication and support the jaws and teeth, while its posterior part is liable to vary according to the degree of development of the muscles of the nape of the neck. Next to the brain the most important factor in determining cranial form is the con- dition of the organs of mastication—muscles, jaws, and teeth. There is strong evidence in favor of the view that the evolution of man from microcephaly to macrocephaly has been associated with the passage from a macrodontic to a microdontic condition. The modifications in the form of the cranium due to the influence of the organs of mastica- tion have been exerted almost entirely upon its external table; hence external measurements of the cranium, as guides to the shape of the cranial cavity and indications of brain development, while fairly reli- able in the higher races, become less and less so as we examine the skulls of the lower races, of prehistoric man, and of the anthropoid apes. One of the most important measurements of the cranium is that which determines the relation between its length and breadth and thus divides skulls into long or short, together with an intermediate group neither distinctly dolichocephalic nor brachycephalic. These meas- urements are expressed by an index in which the length is taken as 100. If the proportion of breadth to length is 80 or upward, the skull is brachycephalic; if between 75 and 80, mesaticephalic; and below 75, dolichocephalic. Such a measurement is not so simple a matter as it might appear at first sight, and craniologists may themselves be classified into groups according as they have selected the nasion, or depression at the root of the nose, the glabella, or prominence above this depression, and the ophryon, a spot just above this prominence, as the anterior point from which to measure the length. Ina young child this measurement would practically be the same whichever of these three points was chosen, and each point would be about the same distance from the brain. With the appearance of the teeth of the second detention and the enlargement of the jaws, the frontal bone in the region of the eyebrows and just above the root of the nose thick- ens, and its outer table bulges forward so that it is now no longer par- allel with the inner table. Between these tables air cavities gradually extend from the nose, forming the frontal sinuses. Although the existence and significance of these spaces and their influence on the prominence of the eyebrows were the subject of a fierce controversy more than half a century ago between the phrenologists and their 654 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. opponents, it is only recently that their variations have been carefully investigated. The frontal sinuses are usually supposed to vary according to the degree of prominence of the glabella and the supraorbital arches. This, however, is not the case. Thus Schwalbe “ has figured a skull in which the sinuses do not project as high as the top of the glabella and supraorbital prominences, and another in which they extend considerably above these projections. Further, Dr. Logan Turner,” who has made an extensive investigation into these cavities, has shown that in the aboriginal Australian, in which this region of the skull is unusually prominent, the frontal sinuses are frequently either absent or rudimentary. The ophryon has been selected by some craniologists as the anterior point from which to measure the length of the skull, under the impression that the frontal sinuses do not usually reach above the glabella. Dr. Logan Turner, however, found that out of 174 skulls in which the frontal sinuses were present, in 130 the sinuses extended above the ophryon. In 71 skulls the depth of the sinus at the level of the ophryon varied from 2 to 16 millimeters, the average being 5.2 millimeters, while in the same series of skulls the depth at the glabella varied from 3 to 18 millimeters, with an average depth of 8.5 millimeters. It thus appears that the selection of the ophryon in preference to the glabella, as giving a more accurate clue to the length of the brain, is based upon erroneous assumptions, and that neither point can be relied upon in the determination of the anterior limit of the cranial cavity. The difficulties of estimating the extent of the cranial cavity by external measurements and the fallacies that may result from a reli- ance upon this method are especially marked in the case of the study of the prehistoric human calyaria, such as the Neanderthal and the Trinil and the skulls of the anthropoid apes. Statistics are popularly supposed to be capable of proving almost anything, and certainly if you allow craniologists to select their own points from which to measure the length and breadth of the cranium they will furnish you with tables of measurements showing that one and the same skull is dolichocephalic, mesaticephalic, and brachy- cephalic. Let us take as an illustration an extreme case, such as the skull of an adult male gorilla. Its glabella and supraorbital arches will be found to project forward, its zygomatic arches outward, and its transverse occipital crests backward far beyond the anterior, lateral, and posterior limits of the cranial cavity. These outgrowths are obviously correlated with the enormous development of the mus- cles of mastication and those of the back of the neck. In a specimen «Studien iiber Pithecanthropus erectus,’’ Zeitschrift fir Morphologie und Anthro- pologie, Bd. 1., 1899. >The Accessory Sinuses of the Nose, 1901. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 655 in my possession the greatest length of the cranium, i. e., from glabella to external occipital protuberance, is 195 millimeters, and the greatest breadth, taken between the outer surfaces of the zygomatic processes of the temporal bone, is 172 millimeters, giving the marked brachy- cephalic index of 88.21. The zygomatic processes, however, may reasonably be objected to as indicating the true breadth, and the side wall of the cranium just above the line where the root of this process springs from the squamous portion of the temporal bone will certainly be much nearer the cranial cavity. Measured in this situation the breadth of the cranium is 118 millimeters, which gives a length-breadth index of 60.51, and thus represents the skull as decidedly dolichoce- phalic. The transverse occipital crests and the point where these meet in the middle line to form the external occipital protuberance are much more prominent in the male than in the female gorilla, and the estimate of the length of the cranium in this male gorilla may be reduced to 160 millimeters, by selecting the base of the protuberance in place of its posterior extremity as the posterior end measurement. This raises the index to 73.75, and places the skull near the mesati- cephalic group. At the anterior part of the skull the prominent glabella is separated from the inner table of the skull by large air sinuses, so that on a median section of the skull the distance from the glabella to the nearest part of the cranial cavity is 36 millimeters. We have here, therefore, another outgrowth of the cranial wall which in an examination of the external surface of the skull obscures the extent of the cranial cavity. Accordingly the glabella can not be selected as the anterior point from which to measure the leneth of the cranium, and must, like the zygomatic arches and occipital protuber- ance, be excluded from our calculations if we desire to determine a true length-breadth index. The difficulty, however, is to select a definite point on the surface of the cranium to represent its anterior end, which will be free from the objections justly urged against the glabella. Schwalbe suggests the hinder end of the supraglabellar fossa, which he states often corresponds to the beginning of a more or less distinctly marked frontal crest. I have found this point either difficult to determine or too far back.” Thus in my male gorilla the posterior end of this fossa formed by the meeting of the two temporal ridges was 56 millimeters behind the g@labella, and only 24 millimeters from the bregma, while in the female gorilla the temporal ridges do not meet, but there is a low median frontal ridge, which may be con- sidered as bounding posteriorly the supraglabellar fossa. This point is 22 millimeters from the glabella, and between 50 and 60 millimeters in front of the bregma. I would suggest a spot in the median line of the supraglabellar fossa which is crossed by a transverse line uniting the posterior bor- 656 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. ders of the external angular processes of the frontal bone. 1 admit this plan is not free from objections, but it possesses the advantages of being available for both male and female skulls. In my male skull the selection of this: point diminishes the length of the cranium by 25 millimeters, thus reducing it to 137 millimeters. The breadth being calculated at 114 millimeters the index is 83.21, and hence distinctly brachycephalic. The length of the cranial cavity is 118 millimeters and the breadth 96 millimeters, and the length-breadth index is thus the brachycephalic one of 81.36. I have given these somewhat detailed references to the measure- ments of this gorilla’s skull because they show in a very clear and obvious manner that from an external examination of the skull one might easily be misled as to the size and form of the cranial cavity, and that in order to determine from external measurements the pro- portions of the cranial cavity, skull outgrowths due to other factors than brain growth must be rigorously excluded. Further, these details will serve to emphasize the interesting fact that the gorilla’s skull is decidedly brachycephalic. This character is by no means restricted to the gorilla, for it has been clearly proved by Virchow, Schwalbe, and others that all the anthropoid apes are markedly round- headed. Ever since the introduction by the illustrious Swedish anthro- pologist, Anders Retzius, of a classification of skulls according to the proportions between their length and breadth, great attention has heen paid to this peculiarity in different races of mankind. It has been generally held that brachycephaly indicates a higher type of skull than dolichocephaly, and that the increase in size of the brain in the higher races has tended to produce a brachycephalic skull. When the cranial walls are subject to excessive internal pressure, as in hydro- cephalus, the skull tends to become distinctly brachycephalic, as : given extent of wall gives a greater internal cavity in a spherical than an oval form. In estimating the value of this theory as to the evolu- tionary line upon which the skull has traveled, it is obvious that the brachycephalic character of the skulls of all the anthropoid apes is a fact which requires consideration. Although an adult male gorilla, such as I have selected, presents in an extreme degree outgrowths from the cranial wall masking the true form of the cranial cavity, the same condition, though to a less marked extent, is met with in with the human subject. Further, it is interesting to note that the length of the skull is more liable to be increased by such growths than the breadth, since they occur espe- cially over the lower part of the forehead and to a less degree at the back of the skull, while the side walls of the cranium in the region of its greatest breadth generally remain thin. Few if any fossils have attracted an equal amount of attention or given rise to such keen controversies as the ‘‘ Neanderthal” and the THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 657 *Trinil” skulleaps. According to some authorities, both these skull- caps are undoubtedly human, while others hold that the ‘* Neanderthal” belongs to an extinct species of the genus Homo, and the **Trinil” is the remains of an extinet genus—P/thecanthropus erectus of Dubois— intermediate between man and the anthropoids. One of the most obvious and easily recognized peculiarities of these skullcaps is the very marked prominence of the supraorbital arches. The glabella- occipital length of the Neanderthal is 204 millimeters, and the greatest transverse diameter, which is over the parietal region, is 152 milli- meters—an index of 74.51—while the much smaller Trinil calvaria, with a length of 181 millimeters and a breadth of 130 milimeters, has an index of 71.8. Both of these skulls are therefore slightly dolichocephalic. Schwalbe has corrected these figures by making reductions in their lengths on account of the frontal ‘‘ outworks,” so that he estimates the true leneth-breadth index of the Neanderthal as SO and that of the Trinil as 75.5. These indices, thus raised about 5 per cent, are con- sidered to represent approximately the length-breadth index of the cranial cavity. A comparison of the external and internal measure- ments of many recent skulls with prominent glabelle would, I suspect, show a greater difference than that calculated by Schwalbe for the Neanderthal and Trinil specimens. In a male skull, probably an aboriginal Australian, with a cranial capacity of 1,227 cubic centi- meters, I found that the glabella-occipital length was 189 millimeters and the transverse diameter at the parieto-squamous suture 127 milli- meters, which gives an index of 67.20 and makes the skull decidedly dolichocephalic. The length of the cranial cavity, however, was 157 millimeters and the breadth 121 millimeters (an index of 77.07 and a difference of nearly 10 per cent), so that while from external measure- ments the skull is distinctly dolichocephalic, the proportions of its cavity are such that it is mesaticephalic. It is probable that many skulls owe their dolichocephalic reputation simply to the prominence of the glabella and supraorbital ridges. An excessive development of these structures is also liable to give the erroneous impression of a retreat- ing forehead. In the Australian skull just mentioned the thickness of . the cranial wall at the glabella was 22 millimeters. From this level upward it gradually thinned, until 45 millimeters above the glabella it was only 6 milliméters thick. When the bisected skull was placed in the horizontal position the anterior surface of the frontal bone sloped from the glabella upward and distinctly backward, while the posterior or cerebral surface was inclined upward and forward. In fact, the cranial cavity in this region was separated from the lower part of the forehead by a wedge-shaped area having its apex upward and its base below at the glabella. The cranial wall opposite the glabella is not appreciably thicker in the Neanderthal calvaria than in the Australian skull to which I have 658 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. already referred, and the form of the cranial cavity is not more masked by this prominence in the Neanderthal than in many of the existing races. Although the Neanderthal skull is by no means complete, the base of the cranium and the face bones being absent, still those parts of the cranial wall are preserved that are specially related to the portion of the brain which subserves all the higher mental processes. It includes the frontal, parietal, and upper part of the oecipital bones, with parts of the roof of the orbits in front, and of the squamous division of the temporal bones at the sides. On its inner or cranial aspect there are markings by which the boundaries between the cere- brum and the cerebellum can be determined. In a profile view of such a specimen an inioglabellar line can be drawn which will corre- spond very closely to the lower boundary of the cerebrum, and indi- cate a borizontal plane above which the vaulted portion of the skull must have contained nearly the whole of the cerebrum. Schwalbe“ has devised a series of measurements to illustrate what he regards as essential differences between the Neanderthal skullcap and the corresponding portion of the human skull. From the inio- glabellar line another is drawn at right angles to the highest part of the vault, and by comparing the length of these two lines we can determine the length-height index. According to Schwalbe, this o 40.4 in the Neanderthal, while the minimum in the human skull is ! He further shows that the frontal portion of the vault, as eae by a glabella-bregmatic line, forms a smaller angle with the base or inioglabular line, and that a vertical line from the posterior end of the frontal bone (bregma) cuts the inioglabella farther back than in the human subject. Professor King, of Galway, attached special importance to the shape and proportions of the parietal bones, and more particularly to the fact that their mesial borders are shorter than the lower or temporal, whereas the reverse is the case in recent man. This feature is obviously related to the defective expansion of the Neanderthal vault, and Professor Schwalbe also attributes considerable significance to this pecularity. Another distinctive feature of the Neanderthal skull is the relation of the orbits to the cranial wall. Schwalbe shows that its brain case takes a much smaller share in the formation of the roof of the orbit than it does in recent man, and King pointed out that a line from the anterior inferior angle of the external orbital process of the frontal bone, drawn at right angles to the inioglabellar line, passed in the Neanderthal in front of the cranial cavity, whereas in man such a line would have a considerable portion of the frontal part of the brain case anterior to it. From the combined results of these and other measurements, Schwalbe arrives at the very important and interesting contueien that a PWeber die spec agtashen Merkmale ae Nendo unalone 2 Vornaeall ie anatomischen Gesellschaft in Bonn, 1901. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. 659 the Neanderthal skull possesses a number of important peculiarities which differentiate it from the skulls of existing man and show an approx- imation toward those of the anthropoidapes. He maintains that in rec- ognizing with King” and Cope? the Neanderthal skull as belonging to a distinct species, lomo Neanderthalensis, he is only following the usual practice of zoologists and paleontologists, by whom specific characters are frequently founded upon much less marked differences. He main- tains that as the Neanderthal skull stands in many of its characters nearer to the higher anthropoids than to recent man, if the Neanderthal type is to be included under the term //omo sapiens, then this species ought to be still more extended, so as to embrace the anthropoids. It is interesting to turn from a perusal of these opinions recently advanced by Schwalbe to consider the grounds on which Huxley and Turner, about forty years ago, opposed the view, which was then being advocated, that the characters of the Neanderthal skull were so distinct from those of any of the existing races as to justify the recog- nition of a new species of the genus Homo. Huxley, while admitting that it was ‘tthe most pithecoid of human skulls,” yet holds that. it ‘is by no means so isolated as it appears to be at first, but forms in reality the extreme term of a series leading gradually from it to the highest and best developed of human crania.” He states that ‘it is closely approached by certain Australian skulls, and even more nearly by the skulls of certain ancient people who inhabited Denmark during the stone period.” ‘Turner’s’ observations led him to adopt a similar view to that advanced by Huxley. He compared the Neanderthal ralvaria with savage and British crania in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh, and found among them specimens closely corresponding to the Neanderthal type. While yielding to no one in my admiration for the thoroughness and ability with which Schwalbe has conducted his elaborate and extensive investigations on this question, I must confess that in my opinion he has not sufficiently recognized the significance of the large cranial capacity of the Neanderthal skull in determining the zoolog:. ical position of its owner, or made sufficient allowance for the great variations in form which skulls undoubtedly human may present. The length and breadth of the Neanderthal calvaria are distinctly greater than in many living races and compensate for its defect in height, so that it was capable of lodging a brain fully equal in volume to that of many existing savage races and at least double that of any anthropoid ape. A number of the characters upon which Schwalbe relies in differ- entiating the Neanderthal skullcap are due to an appreciable extent “The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal, Journal of Science, 1864. >The Genealogy of Man, the American Naturalist, Vol. XX VII, 1893. ¢The Fossil Skull Controversy, Journal of Science, 1864, 660 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKULL AND BRAINS. to the great development of the glabella and supraorbital arches. Now these processes are well known to present very striking variations in existing human races. They are usually supposed to be developed as buttresses for the purpose of affording support to the large upper jaw and enable it to resist the pressure of the lower jaw due to the con- traction of the powerful muscles of mastication. These processes, how- ever, are usually feebly marked in the microcephalic, prognathous, and macrodont negro skull, and may be well developed in the macrocephalic and orthognathous skulls of some of the higher races. Indeed, their variations are too great and their significance too obscure for them to form a basis for the creation of a new species of man. Both Huxley and Turner have shown that the low vault of the Neanderthal calvaria can be closely paralleled by specimens of existing races. If the characters of the Neanderthal calvaria are so distinctive as to justify the recognition of a new species, a new genus ought to be made for the Trinil skullcap. In nearly every respect it is distinctly lower in type than the Neanderthal, and yet many of the anatomists who have expressed their opinion on the subject maintain that the Trinil specimen is distinctly human. Important and interesting as are the facts which may be ascertained from a study of a series of skulls regarding the size and form of the brain, it is evident that there are distinct limits to the knowledge to be obtained from this source. Much additional information as to racial characters would undoubtedly be gained had we collections of brains at all corresponding in number and variety with the skulls in our museums. We know that asa rule the brains of the less civilized races are smaller and the convolutions and fissures simpler than those of the more cultured nations; beyond this but little has been definitely determined. As the results of investigations in human and comparative anatomy, physiology, and pathology, we know that definite areas of the cerebral cortex are-connected with the action of definite groups of muscles, and that the nervous impulses starting from the organs of smell, sight, hearing, and common sensibility reach defined cortical fields. All these, however, do not cover more than a third of the convoluted sur- face of the brain, and the remaining two-thirds are still toa large extent a terra incognita so far as their precise function is concerned. Is there a definite localization of special mental qualities or moral tendencies, and if so, where are they situated? These are problems of extreme difficulty, but their interest and importance are difficult to exaggerate. In the solution of this problem anthropologists are bound to take an active and important part. When they have col- lected information as to the relative development of the various parts of the higher brain in all classes of mankind with the same thorough- ness with which they have investigated the racial peculiarities of the skull the question will be within a measurable distance of solution. THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE. By A. B. MryeEr.@ The descriptive images of the lion by the earliest Greek author, Homer,? are so realistic and true to nature (compare especially in the Tliad, x1, 544 sqq.), that they must be ascribed to direct observation,¢ yet this does not prove the existence of that animal in Greece in historic time. Aside from other possibilities, it is uncertain whether the passages in question originated as late as the entire Homeric epic on the soil of Asia Minor (Zolia, Ionia), or whether they belong to earlier continental (Thessalian) collections of hymns. Herodotus, from about 484 to about 430 B. c., records, in volume vi1, pages 124— 126, of his history, that there are many lions between the Achelous River in Acarnania and the Nestus, which flows through Abdera, and this he mentions in connection with the description of Xerxes’s expe- dition through Macedonia in 480 B. c., when lions killed some draft camels. This passage is often cited. Aristotle (884-322 B. c.), in Hist. anim., vit, 28, gives the same range, but seems to have taken it only from Herodotus.” On this G. C. Lewis’ remarks: The scientific character of Aristotle’s researches in natural history gives great weight to his testimony. As he was a native of Stagira and had resided in Mace- donia, he may be supposed to have had opportunities for verifying it; and we can not assume that he blindly followed the account of Herodotus, although at an interval of about a century he defines the range of the lion by the same two rivers. «Translation of A. B. Meyer’s ‘“‘Bis wie weit in der historischen Zeit zuriick ist der Lowe in Griechenland nachweisbar?’’ Reprint from Der Zoologische Garten, vol. xiv, 1903, pp. 65-73. >The most important passages among ancient authors who refer to the lion have been brought together in an interesting manner by H. O. Lenz, in ‘‘Zoologie der Alten Griechen und Romer,’’ pp. 126-140, Gotha, 1886. Compare also O. Keller, Tiere des klassischen Altertums, Innsbruck, 1887, and L. Meyer, Handbuch der griechischen Etymologie, vol. tv., p. 498 sq., Leipzig, 1902. ¢Thus already Pictet, Les origines indo-européennes, vol. 1, p. 422, Paris, 1859, and O. Schade, Altdeutsches Worterbuch, 2d ed., vol. 11, p. 548a, Halle, 1872-1882. @ According to Pausanias (second century A. b.), v1, 5, 3, lions sometimes came down as far as Mount Olympus. The famous athlete (pancratiast) Polydamos, without shield or weapon, is said to have there slain a large and powerful lion. Comp. Lenz, Zoologie der Griechen und Romer, p. 84, note 78, 1856. eThe Lion in Greece; Notes and Queries, second series, vol. vir, p. 82, 1859. - 661 662 THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE. Further, arter calling attention to the fact that Aristotle corrected a nonsensical statement of Herodotus on the act of parturition of the lion, he adds: * * * Jt seems very unlikely that Aristotle should have been able to correct the historian’s account of the parturition of the lioness but not have thought it worth his while to verify the more obvious and patent fact of the occurrence of the lion in northern Greece.@ And on page 59 he says: It is very improbable that * * * he should in two places (i. e., also v1, 31) have repeated so important a statement as that of the presence of the lion in the whole of northern Greece, from Abdera in Thrace to the confines of Aolia, without verification and upon the mere credit of Herodotus, whom he elsewhere designates as a fabulist and whose errors in natural history he points out and rectifies in several places. All this, though not cogent, is so obvious that it 1s easily understood when the philologist and the historian do not question Herodotus’s “account, so definitely presented and twice repeated by Aristotle, a native of that region.”? Nay, J. Beloché even adds: ‘‘That it [the lion| once spread over the whole peninsula (1. e., also over middle Greece and the Peloponnesus) is shown by the myths of the Nemean and Citheronian lions.”“ On the part of philology there is thus apparently no ground to doubt the ancient tradition that even in historic time, about 500 B. c., there were lions in a part of Europe situated near Asia. Turning from the ancient tradition to the domain of linguistic facts, «Loe. cit., vol. rx, p. 56, 1860. ’QO. Schrader, Reallexikon der indo-germanischen Altertumskunde, vol.-1, p, 508 1901. ¢Griechische Geschichte, vol. 1, p. 37, note 1, 1893. “The same was already maintained by Lewis, loc. cit., 1860, and Dawkins and Sanford have adopted it, as we shall see below, in 1869. ¢Compare, in the first place, W. Schulze, Queestiones epic, p. 70 et seq., Gueter- slohae, 1892; so already Th. Benfey, Griechisches Wurzellexikon, u, 1, Berlin, 1842; F. A. Pott, Etymologische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Indo-German- ischen Sprachen, 2d ed., u, p. 1261, Lemgo, 1867; F, Kauffmann, in Paul und Braune’s Beitriigen, vol. x1, p. 210, 1887 For the Celtic forms see W Stokes, Urkeltischer Sprachschatz, edited by A. Bezzenberger (=A. Fick, Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, 4th ed., yol. 1), p. 242, Gottingen, 1894; for the Slavo-Lettonian, J. Kartowiez (V. Jagic) in the Archiv fiir Slavische Philologie, vol. 1, p. 364 1877, and A. Briickner, Die Slavischen Fremdwéorter im Litauischen, pp. 103 and 105, Weimar, 1877; for the old high German, besides O. Schade, Altdeutsches Worterbuch, 2d ed., vol. 1, p. 547 sq., Halle, 1872-1882; also O. Bremer in Paul und Braune’s Beitriigen, vol. x1. p. 384-387, 1888, against F Kauffmann, ibid., vol. xt, p- 207-210, 1887, and H. Palander, Die althochdeutschen Tiernamen, vol. 1, p. 46 sq., Darmstadt, 1899. Schulze (loc. cit.) considers the Greek name as the fina! source of all the other European designations, as a genuine Greek word, while L, Meyer (Handbuch der griechischen Etymologie, vol. 1v, p. 499, THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE. 663 alleled in European Indo-Germanic languages, and this antiquity of the name makes it probable that it originally denoted an indigenous animal which could not have been other than the lion. But the existence of that animal in historic time is not thus proved, and the fact that philological studies leave us uncertain as to whether the name originally designated an indigenous animal leads us now to turn to zoology “ for a possible solution of the problem. Likewise, if we search among the place names for traces of the | existence of the lion we gain nothing. True, the word \é@yv (leon) occurs as the name of a cape near Eretria and Lebena? in Crete, but these names certainly do not refer to the animal as native to the region, but merely indicate that the rock suggests a lion in shape.“ What, then, 1s the attitude of zoologists and paleontologists toward this question 4 C. I. Sundeyall” expresses himself as follows: *‘ From all this it becomes very probable that in 330 B. c. lions were still encountered in Macedonia, though very rare.” It is as little doubted by A. Newton,’ Dupont, Nehring, von Zittel (see below), and others. Dawkins” also refers, in agreement with Lewis, 7 to Xenophon” (from about 428 until after 355 B. c.) in regard to the occurrence of the hon in historic time in South Thracia, and adds: ‘‘It may have extended far over the Balkan Range into the valley of the Danube within the historic period of Greece.”’ Flower and Lydekker’ follow Dawkins and Santord without reserve. 1902) thinks it possibly a word borrowed from a non-Greek linguistic sphere. The primitive relationship between the European Indo-Germanic lion names is of late upheld particularly by O. Schrader (Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte, p. 362 sq., Jena, 1890, comp. Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, vol. 1, p. 508 sq., Strassburg, 1901). I am indebted for the linguistic references to Dr. Oswald Richter, assistant in the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Dresden. « As did already Forstemann, Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung, 1852, vol. 1 p. 495. »Lebena itself, which was a Phoenician colony, is named after the cape. Com- pare Hebrew labi, “‘lion;’? comp. J. J. Egli, Nom. geogr., 2d ed., p. 531, Leipzig, 1898, and H. Lewy, Die semitischen Fremdworter im Griechischen, p. 7, Berlin, 1895. ¢Philostratus expressly mentions Aé@v as well asépakwv among the playsof nature: * Nature causes mountains and mountain peaks to resemble animalsas . . . the Cretan lion . . .’* Comp. A. Fick in Bezzenberger’s Beitriigen, vol. xx1, p. 265, 1896. “ Die Tierarten des Aristoteles, p. 47 sq., Stockholm, 1863. eOn the Zoology of Ancient Europe, p. 7, London, 1862. ‘ British Pleistocene Mammalia, pt. A, p. xxxiv, 1878. 9 Loe. cit., vol. vit, p. 82, 1859. 4 Cynegaticus x1, 1. ‘See also Dawkins and Sanford, British Pleistocene Mammalia, pt. iii, p. 166, 1869. J Introduction to the Study of Mammals, p. 504, 1891. sm 1903——43 664 THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE. If bones of the recent lion have not yet been found in Greece, it should be remembered that the limited researches made in that country render negative evidence of little account. On the other hand, fossil lion bones are found. Thus only recently, as Dr. T. Kriiper at Athens informed me, Doctor Skuphos found such a skull. The fossil cave lion was spread all over Europe during the Diluvial period. **In Diluvial bone caves of Europe,” says von Zittel,“ *‘the cave lion, which does not differ from the lion now found in Africa and western Asia, occurs in solitary examples. In historic time it still inhabited southern Europe.” Nehring has recently proved the existence of the Diluvial lion (/e/és spelea Goldf.) in the province of Brandenburg,’ and previously also in Thuringia, Westphalia, Brunswick, Hanover, and the province of Saxony.° He remarks on that occasion: ‘*As regards the question of the contemporaneousness of man with /e/7s speleea, | can not help affirming it on the basis of my excavations in the gypsum quarry of Thiede (Brunswick).” We may expect an elaborate treatise by Professor Nehring on the Diluvial lion. He thinks, as he informed me, that about 20,000 years ago, during the steppe period, the cave lion roamed in Germany as far north as Bruns- wick. Dupont considers such fixing of dates impossible, and thinks that for the present we must be content with establishing the succes- sion of forms (loc. cit.). He has variously proven the existence of Felis spelea in Belgium.” Its occurrence in England has been fully discussed by Dawkins and Sanford,’ who say that it completely dis- appeared at the end of the Post-Glacial or Quaternary period, and that no finds of prehistoric time have been made. ‘The same investigators discuss’ its occurrence also in France, Belgium, Germany, the Car- pates, Italy, and Sicily. In the latter territory it is supposed (accord- ing to Falconer) to have existed contemporaneously with man. Thus, according to paleontological indications, the lion was once spread over almost entire Europe. This fossil lion of Europe is, in the opinion of most investigators, identical with the lion of the present. Such identity was already asserted by D’Orbigny / in 1858-1861, and, later, Dawkins and Sanford, in their already quoted work,” in which they treated of the /e/zs spelea with the utmost completeness and care, arrived at the conclu- sion ‘‘that there is not one character by which the animal can be dis- tinguished from the living lion. It must therefore be admitted that “ Handbuch der Paliontologie, vol. 1v, p. 676, 1892. ” Sitzungsberichte der Gessellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, Berlin, 1899, p. 71 sqq. ¢ Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Verhandlungen, vol. xxv, p. 407, 1893. “T/ homme pendant les Ages de la pierre, 2d ed., 1873, pp. 80, 89, 114, 118, ete. € Loe. cit., pp. 151-160. J Loe, cit., p. 160-161. 7 Diction hist. nat. (1858-1861), vol. 11, p. 429. “The British Pleistocene Mammalia, pt. iii, p. 150, 1869, THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE 665 Felis spelxa is specifically identical with the lion now living on the face of the earth.” For practical reasons they recommend the use of the designation /¢//s /zo var. spelwa to denote that variety which dur- ing the Post-Glacial period inhabited the caves of north and west Europe. In 1890 Nehring” declares, following the opinion of most modern investigators, that the cave lion, /¢//s spel, is ** nothing else than a northern variety of the lion [evidently provided with a warm, shaggy skin] analogous to the northern variety of the tiger which oecurs at present in south Siberia.” Dupont? likewise observes: ‘* The lion, the reindeer, and the stag of the Quaternary epoch, in the remains which have been preserved to us, as much resemble those which live at present as the ibis which was embalmed thousands of years ago resembles the ibis which embellishes the shores of the Nile. The American F?/7s atrow Leidy is also, according to Dawkins and Sanford, identical with #° /eo var. spelzea, so that its range extended over Europe, through Russia and north Asia, and, by way of Bering Strait, into America as far south as Mexico (loe cit., p. 163). All the deposits in which the bones of the cave lion have been found in the countries mentioned above are either Post-Glacial or Quater- nary. But Dawkins and Sanford think it would be rash to, a priori, exclude the occurrence in the Pliocene time. They also point out that Aristotle calls the lion ‘* rare,” while Herodotus, one hundred and fifty years before, could still say there were ‘** many,” and they think that it decreased during that interval. They then further observe, follow- ing Lewis,’ that Dio Chrysostomus, 80 or 100 4. D., speaks of the complete extinction of the lion, so that within four hundred years after Aristotle it disappeared from Europe.” Lastly, they lay stress upon the lion in the folklore of the Balkan peoples because this permits the conclusion of the simultaneous occurrence of the lion with man. This, too, is based chiefly on the data brought together by G. C. Lewis in his two extremely readable essays.‘ Whatever weight may be given to the accounts or legends of the ancients or to the views of modern naturalists on the simultaneous- ness of man with the cave lion, there is at all events a connection between the former and present range of the lion, and since lions still roam not far from Greece its gradual retreat before man and civiliza- tion to the present limit of its range is not only not unlikely, but, on the contrary, most probable. “Tundren und Steppen, 1890, p. 193. ¥La chronologie géologique, Bull. Acad. R. Belgique, 3d series, vol. vit1, No. 12, 1884, p. 18 of the separate copy. €Loe. cit., vol. vir, p. 83, 1859. 4 See also Dawkins, Die Héhlen und die Ureinwohner Europas, German transla- tion by Spengel, 1876, p. 62. ¢ Notes and Queries, 2d series, vol. vit, pp. 81-84, 1859, and vol. 1x, pp. 57-59, 1860, \ 666 THE ANTIQUITY OF 'THE LION IN GREECE. ' According to the Old Testament, the lion was common in the Leba- non region and even on the Jordan. It occurred in Palestine until the twelfth century (the time of the Crusaders).“ In Syria its exist- ence can be traced from the earliest historical times to the present day. According to Perrot and Chipiez,? Amenophis III (1400 x. c.) is proved to have chased the lion in northern Syria on a large scale. Only twenty years ago, according to Tristram (loc. cit.), the body of a lion was brought to Damascus. In Egypt proper, lions but rarely occurred,’ while in northern Syria they must have been quite numerous. Ancient writers also— Xenophon, Aristotle, Strabo, Pliny, and others— speak of lion hunts in Syria and in Arabia. The lions in the latter country are said to have been more powerful and numerous than in Lybia. Tristram states that in Mesopotamia the lion is at present common. Layard, in the middle of the last century, heard its roaring not far from Bagdad. In the north it occurs on the Tigris as far as Kalaat Schergat, on the Euphrates as far as Bir,“ and, lastly, in Persia,¢ where the lion is especially found ‘‘tn the forest slopes of the Zagros,” the chief mountain region of Persia. Abbott mentions the lion among the animals of Khorasmia.’ On its occurrence in northwest India, see Blandford (loc. cit.) and Dawkins.” Considering all this, I hold it not well to be doubted, from reasons of natural science, that in Herodotus’s time lions still lived in the regions named by him, and I hold it not impossible that the ancient lion representations in Greece, such as a lion chase upon a Mycenean “H. B. Tristram, The Survey of Western Palestine, 1884, p. 17. Comp. also his Natural History of the Bible, 7th ed., 1883, p. 116 sq. > Geschichte der Kunst im Altertum: Aegypten, German translation by R. Pietsch- mann, p. 862, 1884. ¢“The artists of the new empire were encouraged to a frequent representation of the lion above all through the renewed acquaintance with the animal itself, and one might think that this Asiatic lion possessed their imagination when they depict lions either with a very ight mane or with none at all, if both varieties did not appear at Beni Hassan. At all events the lion with heavy mane is the more original type in Egyptian art... Only very rarely do the forms of the lion in Egyptian represen- tations indicate the Assyrian type. The heraldic use of animals upon shields and pectorals is also of Asiatic origin, appearing in the second Thebean empire in pictures which exhibit gryphons, jackals, and lions.’’ (Perrot and Chipiez, loc. cit.) Thus there occur upon Egyptian monuments both the Egyptian and the Asiatic types of lions (both wild and tamed), with a noticeable difference, which is worth considera- tion also in other parts of ancient archzeology, as, for instance, in the study of the Greeks. @ Nineveh, vol. 11, p. 48, 1849. ¢ Eastern Persia, vol. 1, Zoology and Geology, by W. T. Blandford, 1876, p. 29, and W. Geiger, Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie, vol. u, pt. 3, p. 382, 1897. J Narrative of a journey from Heraut to Khiwa, London, 1843, vol. 11, p. 25, supplement. gComp. Pictet, Les Origines indo-europ., 2d ed., vol. 1, p. 529, Paris, 1877. h Die Hohlen, etc., 1876, p. 312. THE ANTIQUITY OF THE LION IN GREECE. 667 dagger, were made from nature, viz, at a time when the animal still occurred there ina wild state. Lewis is of a different opinion, and says:” ** The lions on the gate of Mycene are of great antiquity, but the occurrence of this animal in works of early art can not be con- sidered as evidence of his presence in the country. Sculptured lions occur more than once in connection with Etruscan tombs, and there is no reason to believe that the lions ever existed in Italy * * *.” But can this last objection be considered valid?? Besides, not all non- naturalists are of this opinion, as, for instance, Perrot and Chipiez:¢ ‘**Unless we assume—and we have no ground whatever for so doing — that it was an object imported from without,’ we must admit, not- withstanding all that has been said to the contrary, that the lion in those remote times still haunted the mountains of the Peloponnesus and central Greece, and that the engravers and sculptors, when they portrayed that animal, were able to do so from nature.” Thus in the discussion of the earliest historic time more or less subjective opin- ions come into play, and natural science likewise can consider the question as solved only when the discovery of recent lion bones under incontestable circumstances gives positive proof. Of this, however, there seems little hope. At all events it might be suggested that in future excavations all animal bones be conscientiously collected and submitted to experts for examination. @Loe. cit., vol. vit, p. 81. > Prof. P. Herrmann, of the Royal Sculpture Collection at Dresden, writes me: ““The view of Lewis, which is based on the lion representations in Etruscan art, and quoted by you, is absolutely untenable. These Etruscan monuments are a thousand years younger than the Mycenzean and have, besides, their parallels in the contem- porary art creations of the Greeks. No archeologist has maintained or will main- tain of either of them that the lion images appearing on them were made from direct observation of nature. They are obyiously borrowed from Asia. This shows itself clearly enough in the absence of the refined and free realism which characterizes the Mycenzean representations in such a high degree.’? Compare also the chapter ‘“The lion and the lotus,’ in William H. Goodyear’s The Grammar of the Lotus, London, 1891, pp. 205-211, with plates xxix and xxx (add. 1904). «Hist. de Part dans Vantiquité. La Gréce primitive, art mycénien, vol. 6, p. 823-826, figs. 402 and 403, 1894. “1 can not think that the idea of introducing captive lions which may have served as models for the artists should so lightly be rejected. Bd COOS ‘0 ‘Gg LNOSV) °O °° H6S ‘SNVINOW2/G30V7 HSAO NONOD TVYINGY NVINSHLY A@ AYOLOIA ALVYOWSWWOD OL GaSOddNS ‘SNGIND YVAN WNATOSNVI| YO NOISYGNVA10d V WOYS NOI] 31duvI) 1VSSO109 "| 3LV1d “1aAd|JN— E061 ioday ueluosyyIWS THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. By Prof. Dr. A. WIrEDEMANN. @ The traveler from Cairo ascending the Mokattam mountains sweeps his gaze westward and his vision is presently arrested by the great pyramids looming upward in rigid conventional forms on the table- land across the Nile as reminders of that old civilization of which they are the best known surviving memorials. In ancient days they must have been much more imposing than at present, for besides the few structures now visible, there stood on the opposite elevation more than 100 pyramids, as well as numerous temples and monumental tombs, while below them on the plain, where only isolated villages are now seen, there spread out one of the largest cities recorded by ancient history, Mennefer, ‘‘the beautiful place,” Memphis of the Greeks. The ‘‘city of the dead.” to which for nearly four thousand years the inhabitants of this great city were carried to their last rest, is marked | by the pyramids. The width of this necropolis was not great, scarcely exceeding 2 kilometers, but its length has been estimated at 30. kilo- meters. The size of the ‘‘city of the living” was in proportion to the great necropolis, and under modern European conditions this would indicate an enormous city, surpassing in extent even the city of London (about 22 kilometers). We must not forget, how- ever, that we are in the Orient where the crowding of buildings together is little in vogue, groups of houses being followed by broad gardens and fields, then other clusters of houses, or wide desert tracts, in checkered succession, so that a city is really nothing more than a collection of several separated localities. Ori- ental cities also frequently change their location; some portions are abandoned or become insignificant suburbs, while new quarters spring up by their sides. Such was the development of Cairo, where, by the side of the important city of Babylon-on-the-Nile of the old Egyptian and the Greco-Roman periods, arose old Cairo, which soon surpassed it. Then, farther north, was developed the modern Cairo. Old Cairo has to a great extent gradually disappeared, while Babylon, as a small “Translated from Die Ausgrabungen zu Abusir, von Prof. Dr. A. Wiedemann, in “Die Umschau,’’? Wochenschrift ueber die Fortschritte auf dem Gesamtgebiet der Wissenschaft, Technik, Litteratur und Kunst. H. Bechhold, Frankfort-on-the-Main. Vol. vir, No. 26 (June 20, 1903), pp. 501-504, and No. 27 (June 27, 1903), pp. 532-536. 669 670 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. place, inclosed by the walls of a Roman fortress, survived it. Ancient Memphis likewise experienced a shifting of its principal center, the change of position being traced by the locations of the pyramids, for the Pharaohs liked to build their homes not far from their future burial places. Thus, at Thebes, the royal palace of Amenophis ITI was within the precinct of the necropolis, and the same custom was also observed at Memphis, as proved by the discovery of the remains of a royal palace beneath the foundations of a temple in the grave- yard city. From the location of the pyramids and the succession of their builders it can be inferred that Memphis as a rule spread from north to south, though occasionally for a brief period the course was in the opposite. direction. The site of the principal temple alone remained unchanged, though lesser sanctuaries to the same god might elsewhere, be erected. Thus the temple of Ptah, the local divinity of Memphis who was widely believed to have created and to rule the world, lay between the Nile and the village of Sakkarah, while other sanctuaries, dedicated to the same god, arose in other parts of the city. Near the present villages of Gizeh and Sakkarah lie the two necrop- olis districts of Memphis which have been most assiduously investi- gated by modern explorers and whose monuments produce a most imposing impression. A visit to these places is part of the stated programme of most travelers in Egypt. One frequently gets also a view of other monuments of the graveyard city that are situated more to the north and the south, between the above localities. Those to the north belong to the oldest remains of the kings resident in Mem- phis, while to the south are buried the rulers of the twelfth dynasty, who lived about a thousand years later. In the pyramids of Gizeh mummies of princes of the fourth dynasty were interred, while in those of Sakkarah they were chiefly of the sixth dynasty. The pyramids of Abusir, between Gizeh and Sakkarah, were constructed under the fifth dynasty and for a long time were believed to offer little reward to the visitor; for although a few isolated and beautiful graves were found in their neighborhood, they had become covered again by the sand, so that tourists found here little worth seeing. This circumstance was an advantage to the necropolis, for absence of strangers means also freedom from that petty plunder of antiquities dependent on daily sales which is, on the-whole, more fatal to the monuments than the wholesale removal of plundered objects to be sold at a distance. Asa result little excavating has been done here by the Arabs, and as the connections with Cairo are inconvenient, not much scientific explo- ration has been carried on. And yet such a work would have been profitable, as proved by the results of the excavations made by the Germans in the field of ruins during the last few years and which are briefly described in the following pages. THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT: 671 The attention of the first scholars who visited the graveyard of Abusir was attracted by the ruins on its northern end, near the open- ing of a shallow desert valley into the arable country. It gave the impression of a pyramid which, from a casual investigation, was ascribed to King Ra-en-user, of the fifth dynasty. Superficial excava- tions, especiaily those of Villiers Stuart, the English member of Par- liament, brought to light temple remains buried underground. ‘Thus matters stood untilabout 1898, when it was found that Arabian antiquity traders had here discovered a series of reliefs, which came to the Museum of Berlin. The subjects and the execution of these reliefs were interesting enough to make scientific excavations on that site desirable before all the antiquities there buried should become the prey of the natives and scattered to all quarters of the compass. The Berlin Museum undertook the work, for which Dr. Freiherr von Biss- Fic. 1.—Reconstruction of sun sanctuary, (From Borchardt.) ing furnished the necessary funds, and during the winters of 1898 to 1901 Drs. L. Borchardt and H. Schiifer brought the excavation work to a conclusion. There is as yet no final publication giving the completed results of their investigations, but from the preliminary reports it is possible to obtain an accurate survey of the essential achievements. At the rear end of a rectangular walled inclosure, 75 meters wide and 100 meters long, there rose a pyramid with a blunted top, from the center of which projected an obelisk. (See fig. 1.) Within the court stood an altar constructed of gigantic alabaster blocks, and near it on one side were sunken channels, leading to alabaster basins, evidently to carry off the blood of the victims from the immediate vicinity of the altar. Behind the channels were numerous storerooms, while the east and south sides were occupied with passages whose 672 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. walls were once faced with slabs of limestone decorated with reliefs partly still preserved. Opposite the altar a gateway led into the large inclosure. An inclined pathway led to the gate, and thus connected the plain with the elevated sanctuary. The lower end of the pathway terminated in a monumental gateway which stood within another walled inclosure. The latter inclosed a quadrangular space about 300 meters square, which, with much exaggeration, was called a ‘city,’ though in reality the only residences here were those of the priests and officers stationed in the building. In addition to these 3orchardt discovered outside the sanctuary, toward the south, brick masonry beside which lay remnants of decayed wood. As may be concluded from the form of the entire find, there once stood here a larve wooden sacred bark resting upon brick foundations. The reliefs just mentioned represent, first of all, some of the cere- monies accompanying the founding of an Egyptian sanctuary. The king and the goddess of the right measure determine the axis of the temple, make the opening for the foundation, offer the sacrifices of the corner stone, ete. Then the celebration of the Sed festival is depicted as it is also seen in the reliefs of numerous temples of the classical period of Egypt. The king sits upon a throne, then he descends the steps leading to the throne and is carried about on a chair. The people fall down before him; priests and officials follow him. Then he appears in various festal robes, his feet are washed, the royal children are brought in sedans, rows of sacred animals are led by, ete. Every representation of this festival formerly existed in duplicate, the Pharaoh performing these ceremonies on one side of the temple, being decorated with the insignia of a king of Upper Egypt, while on the other side he wears the vestments of a king of Lower Egypt. It is regretted that so far no explanation can be given of the object of the Sed festival, though it is so often mentioned in the inscriptions. In most cases the king appears to have celebrated the festival for the first time thirty years after his appointment as Pharaoh or crown prince, and then repeatedly at shorter intervals. It was at all events combined with religious solemnities, especially with the erection of obelisks, and it may be that the sanctuary described above was established on such an occasion. Still more interesting than these reliefs are others representing the divinities of the Egyptian seasons in human form and behind them the images of the objects characteristic of each season. Plants and trees are depicted; birds flutter about or rest in their nests; fishes swim in the water; animals beget and bring forth young; men are 2? engaged in fishing and fowling; they construct and use boats, till the soil, harvest figs and honey, brew beer, hunt in the desert, and raise cattle. Similar representations occur in the tombs of the so-called old Empire of Egypt (about 3000 B. c.) as pictures of the daily life in the THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. 6738 valley of the Nile, but those of our sanctuary are marked by greater unity of arrangement and completeness of grouping. Only a few of the ordinary customs of life appear in the decoration of temples of later times. It is evident that in ancient times daily life was held to be more worthy of preservation, while in later periods only the sublime objects, rather than the doings of every day, were deemed worthy of representation on reliefs in the house of God. From what has been said it can readily be inferred that the strue- ture described was not a pyramid tomb, but rather a sanctuary in whose inclosure sacrifices were offered upon an altar erected in the open court. Such altars in the open air belonged to the sun god. This deity was first of all embodied in his planet in the sky, whence he could look down upon the gifts and where he could receive the smoke of the burnt offerings. Buta god afar off did not satisfy the ancient Egyptians in their worship. The god must be near the altar, where he could have the full benefit of the sacrifices, and usually this object was attained by having close at hand the sacred animal or the statue or emblem serving as the embodiment of the god, and which actually became to them the very god himself. This was the case in Abusir. The pyramid obelisk, before which the altar stands, is the sun god in the form in which he dwelt in the holy of holies of the temple of his most holy city of the valley of the Nile, named for him Heliopolis, **the city of the sun.” Behind sealed doors, opening only to the elect, there stood a conical stone as divinity. Such a form of deity is often met with among the Semitic tribes, but whether their influences intro- duced it into Heliopolis or whether the natives of the valley of the. Nile had similar conceptions of the sacredness of stones is still unde- termined. All that is known is that from most ancient times the deity was here represented in this manner, but that in the course of centu- ries there arose an uncertainty as to the exact form of the conical stone, it being once conceived as a pyramid, then as an obelisk, and later, as at Abusir, as a combination of both. Near the god there stood in the temple two sacred barks used by the sun god for his jour- ney across the heavenly ocean. One in the forenoon bore the newly resurrected sun, while the other in the afternoon carried the dying planet as it descended from the zenith. Similar to this was the group- ing of the sacred objects at Abusir. The remnants of one of the barks was discovered during the recent excavations, but the other is still covered by the desert sands. In the district of Memphis, however, the sun god was a stranger. Originally there reigned here Ptah, the god of Memphis, and Sokaris, the god of the adjoining district of Letopolis, the sparrow-hawk- headed prince of the realm of the dead, who gave his name to Sak- karah. When the fifth dynasty, whose members claimed descent from the sun god, ascended the throne, the kings endeavored to introduce 674 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. the worship of their heavenly ancestor also into the district of their capital. He could be sure here of a ready reception, for the Egyptian gods were not exclusive and were always ready to make room fer other heavenly powers in the sanctuaries as long as their own cult was not prejudiced by it. The inscriptions teach us that gradually several pyramid obelisks were erected in the vicinity of Memphis. According to the Egyptian view, at the moment when the image of a god was completed in the prescribed form there came into existence a new god, and in the study of these structures this belief is of funda- mental importance. The new god was equipped with all the rights and duties of the original divinity who was imitated by the image. He lived as long as the image lasted, and after its destruction passed away as a dead god into the other world. On this account old images of gods were occasionally buried in order to give the corpse of the god a proper resting place. The logical contradiction appearing in the juxtaposition of numerous similar divinities, as shown by the multitude of divine images, disturbed the Egyptians no more than did the many other unlogical elements which the sun-god religion presents to modern critics. The object of worship in the edifice of Ra-en-user was accordingly the representation of the sun god newly created by the King; for him were intended the sacrifices which were offered upon the large altar. From the platform upon which the sanctuary stood the god could look down upon the worshipping multitude as it approached him. The discovery of this god image and its place of worship was the achievement of the excavations just described. From what has been said it follows that the northernmost large mound of ruins at Abusir did not contain the tomb of King Ra-en- user. Succeeding investigations made it clear that this must be some- what south of the sanctuary beneath a shapeless heap of débris, about thirty meters high, the remains of a pyramid adjoined on its eastern side by a large field of ruins. The excavations of the German Orient Society, under the direction of Dr. L. Borchardt, have since 1901 been devoted to this site. In the pyramid, which had already been opened, little of importance could be expected, but the adjoining field of ruins that covered the mortuary temple of Ra-en-user was more promising. Sanctuaries serving the same object had already been discovered near other pyramids. The temple recently examined made it possible to follow up, with their aid, the development of beliefs in the relation of the living to the dead in the early times of Egypt. The tomb was at first nothing but a hole in the desert sand, into which the earthly remains of the dead were laid either in parts or the entire body, as skeleton or mummy, with or without a coffin. By their side were placed some pots and bowls with food and drink for the deceased, whose physical needs were the same in the other world as in this. Gradually it became the custom to furnish the graves THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. 675 more elaborately, until the gifts were so numerous that the simple grave could no longer hold them. Other rooms were then added, and the grave became a storehouse in which the gifts were placed either whole or broken into fragments. In the former case it was assumed that the deceased would himself use them in the grave which formed his dwelling place ; in the latter case it was believed that he sojourned in the other world in an abode which was the counterpart of his grave. The new body corresponded to the corpse, and in the same manner the fragments had their real counterparts. In place of real offerings plastic imitations were frequently substituted, especially in later times, or their images were merely painted on the walls of the tomb, and aided by magical formula the dead could give them real existence. Such pictorial offerings were less costly and were less exposed to decay than real objects, and could afford the necessary basis for the constant renovation of the food articles and other needful things. These tomb structures at first lacked a place of worship. As no offerings were found in the earth above the grave to indicate that ceremonies were observed after the inter- ment, it is inferred that in the most ancient time the obligations of the survivors ended with the burial, so that the deceased could afterwards claim no more gifts. This con- ception, however, gradually underwent a change, and it was considered requisite for the welfare of the departed that from time to ¢&—zsereu \ time new sacrifices should be consecrated to pre, 2—sun obelisk, from a con- him and gifts be presented at his resting temporary relict, place. Rooms separate from the graye chamber became desirable, and such rooms indeed appear in Egyptian tombs from about the time of the pyramids until the passing away of the old religion. These are above the earth, separate from the inaccessible grave, and are open to visits from the living. In the pyramids the grave proper was in the closed interior of the structure, where the offerings were placed next to the coflin, or, since the fifth dynasty, were painted on the walls. In front of the pyra- mid there was sometimes erected a mortuary temple. The oldest edi- fice of this kind known was at the pyramid of King Snefru, a ruler during whose reign the transition from the later stone age to that of the strictly historical dynasties in its various directions was accom- plished. This building is unfortunately for the most part destroyed, there remaining only a covered winding path that led to a small room containing an altar and adjoining the pyramid. At the temple of the pyramid Chefren, which is in a better state of preservation, a straight passage leads between storerooms to the sacrificial hall, while in the 676 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. temple of Mycerinus storerooms lie to the right and left of the holy of holies. The importance given to storage places in these build- ing plans shows the old significance of the tomb as a repository for the dead, the place of worship being only a secondary consideration. In the later mortuary temples of the period following from about 2000 B. c. this relation isreversed. It is true they still have storerooms for the treasures of the sanctuaries, but they are of less importance in the general plan. The temple has here become essential. Such a change was made necessary by the development of the Egyptian religion, for no longer was it the real gift or action that was impor- tant, but the magical formula. If one wished to convey something to the deceased, he was more certain of success by pronouncing the pre- scribed magical words than by the offering of real objects. This transition from the old temple with storerooms to the later cult temple, which heretofore had only been surmised, is now made clear by the excavations at Abusir. Here is found a complete temple with the usual arrangement of later times. In the rear rises the holy of holies not far from the pyramid. In front of it isa broad, covered room cor- responding to the later covered court and leading to the open court, around which a covered passage runs. Its back wall is formed by the terminating masonry of the temple, while its front rests on tastefully shaped columns carved with papyrus designs. Inthe middle of the court a rain basin is sunk, from which an outflow leads outside the court. This construction proves that the middle part of the court was from the first intended to be uncovered, and it also refutes the still frequently repeated assertion that no rain fell in ancient times in Egypt. At a more recent period the Egyptian temple terminated with such an open court, its entrance forming a monumental, fortress- like gate, the so-called ** pylon,” but at Abusir this was not yet the case. A simple door here leads into the court and a long passage leads up to it from the opposite direction. To the right and left of the passage are storerooms that have their continuation in still other passages surrounding the entire building and even extending to the north of the temple in front of the pyramid. At the end of the main passage is the entrance door, which was reached from the plain of Memphis by a slanting, inclined path. The storeroom plan is thus still retained, but it is only externally, not organically, attached to the cult rooms, which on their part have become an independent temple. The temple just described is not located before the center of the pyramid, but before the southern part of the east side. In the course of the excavations at Abusir it turned out that the storerooms of the temple extended northward on the east side of the pyramid, and that between them and the center of the pyramid there was a large struc- ture which on the front side of the pyramid was shut off by a large blind door, This building was not the holy of holies, or sanetum, of THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. 677 the pyramid temple, as it was supposed; for the sanctum—the room in which the solemn sacrifices were performed-—was in Egypt, as else- where, an organic part of the temple. It seems to me probable that the blind door was to serve as a passage for the deceased when he wished to leave the pyramid, his tomb. It had thus the same object as the blind doors frequently painted or sculptured upon the Egyp- tian coffins or tomb walls. The departed king could pass through this door to the building near the sanctum, and from there assist at the sacrifices, listen to the prayers, and inhale the odor of the offerings. It thus served the same purpose as the so-called ‘tserdab” or narrow vaulted chamber found in the private tombs, the so-called ‘* mastaba,” alongside of the cult room, with which it occasionally communicated by a narrow opening. In this serdab there was usually placed a statue of the dead, in which he could embody bimself and participate in the sacrifices offered in his honor. This door also served the dead pharaoh as passage when he wished to revisit the earth and as specter to remind the living of the obla- tions to be offered to him, and to manifest upon earth the divine posi- tion to which he attained by dint of the magical formula. It may seem strange that this outlet for the deceased led not directly to the grave temple, but to a structure lying aside from it. The reason of this arrangement, also found in the mastaba, is probably to be sought in the belief of the Egyptians, of which numerous indications are found in the texts, that the souls of the dead, when not receiving a sufficient amount of offerings, and consequently in want of nourishment, would crowd at the gates of the locality searching the garbage heaps for food and attacking and robbing passers by. For this purpose they would also gather before the temples and the entrances to the tombs, whither offerings of food were brought and refuse dropped. It was therefore dangerous for the occupant of the tomb to pass such hungry preda- tory souls. The blind door located off the temple was to enable the dead to pass from the grave into the open unseen by the hostile souls, and thus escape the danger of being attacked by them. Thus also this find at the pyramid of Ra-en-user harmonizes in an excellent manner with what we otherwise know of the old Egyptian religious views. The walls of the edifice are adorned with reliefs that in part corre- spond to the usual representations in the tombs of the valley of the Nile. We find here the killing of the sacrificial animals, the leading them up in procession, the long rows of women who, as representatives of the possessions of the departed, offer gifts. Alongside of them stand images which usually are seen only in temples—adoration of various gods by the king; the massacre of captured enemies whom the ruler kills with an uplifted club, ete. In these two kinds of pictures the twofold object of the edifice, that of tomb and temple, finds a distinct expression. In this connection it is interesting to observe 678 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. that the manner of presenting these groups, just as in the reliefs of the sanctuary of the sun god at Abusir, discussed above, corresponds almost exactly to the mode of presentation shown in the temples of the flourishing period of Egypt one or two milleniums later. The same characteristics are found in the architectural forms, the columns, cornices, and other features. It is therefore concluded that the view of the older investigators, that the art of the old empire of Egypt did not differ in principle from that of the later periods, was correct. The art of the later periods shows comparatively insignificant differ- ences, due to the progressive development of the people. This coneclu- sion, however, has of late been frequently disputed. Monuments whose inscriptions indicate very early time, but that exhibit peculiari- ties known only in later periods, have been declared to be in reality products of these later periods artificially given an archaic appearance; but the finds at Abusir show that these conclusions are erroneous and that such monuments are really as old as the names of the kings that they bear. RRS J= - XS =P y y — ZH (4 az ——_- we _ Geng ~~ “| {ee ] TMM, ae ZU =i Fic. 3.—Plan of the Pyramid Temple of Ra-en-usur. SSS See ge Rees SS sss a SSS SS De SN ; eeeeee Ul Te AN SSS ~ SS N NS ~ SS SS SS SS S S \ ~ ~ The mortuary temple of King Ra-en-user is as little finished as most old Egyptian edifices of this kind. The king died before the last hand was put on the work, and his suecessors had so much to do with their own buildings that they felt no inclination to spend time and strength on the foundations of their predecessors. But this pharaoh left endowments on the income of which priests were appointed to exercise his cult of the dead, and centuries later these functionaries are still mentioned, though the temple was in process of decay, for graves of that time have been found dug into ruin heaps above the temple floor. Shortly afterwards the cult, too, ceased, the walls of the temple were torn down, and the stones used for other buildings; high heaps of débris accumulated, common graves for the poor were made there, and a mound of ruins soon covered the entire site. On the occasion of these excavations tombs of widely separated epochs of Egyptian history were opened in the neighborhood of the Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Wiedemann. PLATE lI. OBELISK OF HELIOPOLIS AT MATARYEH, EGYPT. “WIopus[[OW-ZITMOUTIBIT AA Aq ‘snaddvgq-sooy,OUL |, dod wor ‘| NNN109 ‘SNYAdVd SNSHLOWI | “|| SLV1d ‘yuRWwapelAA—'eQ6| ‘Hoday uviuosyzius THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. 679 tenrple described above. There were mastaba tombs of the old empire with the statues of their former occupants, and nonviolated tombs of the middle empire (2500 8. c.) with all the paraphernalia which those left behind had once placed for the departed in his grave. The tombs of the flourishing period of later Egypt were very poorly fitted out, and it is only with the Greek settlements in the country that costly interments again come to light. - THE TIMOTHEUS PAPYRUS OF THE PERSAI. In one of the graves of this Greek period at Abusir was discovered, on February 1, 1902, a papyrus roll containing a large portion of the poem Persai of Timotheus. The papyrus was found in a wooden coffin still containing its corpse, together with a pair of sandals, a broken leather bag, a piece of rust-eaten iron, and a fragment of burned wood. All these objects are now at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and the papyrus has been published with a transcription, para- phrase, comments, and a facsimile reproduction in heliogravure, by Prof. Dr. Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff.“ The papyrus meas- ures 18.5 centimeters in height and when unrolled has a length of 1.11 meters. It is inscribed with six columns of varied width and unequal number of lines in archaic Greek characters, resembling the style of monumental inscriptions, so that in the opinion of Professor Wilamo- witz this papyrus’ represents the oldest book known, antedating the founding of the library of Alexandria and the establishing of the Alexandrian book trade. The four last columns are on the whole well preserved, while the first column, not protected by cover- ing, is crumbled into minute fragments, and of the second column the lower half is for the most part destroyed. A narrow margin on the first column, showing traces of having been cut through, proves that only part of the scroll had been deposited in the grave. We have, therefore, in this papyrus only the latter portion of the work. The fact, however, that Timotheus names himself as its author and that it treats of the naval defeat of a Persian king suflices to establish its identity with the Persai of Timotheus, which celebrates the naval victory of the Greeks over Xerxes, the King of Persia, in 480 B. c. at Salamis, which was one of the decisive battles in the Greeco-Persian wars. Timotheus is known to have been a celebrated poet and musician, born at Miletus, Asia Minor, and died at an advanced age about 357 B. c. He was especially distinguished as a composer of the so-called ‘‘nome,” an ancient song or ode in the epic style, consisting of a narrative interwoven with speeches of «Der Timotheus-Papyrus: Wissenschaftliche Veroeffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Leipzig, 1903, pp. 15, 4to., with 7 plates; and Timotheus, Die Perser, aus einem Papyrus von Abusir. Im Auftrage der Deutschen Orient-Gesell- schaft herausgegeben, Leipzig, 1903, pp. 126, 8vo., with 1 plate, sm 1903——44 680 THE EXCAVATIONS AT ABUSIR, EGYPT. introduced characters, and sung to the accompaniment of the lyre by the poet himself on festival occasions in honor of some god. He is also recorded to have increased the number of the strings of the lyre to eleven, by which innovation he incurred the displeasure of the Spartans, who considered it to be a corruption of music. But of the numerous compositions credited to him by later writers only a few fragments survive“, and of the Persai only three verses were known. The Persai is also in the form of a nome and was first recited at the Panionion festival in honor of Poseidon, about 398 B. c. The part of the nome contained in this papyrus begins with the principal section of the poem, the omphalos, comprising the narrative. The ships are fitted out; the battle begins; the vessels dash against each other; lances fly about; firebrands whir in the air, setting the ships afire, from the glare of which the *‘smaraged” sea is reddened. The Persian fleet is put to flight; one rich follower of the Persian king battles with the waves, cursing the treacherous sea, and at last sinks while professing his hope for the victory of his king. Other Asiatics cling to rocks in the sea and bewail their imminent fate of death or cap- tivity. At last panic seizes also the royal headquarters, and the king, under lamentations, orders a general retreat of his motley army. The victorious Greeks erect a trophy to Zeus and celebrate their victory with dance and song. In the epilogue the poet refers to himself, defending his innovation in music against the reproof of the Spartans, and invokes Apollo to ** give the people peace and blessing resting on the observation of the law.” Of the details of the old Egyptian grave finds a better estimate may be formed when the results of the digging still in progress become available. The excavations of the German Orient Society on the soil of the ancient Valley of the Nile have not received the same consideration from the great public as the diggings of the same society in Baby- lonia. To the latter attention was directed by the lectures of Fried- rich Delitzsch, although their contents were but loosely connected with the excavations. The Egyptian work has not received the same treatment. Considering the real scientific results of the excavations in themselves, it can not be denied that the Egyptian explorations of the society, directed by Borchardt, have at least been crowned with as great a success as the Babylonian. It is to be hoped that the con- tinued interest of the Government, as also the increasing number of members, will place the society in the condition to pursue its explora- tions with equal vigor in both of these countries whose civilization dominated early antiquity and likewise to extend its research to the countries lying between them, Palestine and Syria. “Collected by T, Bergk in his Anthologia Lyrica, 3d edition, Leipzig, 1883, pp. 340-343, ‘AOPUOTOW-ZILMOUTBIT MA AQ ‘snaxdvq-sooyoULy, Lod UOT Y ‘IT NWATOD ‘SNYAdVd SNAHLONWI J * Fly eat Levey er Ks: E = 3. bei Leen 3 a se oN reat asthe pepe! = = wed fous ¥ fe oe ey ee ee wtne as ~& Ly. a ay £" z ~~ a S weg PEGuN os onto” ota a Raat AQyvidivisd eat phos e et: od AM ste uovrd 2 Ends Hy Dice iaviviunwouls “3s a oo ppt etree 2 ody pd dMiolhe: ‘ogi, be Waa, “SodvdsvadoLvd £3361 ¢72 EDV ns Qa wiv MBH J¥da Shs Ee WES rok Pazlrt ow Irlcivny ¥ ONz > eM od OTN 41s fn so te a7 I PALENID yd tose 1nd EERIE NY ster: et DPE SA Wels tei SYN So cutee NTE | Eo viNpyolsda¢ivk Wrloze 2S inert iA Bag bpp LeTuPIayn 35 ad Ss tad 3t aS a ayn an ss, AY. - ia PPReE MAN oe FFE ieee: se aNtw ee LN f xa as. sot? 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WADE Nii Denia BEND Liven) IY Rol ylais tw yD HENY yl od-d. a HM) aj SUA FE ISC VL WAT corral See hi [Wel oalie Nal siNnovd LILN WILL NS Lie GL yD LM HW Ja 2aAIVIN Ve vvl baw Vd obey ly lad vgn dae 2 | (lad Faw L393 IVY IVVIN JON oD BA Ia: Il Lvidwalvld ty © BOM IW WoW We WaVdod LU Wi) Lom wN 0d, Ladorwos Masui StLo® APAIVN Nod y Nw dv 0 N vINNwd HILWAIV EW NIV ND Wow” VOUWAIVIN VVVAIVN LIL £2 RN et BV IVEY IY ved N RIV LN NID WwW Lt 2 yok WB oe abEEM F AM LI Line vi Sues dN ROW Ys yEN ie i i TA SEIVUNE t Mail rie 4 (3 aS UURLUAPAl AA cO6L ‘Hoday NA ALVv 1d y UBIUOSYyIWUS PLaTe VII. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Wiedemann. TIMOTHEUS PAPYRUS, COLUMN VI. lendorff, itz-MoGl amowl by Wil From Der Timotheos-Papyrus, IOPUI[OW-ZUMOMIBITAY Aq ‘snaxdRq-sooyqo uty dod ulory ILQIN-Z41 IL { « [ CL tu “SLNAWDVYS ‘SNYAdVd SNAHLOWIL \ Hb owt BAI oe “IA aLV1d ‘UURBLUapP dl AA— ‘€O6L ‘hodey UBIUOSU}IWUS THE ANCIENT HITTITES. By Dr. Leopotp MesserscHMripr. @ In addition to the two great spheres of ancient culture found in western Asia, the Egyptian and the Babylonian, we meet in the north, chiefly in Asia Minor, a third element which we are accustomed to call the Hittite civilization. We have as yet comparatively little knowl- edge of this people and their history, for only in one or two places have there been thorough excavations. The Hittite inscriptions them- selves have not been deciphered, and the Egyptian and Assyrian inscrip- tions give only such meager items as records of warfare required. The Old Testament, to which until now our acquaintance with the name of the Hittites has been chiefly due, is too remote from the events in time and place and too indefinite in details to be of much service. Although our knowledge of the Hittites is thus, in many respects, so incomplete, yet we are able to construct a somewhat connected picture of the development of their civilization. Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions tell of warfare from about 1500 to about 700 B. c., with various peoples in North Syria, North Mesopota- mia, Cilicia, Cappadocia, and Armenia. ‘These peoples were neither Semites nor Indo-Europeans, yet they must have been interrelated as parts of a great group of peoples or common race. In favor of this view, the names of persons and gods come down to us which by their identical formation bear evidence of relationship and it is moreover improbable that entirely distinct races would at about the same period, and partly mingled, advance in the same direction and toward the same regions. Onthe other hand, it is self-evident, and proven also by certain facts, that these individual peovles, notwithstanding their gen- eral connection, were really distinct from one another in culture and in dialect, a phenomenon well known among the Semitesas well as among the Indo-Europeans. One of these peoples, known through Egyptian inscriptions as the Cheta, or Chattiaccording to Assyrian inscriptions, must be mentioned at once, since the name is significant, for we are accustomed to desig- nate the entire group as ‘* Hittites,” their individual names being “Translation of Die Hettiter, von Dr. Leopold Messerschmidt. Part 1 of vol. 1v of Der alte Orient. Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs, second enlarged edition, 35 pp., 8vo, 1903, 681 682 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. unknown. Consideration must therefore be given in each case as to whether the name Hittites denotes the individual Chatti people or the entire race. In the regions where the Egyptians and Assyrians were at war with the Hittites there has been discovered during the last decade a com- plete series of remarkable monuments, with and without inscriptions, which doubtless bear witness to a pecular and independent civilization alongside of the Egyptian and Babylonian culture. The places of the finds, and particularly the agreement between subjects pictured and traditional evidence, lead to the assumption that we have here to do with monuments of the Hittite peoples. Similar monuments have been found seattered through the whole of Asia Minor, as far as Smyrna on the coast of the A¢gean Sea, more numerous in the east, less frequent in the west. Keeping the above in mind, added to informa- tion derived from the Assyrian inscriptions, we must consider Asia Minor as the home of the ‘* Hittites” and of their civilivation, from which country they advanced in successive movements southward and south- hence they immigrated into Asia Minor, whether from the west, which indeed is very probable, can not yet be positively determined. . The historical development of the Hittite race, its rise and disap- pearance, has been described in a former paper,” and will therefore here be but merely briefly repeated, with some additional information. The beginning of Hittite civilization on the soil of Asia Minor dates back to the third millenium before Christ, when Syria and Mesopo- tamia were under Babylonian rule. We assume an advance of Hittite peoples toward Syria and Mesopotamia about 2000 B. c., in the course of which they wrested these countries from Babylonian domi- nation, for at the period when our documents begin to speak—that is, in the Tell el-Amarna letters,’ in the fifteenth century B. c.—we find that peoples of the Hittite race had for a long time been in possession of these regions. The first stratum of the Hittites which through the above-mentioned letters enters our horizon is the Mitani people,’ but whether they were really the first of the Hittites to advance as far as Syria, or, what is more probable, whether they were preceded by others, none of our documents answers with certainty. But the kingdom of the Mitani, under their king, Tushratta, meets us at once as a great power equal to Babylonia and Egypt, comprising Melitene and the territories to the southeast of it, then northern Syria and northern Mesopotamia, with Nineveh, which was later the capital of Assyria. Still, the power of this kingdom is evidently strongly on the wane. It must formerly, «Der alte Orient, vol. 1, part 1, 2d ed., pp. 18-28. > Der alte Orient, vol. 1, part 2, 2d ed., p. 3 ¢ Der alte Orient, vol. 1, part 2, 2d ed., p. 14 ff. £.oae THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 68é probably in the sixteenth century, have extended far southward into Syria to Mount Lebanon, as we have evidence that the language of the Mitani was spoken in Dunip (= Heliopolis = Baalbek). And the unnamed power against which Thothmes I, about 1500 B. c., and Thothmes III carried on war in Naharina was probably the Mitani kingdom.” But soon after the Amarna period, already in the four- teenth century, rising Assyria overthrew the Mitani kingdom and took possession of Mesopotamia. While the Mitani must have advanced toward the south, in the seventeenth or sixteenth century B. c., we see the Chatti, or individual people of the Hittites, just at the Tell el-Amarna period, in the fifteenth century B. c., invading Syria from their native country, Cappadocia, and continually advancing southward. Through the weakness of Egypt, and for a time also the waning power of Assyria, the Mitani in the course of the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries subjected entire Syria to themselves as faras Mount Hermon. At the acme of their power, in the twelfth century, they meet the read- vancing Egyptians under Ramses I] in various battles, one of which, the attack of the Egyptians on the city of Kadesh on the Orontes, became well known, as the subject of a great Egyptian poem which extolls King Ramses in an extravagant manner. From these times dates also the oldest surviving example of a treaty between nations. This treaty vas concluded between Ramses II and Chattusar, the king of the Chatti. The original was inscribed ona silver tablet in Babylonian script and language, as is now clearly established, and shows that Babylonian was even then, about 100 years after the Amarna period, still the international language of diplomacy.’ But it is only the {gyptian translation which the Pharaoh caused to be engraved in the Temple of Karnak, that has come to us. On this occasion the royal seribe added an introduction, according to which the question was of a conclusion of peace which the Hittite king had entreated from Ramses. Asa matter of fact it is Chattusar who draws up the treaty nor are there any fixed conditions of peace. The treaty rather con- tains general assurances to abstain from hostilities against one another, probably thus meeting a mutual need, and in addition there is the conclusion of a defensive alliance against internal and external enemies. ‘The interesting contents of the document justify its pres- entation here in nearly complete form after the latest translation.¢ @ Der alte Orient, vol. 1, part 2, 2d ed., p. 31. >Der alte Orient, vol. 1, part 2, 2d ed., p. 4. ¢ By W. Max Mueller: Der Buendnisvertrag Ramses IT und des Chettiterkoenigs. Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen gesellschaft. 1902.5. For the changes made in the interest of clearness I was kindly supported by the Egyptologist, Dr. Moeller. The text of the treaty is, in its present condition, not without gaps. The exact form of the proper names is difficult to establish. 684 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. INTRODUCTION OF THE EGYPTIAN SCRIBE. @ In the year 21,” on the 21st of the winter month (Tybi), under the majesty of the king of upper and lower Egypt, Ramses II.¢ It was on that day that his majesty was at the city ‘‘house of Ramses II,’’ doing what his father Amen-Ra/ approves. When there came the royal messenger and * * * and the royal messenger * * * (before the majesty of the king) Ramses II (with the messenger of Chatti Tar) tesob and * * * whom the great prince of Chatti, Chattusar, had sent to the Pharaoh to implore peace of the majesty of the king, Ramses IT. Copy of the silver tablet which the great prince of Chatti, Chattusar, caused to be brought to the Pharaoh by his messenger Tartesob and his messenger Ramses@ to implore peace from the majesty of the king, Ramses IT. TRANSLATION OF THE ORIGINAL TABLET. e Treaty, which was prepared upon a silver tablet by the great prince of Chatti, Chattusary the mighty, son of Morsar, the great prince of Chatti, the mighty, grand- son of Sapalulu, the great prince of Chatti, the mighty, for Ramses IT, the great King of Egypt, the mighty, son of Seti I, the great King of Egypt, the mighty, grandson of Ramses I, the great King of Egypt, the mighty, the beautiful treaty of peace and alliance, which establishes (between them beautiful) peace (and beau- tiful alliance) for all eternity. REMEMBRANCE OF FORMER GOOD RELATIONS AND THE NECESSITY OF TREATIES. Formerly, in very ancient times—as regards the relation of the great King of Egypt with the great prince of Chatti, the god did not allow any enmity to arise between them (and this happened) through a treaty. But at the time of Mutallu, the great prince of Chatti, my brother, he carried on war with (Ramses IT) the great King of Egypt. Henceforth, however, from to-day on, behold, Chattusar, the great prince of Chatti (has caused to be drawn up) a treaty which determines the relation of the land of Egypt to the land of Chatti as Rag created and as Sutechy created, that no enmity arise between them forever. THE ALLIANCE IS CONCLUDED ANEW. Behold, Chattusar, the great prince of Chatti, enters from to-day on into a treaty with Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, that it be a beautiful peace and a beau- tiful alliance between us in eternity. He is allied with me, he is in peace with me; Tam allied with him, I am in peace with him forever. After Mutallu, the great prince, my great brother, had followed his unhappy fate,” and Chattusar? sat upon the throne of his father as the great prince of Chatti— behold, I agreed with Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, that we (arrange) our «The headings are not in the original, but are here inserted for convenience in reading. b That is, of the reign of Ramses IT. ¢The bombastic and scarcely intelligible titles that follow here are omitted. d An Egytian, as the name shows. ¢The translation was made by the Egyptian so pedantically literal that in many respects he writes un-Egyptian. But in such passages the Babylonian of the original is the more transparent. J All these titles of the Hittite, as well as of the Egyptian, are Babylonio-Assyr- lan, and not indigenous. gName of a god. The Egyptian rendered here the Babylonian expression literally. It means, to fulfill his fate; to die. ?Chattusar speaks here for a while in the third person of himself. THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 685 (2?) peace and our (?) alliance. It is better than the peace and the alliance which existed before. Behold, (as) I, the great prince of Chatti, am in beautiful peace and beautiful alliance with Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, so shall the chil- dren’s children of the great prince of Chatti be in alliance and peace with the children’s children of Ramses II, the great King of Egypt. They shall be like us in a peace and alliance relation, and (the land of) Egypt (be) allied with the land of Chatti in peace, as we are, forever. No enmity may arise between them forever. The great prince of Chatti may never invade the land of Egypt, in order to rob it of anything, and Ramses, the great King of Egypt, may not forever invade the land of Chatti in order to rob it of anything. ALLIANCE AGAINST ATTACKS FROM THE OUTSIDE. The lawful (?) treaty which was in force at the time of Sapalulu, the great prince of Chatti, as also the lawful (?) treaty which was in force at the time of Mutallu,¢ the great prince of Chatti, my father, I firmly stand by. Behold, Ramses, too, the great King of Egypt, firmly stands by it (we both keep it) together, from to-day on we hold it firmly and act after this lawful (?) manner. HITTITE AID FOR EGYPT. If another enemy? goes to war against the lands of Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, and the latter writes to the great prince of Chatti: ‘‘Come to my assistance against him,’’ the great prince of Chatti (will come to his assistance), and the great prince of Chatti will kill hisenemy. But if the great prince of Chatti should not wish to set out himself, he will send his troops and his charioteers, and will slay his enemy. ASSISTANCE AGAINST EGYPTIAN REBELS. Or, if Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, is angry against * * * subjects, because (?) they have committed an offense (?) against him and he sets out to kill them, the great prince of Chatti will act in common with Ramses II, the Lord of Egypt. EGYPTIAN ASSISTANCE FOR CHATTI. In the same manner the great prince will act if another enemy sets out against the lands of the great prince of Chatti, * * * [What follows is mostly destroyed, but with corresponding changes it was similar to the above. ] ASSISTANCE AGAINST HITTITE REBELS. But if subjects of the great prince of Chatti commit an offense against him, * * * [The same as above. ] TREATY OF EXTRADITION. [The beginning is destroyed.] If nobles flee from Egypt and come to the coun- tries of the great prince of Chatti, whether from a city (or from a country district [?]) of the countries of Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, and they come to the great prince of Chatti, he shall not receive them. The great prince of Chatti shall cause them to be brought back to Ramses II, the great King of Egypt, their lord. Or when one or two people who are not prominent (?) flee from the country of Egypt and come into the Chatti land in order to become subjects of another, they will not be allowed to remain in the Chatti land, but will be brought back to Ramses, the great King of Egypt. Or when a noble flees from the Chatti land [continues same as above, with corre- sponding changes]. @ An error of the Egyptian seribe for ‘‘ Morsar.”’ » Doubtless awkwardly rendered by the Egyptian for ‘‘another one as enemy.” 686 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. FORM OF OATH. Of these words of the treaty of the great prince of Chatti with Ramses, the great King of Egypt, written upon a silver tablet, a thousand gods, male and female, of the Chatti land, together with a thousand gods, male and female, of those of Egypt, are witnesses. * * * [Follows a list of the gods who shall watch as witnesses. Adjoining it is read:] Whosoever will not keep these words, which are written upon a silver tablet, for the land of Chatti and the land of Egypt, the thousand gods of the Chatti land, together with the thousand gods of the land of Egypt, shall punish him, his house, his land, and his subjects. But whosoever shall keep the words which are written upon the silver tablet and not neglect them, whether of the Hittites or of the Egyptians, the thousand gods of the Chatti land, together with the thousand gods of the land of Egypt, will preserve him in health and give him life, together with his offspring, his country, and his subjects. POSTSCRIPT TO THE TREATY OF EXTRADITION—HOW TO RECONCILE WITH IT THE RIGHT OF ASYLUM. ‘ If one, or two, or three people flee from the land of Egypt and come to the great prince of Chatti, the great prince of Chatti shall have them seized and returned to tamses, the great King of Egypt. No accusation shall be made against the man who is thus brought to Ramses on account of his offense; his house, his wives, or children shall. not be punished; he shall not be killed, nor shall his eyes, his ears, his mouth, or his feet be mutilated; in short, no charge whatever shall be made against him on account of his offense. In the same way, if one, or two, or three ean have fled from the land of Chatti * * * [The same as above, with corresponding changes. ] DESCRIPTION OF THE SILVER TABLET. On the obverse of the tablet is shown a figure of Sutech,® who embraces the figure of the great prince of Chatti, surrounded with an inscription which says: ‘‘Seal of Sutech, the King of Heaven, seal of the treaty which Chattusar, the great prince of Chatti, the mighty, son of Morsar, the great prince of Chatti, the mighty, concludes.”’ Within the bordering of the sculpture is the seal * * * (supply, ‘‘of the great goddess?”’ ). On the reverse isasculpture, afigure of * * * (supply, ‘‘the great goddess?’’ ) of Chatti, who embraces the figure of the great princess of Chatti, surrounded with an inscription which says: ‘‘Seal of the sun god of the city of Arenena, the lord of the earth, (and?) seal of Rutuchipa, the princess of the Chatti land, daughter of the country of Kizawaden, the (lady?) of the city of Arenena, the lady of the land, the worshiper of the god(?).’’ Within the bordering of the sculpture is the seal of the sun god of Arenena, the lord of all lands. This treaty of alliance and extradition is, accordingly, the renewal of a former one, one party to which was Sapalulu, the grandfather of King Chattusar. Subsequently the Kingdom of Chatti goes rapidly to ruin, partly through the inrush of a wave of Aramean peoples, partly through the advance of new Hittite Pees from the north and northwest, with oe already in 1100 B. egies Pileser I came in conflict, aB y Sica the Beaten Paes the names ei ah sean gods. It is not the name of a Hittite god. THE ANCLENT HITTITES. 687 although Carchemish (Jerabis) on the Euphrates (west of Carrhar), a Chatti state, for a couple of centuries keeps up the appearance of independence by the ready payment of tribute to the suzerain of the time until in 717 that region also became an Assyrian province. Another stratum of the Hittite peoples is met with during the fifteenth century in western Asia Minor in the Lukki, who, according to the Tell-Amarna letters, carried on piracy on the southern coast of the Peninsula and as far as Cyprus. The provinces of Lycia and and Lycaonia are named after them, and we assume that they overran the whole of western Asia Minor. A couple of centuries later we see new Hittite peoples advance and, availing themselves of a period of weakness of Assyria, settle in northern Mesopotamia on the Euphrates. They were the Kummuch, who gave their name to the later province of Commagene. Tiglath- Pileser I (see above) joins with them in battle in 1100 B. c. on the Euphrates and subjugates them, but at the same time on the borders of the Kummuch meets other peoples of the same race, the Muski, who were not yet permanently settled, but still advancing, and farther back he meets the Kaski and Tabal. He repulses them. The Muski very probably retreated back of the Halys and settled there, for in 700 pr. c. their name is employed as an old historical territorial designation of a new kingdom, which was of the same character and extent, but Indo- German. King Midas of Phrygia is called in the Assyrian inscriptions **Mita of Muski.” The Tabal settle in Cappadocia, the Kaski north of itin Armenia Minor. In addition to these are also mentioned the Kumani, who occupied the mountains of the province of Melitene and have given Comana its name. A little later we meet another branch of the Hittite group in the Chilakku as heirs of the Lukki. The Assyrians came across them in Cappadocia, though their name remained attached only to Cilicia, the country south of the Taurus. All the peoples above mentioned maintained for centuries a con- stantly changing attitude toward Assyria. Whenever the Assyrian armies were far away, or Assyria was weakened through external or internal upheavals, they withheld allegiance and stopped paying tribute, but at the approach of the Assyrian armies they immediately again sent tribute and declared their submission. Tired of this con- stant change, the Assyrians at last embodied a part of these peoples as provinces into their empire, Carchemish, in 717 B. c. (see above); Tabal, with Chilakku and Kur (with the capital Tarsus), that is, Cap- padocia and Cilicia, under Sargon (722-705 B. c.); then Kommanu (with Comana) as the province of Tulzarimmu in 712 B. c. The last shoots of Hittite state organization are most probably to be looked for in the Lydian and Cilician Kingdoms. 688 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. Soon after 700 B. c. the Indo-German Kingdom of Midas of Phrygia, disappeared through the shock of the Cymbrian immigration. The Lydian Gyges, perhaps a lege man of Midas, took advantage of the confusion to establish upon the ruins of the Phrygian Kingdom, as successor to its power, a Lydian Kingdom, which again was most probably Hittite. East of it, in Cappadocia and Cilicia, we see during the last years of the Assyrian Empire, from about 660 B. c. down, the gradual formation of anew Kingdom of Chilakku (= Cilicia, but extend- ing much farther north than the later province), which soon after the fall of Nineveh, in 606 B. c., appears under Syennesis, at the time of Nebuchadnezzar, as the fourth great power of the Orient alongside of Lydia, Media, and Babylonia, and together with Nebuchadnezzar mediates, in 585 B. c., the peace between Alyattes of Lydia and Kyaxares of Media. Judging from the names of the kings, we should also consider this Kingdom of Chilakku as Hittite. It was only the conquest of Asia Minor by the Persians under Cyrus that put an end to this and to the Lydian Kingdoms, and thus also to the last Hittite state formations ona large scale. This is the development on the western stage. But we also meet Hittite States farther eastin Armenia. Shalmaneser I (in 1275 B.c.) and Tiglath-Pileser I (in 1100 B. G.) came across a series of peoples in the mountains of Armenia, west and south of Lake Van, which we must consider as Hittites, since the Kummuch (see above) are among them, and agreements in the names also support thisassumption. At first we meet here aseries of isolated tribes. From 850B.c., however, probably in consequence of new immigrations, a great empire is being formed around Lake Van, which for two centuries was a dangerous rival of Assyria. The Assyrians call it Urartu, the native inscriptions Biaina. Its center is the city of Thuspa (modern Van) on the eastern coast of Lake Van. Inthe times of its greatest power it extended from the Araxes to Melitene, Syria, and southeast to Lake Urmia. Its power, broken by Sargon, was annihilated through the Indo-Germanic immi- gration in the seventh century B. Cc. As meager as is our acquaintance with the history of the Hittite peoples, so also is our knowledge of their civilization, for accurate knowledge results almost exclusively from comprehensive and careful excavations. But as regards the territory under consideration, exca- vations by the German Orient committee have been made only at Senjirli, in North Syria, a few days’ journey from the Bay of Isken- derun. The English have made excavations east of the point men- tioned, at Carchemish (at present Jerabis) on the Euphrates, and the French at Boghazkeu and Ueynek, in the interior of Asia Minor, in Cappadocia, while excavations have been made by the English, Ger- mans, and natives in Armenia, on the eastern coast of Lake Van. What other monuments of Hittite civilization have become known to THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 689 us have been found either on or near the surface, or may still be seen on the rocky walls of Asia Minor. Special mention should be made of two finds in the ruins of Babylon—a stone bowl and a stone image of the Hittite storm god—the latter on the occasion of the present exca- vations of the German Orient Society—as also of one in the ruins of Nineveh, because they were found at such a distance from the settle- ments of the Hittites, and must have come there through contact either in war orin peace. At Nineveh there came to light eight small pieces of clay on which seals were impressed with Hittite characters, serving to verify some documents or other objects to which they were attached by means of cords. The sites of the finds of the monuments extend over entire Asia Minor as far as Smyrna and over North Syria and Armenia, but are most abundant around the Bay of Iskenderun, in Cappadocia, Cilicia, and North Syria. Although the number of the products of civiliza- tion from all these places ‘an not be termed incon- siderable, and is, more- over, Increasing with each year, the circum- stances mentioned above, that they were all discov- ered casually on the sur- face of the earth and that the accompanying in- scriptions are still unin- telligible, makes it, as yet, impossible to assign the monuments—with _. zoe tess aeete ate the exception of the Ar- Fic. 1.—Stone inscription in bas-relief. Found at Hamath, Syria. menian finds —to the single peoples which meet us in history, to fix them in time or to construe a history of the development of Hittite civi- lization and art. It would also be unwise to represent the undeniably existing points of contact with the Egyptian and Assyrian art monu- ments as loans on the part of the Hittites. A description of the Hittite civilization must for a long time be limited to the presentation of facts. The writing of the Hittites” (see fig. 1) is pictorial script. It shows human and animal heads; also whole animals, such as hares and birds; then hands, feet, and claws, besides a large number of images of objects, of which only a few, such as the sword, are as yet intelli- gible. While on the probably older inscriptions these pictures are executed in detail, the more recent ones exhibit a transformation of «To obviate misunderstandings, it may be explicitly pointed out that in the fol- lowing, if the contrary is not expressly stated, the entire group of peoples, not the single population, is meant. O90 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. many of them into simpler, more conventional forms by merely out- lining them. With this is combined another mark of progress. The signs of the older inscriptions are cut in relief; whether there are exceptions to this custom can not be determined with certainty. Those of the more recent are intaglio. This grouping of some inscrip- tions as older, others as more recent, can not yet be supported by their contents, but is based upon the following peculiarity: A close study of the inscriptions shows that the direction faced by the signs (notice especially the faces) varies. In figure 1, line 1, the face is turned toward the right; in line 2, on the other hand, toward the left. Since, according to the process of the Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions and the unmistakable indications of the Hittite inscriptions themselves, the writing is always’ to be read in the direction of the faces, it follows that line 1 runs from right to left, line 2 from left to right, and line 3 again from right to left. The inscription terminates with two-thirds of line 3, and the fact that the left third, not the right, remains blank shows that our arrangement is correct. Within the lines there stand several signs below one another which are to be arranged from top to bottom. Those inscriptions which by reason of the form of the char- acters had been above designated as the older ones, with a few excep- tions resulting probably from special circumstances, always begin on the right-hand top and strictly maintain this direction throughout. On the other hand, in many of the inscriptions which, on account of the cursive form of their signs are estimated to be of a later period, it can be observed not only that they begin on the left-hand top, but also that some signs no longer follow the right direction demanded by the course of the lines. This may probably be accounted for by the lack of practice in the use of picture writing, caused by the fact that in daily life, as in Assyria and Babylonia, another simpler system— perhaps the Aramaic phonetic writing—was already employed. In addition, it should be noted that the later an inscription appears to be by other indications the more apparent becomes the division of the words by definite punctuation marks. “There had probably already arisen the need of punctuation marks to facilitate the reading and arrangement, just as in the case of an Egyptian, who wished to learn the cuneiform writing, divided up the words with red lines on the clay tablet which he was studying. (See Der alte Orient, vol. 1, pt. 2, 2d edie pies) There have so far been found about 35 larger inscriptions, and to these may be added a great number of inscriptional fragments and of short inscriptions on seals, ete. Besides, hardly a year passes without new inscriptions coming to light. It can, therefore, be easily imagined that the desire to know what these inscriptions contain becomes more and more lively. But all efforts to decipher them made since 1870, when the inscriptions of this sort for the first time aroused THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 691 close attention, have been in vain. ‘The cause of failure is the meager or indefinite information concerning the Hittites on the part of their neighbors or successors, and the puzzling complications of their sys- tem of writing. It is approximately estimated that there are already known more than 200 signs in their system, and this number is increas- ing with each new inscription. As far as can be inferred from the inscriptions and from other writing systems of western Asia, some single signs stand for entire words which in reading are either to be pronounced, or are merely explanatory, to indicate the notional sphere into which a preceding or following written-out word belongs;“ some denote a syllable, others again merely a sound. The mingling of all these signs naturally renders the system very obscure, since one and the same word can be written in an entirely different manner. In the uniform writing systems of the Egyptians and Babylonians, inscriptions which presented the same content in different parallel scripts and languages, one of which was known or easy to make out, smoothed the difficulty of decipherment. It is true that we have also for the Hittite writing system such an example, which naturally has been much discussed. It is the bilingual inscription of ‘Tarkudimme” (fig. 2). But, unfortunately, it is too short and presents in itself too many riddles to be of any use. The object made of silver, in form something like a hollow hemisphere, formed the upper part of a dag- ger handle and was to serve as a seal. The convex surface is engraved with a figure and re. 2.—Imseription of the Tarku- writing. On the edge runs a cuneiform EOIROS Oise: inscription reading: ‘‘Tarkudimme, King of the country of Erme (? or Me ?).” In the center, to the right and the left of the figure of the King, is a Hittite inscription twice repeated. The distribution of the content of the cuneiform script over these six signs presents so many difficulties that one is compelled to suppose that the Hittite inscription either contains only a portion of it or something entirely different. The Hittite hieroglyphic writing has become the parent of a series of partly alphabetical writing systems which in later times meet us on the soil of Asia Minor. To these belongs the script used on the isle of Cyprus, a syllabic writing, where nearly every sign denotes a syllable (consonant and vowel). A large number of Greek inscrip- «Such a sign is that for ‘‘God’’—consisting of an oval with a crossbar in it—the only one thus far interpreted with certainty without, however, knowing how it 1s to be pronounced. The first sign in figure 1—a head with an arm and the hand point- ing to the face—which stands at the commencement of many inscriptions, very probably means ‘‘I am,’ or (NN...) ‘‘speaks.”’ But here, too, the pronuncia- tion is unknown. 692 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. tions are written in this script. The fact that such complicated script was employed alongside of the Greek attests to the great predomi- nance of pre-Grecian civilization in Cyprus. The Lycian, Carian, Pamphylian, and other scripts of Asia also trace back, at least in part, to the Hittite. Although the hieroglyphic inscriptions are thus still unintelligible to us, we have some examples of the Hittite dialects in Babylonian script. Among the clay tablets of Tell el-Amarna (see Der Alte Orient, vol. 1, pt. 2) are found a couple of letters in cuneiform writing, but in Hittite language, of the Kings Tushratta, of Mitani, North Meso- potamia (ibid., vol. 1, pt. 2, 2d ed., p. 14), and Tarchundaraba, of Arsapi or Arzawa (ibid., p. 5). Clay tablets in the same language were found at Boghazkeu, in Cappadocia. The largest number of monuments, however, was furnished by the soil of Armenia. There were discovered numerous rock inscriptions, of historical and religious content, which in the characters of cuneiform script speak to us in the language of the ancient Hittite people. They are usually designated after the capital of this people, Van, as the Van inscriptions. Of this language, as also of the Mitani language, which is clearly related to it, we already understand something, so that the documents can in part be translated. But we do not gain by that a clear idea of the structure of these languages, nor are we in condition to affirm with certainty a relationship with other known languages. Still, there seems to be these points of contact with the languages spoken in the Caucasus, especially with the Georgian. The personal appearance of the Hittites on their monuments is very peculiar, even if allowance be made for what may be lack of skill in the representation. Anthropological investigations, such as measurements of the skulls of the present inhabitants of western Asia, in whose midst remnants of older races can be discerned, have made it probable that the Hittites, the modern Armenians, and a part of the Jews” belong to one and the same race. Their characteristics are strikingly short heads (bracychphaly), dark eyes and hair, and large curved noses. The latter is most conspicuous on the monuments. The EKeyptian repre- sentations depict the Hittites with oblong, slightly curved noses, strongly receding foreheads, prominent cheek bones, beardless, with short, round chins, and with fair skin. The hair is long and thick and fails upon the shoulders in two strings. On the Hittite monuments only one queue, and that braided, is seen, and, besides, a large number of the men wear beards. The arrangement of the hair of the women is the same as that of the men. “Which is, accordingly, not Semitic by race, though haying a Semitic language. Race affinity and linguistic affiliation do not coincide. The true Semitic type is, according to the same investigations, preseryed among the Bedouins in the desert, and is characterized as dolichocephalic. Smithsonian Report, 1903 —Messerschmidt. PLATE I. FiG. 1.—HITTITE REPRESENTATION OF A MEAL. SENJIRLI. Fic. 2.—HitTITE WarRRIOR. FROM SENJIRLI, 1888. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Messerschmidt. PLATE Il. ee ee Fia. 1.—DIvINITY EMBRACING A KING Fig. 2.—DIVINITY WITH HEAD GEAR DECOo- OR PRIEST. BOGHAZKENI. RATED WITH HORNS. FOUND IN JERABIS (ANCIENT CARCHEMISH). Fig. 3.—RELIGIOUS SCENE. BOGHAZKENI. THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 693 The dress of the men consists chiefly of a coat with short sleeves reaching to the middle of the upper arm, closed around the neck, and reaching only to something above the knees, the lower edge being fre- quently lined with fringes or a thick border. It is held together, around the hips, by a broad belt beneath which there is indicated a slit, slantingly running downward. Whether and how the legs were clothed can not be definitely determined from the reliefs. In place of this short coat there is less frequently found a long one, reaching to the feet, likewise with short sleeves, closed around the neck and girdled about the hips. Sometimes the belt seems to run, in an unexplainable way, partly under, partly over the ccat. This dress is common to men and women. With the latter it seems sometimes to fall down underneath the belt in perpendicular folds. In a few cases it is lined with points and fringes. Distinguished from it is a long cloak which evi- dently is worn over the short coat described above, as it seems, only by persons of impor- tance It apparently consisted of a long piece of cloth thrown over one shoul- der and drawn around the chest so as to form a fold for one arm while leaving the other free and falling down on the back. From the repre- sentations it is supposed that this garment was made of artistic textures. The dress of the women, described above, was sometimes supplemented by aepiece of cloth thrown over it, which can hardly be anything else than a veil. It was in some manner fastened to the head gear, falling over it to the feet and covering the entire back. The edge of the veil is ornamented with fringes. The head gear of the men is generally a pointed hat, probably of felt or leather and of cone shape. At the lower edge is a rim turned upward. Occasionally it is decorated with perpendicular stripes, not satisfactorily explained, and sometimes also with circular ornaments. A variety of this pointed hat is one that terminates in the form of a ball. Quite peculiar is the head gear of the women, consisting of a priests or kings. Fig. 3.—Sepulchral monument, found at Marash, North Syria. 694 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. kind of cylinder. While it usually has a rim bent upward and is without ornaments, those on the reliefs of Boghazkeu exhibit perpen- diculay stripes, are notched at the top and lack the rim. In this form it is the starting point for the head gear of later representations of the goddess Cybele, termed the *‘mural crown.” A head gear common to both sexes is a round, closely fitting cap, sometimes ornamented with perpendicular stripes, horizontal rows of rosettes, or with small rosette-shaped settings on the front which perhaps consisted of pre- cious stones. In isolated cases there is also found, as head gear for men, a cap with a tassel, just like the modern Turkish fez. The foot gear of the Hittites is a shoe with turned-up tips. It is found among many mountain inhabitants, as the turned-up point pro- tects the toes better than the straight shoe. In several cases the figures wear sandals, consisting of a flat piece of leather held by thongs under the foot, the heel being provided with a cap for better protection. Few ornaments can be discerned upon the monuments. Wrists and ankles are occasionally adorned with rings. Earrings frequently occur as ornaments also of men. In one case a necklace is seen on a woman. Women are usually represented with a mirror in one hand, while the other hand holds either an object required by the situation portrayed or something resembling a pomegranate or a spindle. The men carry a staff as a mark of dignity. The priestly or royal mark of special dignity seems to have been the crook, carried with the curved end downward. The army of the Hittites was composed of foot soldiers and chari- oteers, horsemen being of rare occurrence on the reliefs. The foot soldiers wear, as far as can be ascertained, a short coat, pointed cap, and boots. The chief arms are bows and arrows. By their side are also seen a long lance, club, double-edged axe, single and double edged sword, and a sickle-shaped sword. The handle of the common sword terminates at the upper end in a globular knob. On the native monuments no helmet can be recognized. But the Egyptian repre- sentations of Hittite nobles and charioteers exhibit a low morion, round on the top, with a hair tuft. The shield is either quadrangular or of the form of the so-called Pontian Amazon shield, approaching the outline of an 8. The war chariot is a low box, open in the rear, resting upon two wheels, and drawn by two horses. On each side is a quiver, while the rear part holds the lance. The Egyptians empha- size the fact that each Hittite chariot had three warriors—the chari- oteer, the shield-bearer, and the bowman, because it differed from their own custom. Upon the Hittite representations the shield-bearer is lacking. This, however, is accounted for by the circumstance that they all depict hunting and not war scenes. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Messerschmidt. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—HITTITE GOD OF THE CHASE, HOLDING HARES. SENJIRLI, ASIA MINOR. Fig. 2.—HITTITE KING, WITH SCEPTER AND SPEAR. Fia. 3.—HITTITE WINGED DIVIN- SENJIRLI, ASIA MINOR. ITY, WITH HEAD OF GRIFFON. SENJIRLI, ASIA MINOR. Originals in Royal Museum, Berlin. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Messerschmidt. ry Fic. 1.—STORM GOD TESHuP. Fig. 2.—HITTITE STORM GOD, WITH FROM BABYLON. HAMMER AND LIGHTNING. x Liber + ~ Fia. 3.—HITTITE Warrior, FIG. 4.—HITTITE SUPPLIANT. WITH AX AND Sworpb. BOGHAZKENI, ASIA MINOR. SENJIRLI, ASIA MINOR. Originals in Royal Museum, Berlin. THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 695 The war chariot was also employed for the chase. The animals hunted are represented as the lion, the deer, and the hare. The first was chased with dogs. On one of the gate slabs of Senjirli the god of the chase is represented with human body and the head of a lion. He holds in one hand a hare, in the other a boomerang, which, accord- ingly, must have been used in hunting. On each of his shoulders is a bird, evidently a faleon, which already in ancient time was trained for the chase. This peculiar god image, a mixture of man and beast, leads to a consideration of the religion of the Hittites. Here, too, the meager- ness and obscurity of tradition, and the failure to decipher the inscrip- tions is to be regretted. Only scattered details can, therefore, be culled. With which of the Hittite peoples originated the names of the gods in Asia Minor which the Greeks transmitted, and whether their form is the correct one, can not yet be determined. More relia- ble, but scanty, is the information of the cuneiform inscriptions. Some knowledge can also be derived from personal names, as in the Orient they are frequently composed with the names of gods. The pictorial representations also teach us to a certain extent concerning the nature of the gods. Everywhere in Asia Minor and northern Syria tradition places in the foreground the worship of a goddess which is sometimes desig- nated as the ‘“‘great mother.” At Komana in Cappadocia she was worshiped under the name of Ma. She wears upon the head the so-called mural crown. Innumerable priests and priestesses served her. The latter were called Amazons, and from the Greek legends are known as warlike priestesses. The former, who were eunuchs, bear the name of Galls, and constitute a peculiarity of Asia Minor cult: (Comp. Der alte Orient, vol. m1, part 213, 2d ed., p. 61, note 1.) The festivals of the goddess, to which large multitudes are said to have flocked, were celebrated with wild songs ana dances accompanied ‘by noisy music, the priests on such occasions being thrown into such a frenzy as to emasculate themselves. To be sure, this is related of the cult of the great goddess at Hieropolis-Bambyke in northern Syria, but this is the same goddess, even though she bears another name. She is called Semiramis. Her sacred animal is the dove. In this connection it is worthy of notice that the name-group of this goddess, distinctly recognized in the pictorial inscriptions, though it can not yet be read, contains the image of a bird. For an understanding of the legend of her killing each of her lovers in succession reference may be made to the man-hating Ishtar, and the legend of her concealing her sex suggests the bearded Venus of classical antiquity. (Der alte Ori- ent, zb7d., pp. 61 to 68.) Besides this goddess are mentioned Dionysos and an unspecified god who doubtless corresponds to her beloved, Adonis-Tamuz (77d., pp. 61, 62), as yearly a pyre is erected anda sm 1903 45 696 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. dirge recited in his honor. For Lydia we have the names Heracles or Sandon and Omphale transmitted, they are the sun and moon gods. The former is said to have been worshiped also in Cilicia under the name of Sandon. The chief act in his cult there is said to have been the erecting of a pyre (see above). In addition to Ma and Semiramis the name of Cybele is also found for the ‘* great mother,” especially in Phrygia. Like Ma she also wears upon her head the mural crown. Combined with her is Attis, her beloved, corresponding to Adonis- Tamuz. Rhea, another form of the great mother, was attended by the Dactyles or deities considered as the inventors of metallurgy. As the moon god worshiped in Asia Minor, the name Men is transmitted to us. From the cuneiform inscriptions and from the personal names it can be concluded that among the western Hittites, the god at the head of their pantheon bore the name Tarku, while among the eastern Hittites it was the storm god Teshup. Both names, but especially the latter, are of comparatively frequent occurrence. Teshup is represented (pl. tv), at least on the soil of northern Syria, as a warrior, holding in one hand a bundle of three lightning forks, with the other swinging the hammer, the symbol of fertility. (Compare Tor with the hammer Mioelnir.) In Cilicia a god Sanda, among others, was worshiped. Among the Mitani we meet besides Teshup, the goddess Shaushkas, corresponding to the Babylonian Ishtar, and perhaps a god Shimigi. The so-called Van inscriptions (see p. 692) contain a large number of names of gods, but we are little informed concerning the nature of most of these deities. The god Teshup was probably received by the people of the Van inscriptions from an earlier people belonging, however, to the same race, for though he is often mentioned in their inscriptions, the first place is held by the god Chaldis, who is scarcely wanting inany of the incriptions. We also frequently meet with a triad of gods as the most important ones, Chaldis and the storm god Teshup or, as he is valied is this dialect, Teishebas being joined by the sun god Ardis. Rarely is the moon god Shelardis mentioned. Concerning the sacri- fices to be offered to the gods on various occasions the inscriptions contain detailed statements which, however, are not yet fully intelli- gible. The monuments themselves present a series of religious scenes, the most important being found at Boghazkeu—probably the ancient Pteria—in Cappadocia. The living rock forms there in one place, in a general manner, a rectangular room, without ceiling, one broad- side of which, open in its entire width, forms the entrance. The stone walls in the interior are perpendicular. On these walls a large relig- ious scene is sculptured composed of about 70 persons advancing ove behind the other. Upon the rear wall, facing the entrance, is the principal group (pl. 1m) forming the center of the whole. Toward co) Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Messerschmidt. PLATE V. FiaG. 1.—HITTITE LION CHASE. SAKTCHEGOZN. a ae Res a te, SS FiG. 2.—HITTITE WARRIORS. BOGHAZKENI, ASIA MINOR. Originals in Royal Museum, Berlin. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Messerschmidt. PLATE Vi. Fia. 1.—HITTITE WINGED SPHINX, WITH DOUBLE HEAD OF MAN AND LION. Fi@. 2.—HITTITE WINGED SPHINX, WITH HUMAN HEAD. Originals from Senjirli, Asia Minor, in Royal Museum, Berlin. THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 697 it advance from the left side wall a procession almost exclusively of male figures, one behind the other, and in the same manner from the right side wall one of female figures. The persons represented on the rear wall who stand partly upon mountains, partly upon human fig- ures, partly upon animals, are doubtless to be considered as divinities. The god at the head of the male procession who stands upon the heads of two persons, probably priests, and has by his side an animal with a pointed cap upon its heady is represented as a warrior. He turns with outstretched hand toward a goddess advancing from the opposite direction who stands, with a mural crown upon her head, upon a pan- ther and has likewise by her side an animal with a pointed cap. Behind her is a god standing upon a panther, the only male in the female procession. We therefore see in him the ‘‘ beloved” of the great goddess. The entire scene has received the most divergent interpretations, the most probable of which sees in it a representation of the spring myth, though the interpretation does not solve all the difficulties. The meeting of the sun god and the moon goddess—for this is the likely interpretation of these divinities—each at the head of a solemn train, seems to symbolize the vernal constellation of sun and moon. The male procession on the left side ends with twelve per- fectly identical personages who carry sickle-shaped swords and seem to advance in a kind of trot. In this may be seen a representation of the dancing with arms by the priests which is said to have taken place in the festivals of Ma. Many of the figures have in front and above their heads groups of hieroglyphics that evidently contain names of gods and establish the sculptures as Hittite. Upon a rock wall, near the one just described, is found the relief of pl. u. The representation, besides being absolutely unique in itself, attains a special value from the circumstance that a short explana- tion of it is preserved to us from antiquity itself in the description of the seal of the chief Hittite god, given at the conclusion of the Hittite treaty (see p. 686). Our relief evidently exhibits the same representation as that of the seal: The god, represented as a warrior in heroic size, embraces a Hittite prince or priest. The name of the god is unknown, as the Egyptian has inserted the name of the Egyptian Sutech in place of the Hittite. The agreement of the relief with the inscription is important, also, for the reason that it enables an approxi- mate dating of the Boghazkeu sculptures, which some would refer as far back as 700 B. c. But as this unique representation is thus far met with only twice, the tendency is to combine both cases of its occurrence, i. e., to refer them to about the thirteenth century, the time of the Hittite treaty, although it must be admitted that the artis- tic execution seems to favora later date. But as we know as yet almost nothing of the art development of the Hittites, this circum- stance must not*be given too much importance, 698 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. At Fraktin, in Cappadocia, south of Czesarea, a Hittite sacrificial scene is represented upon a rock. To the left stands a god,in the garb of a warrior, holding in one hand a crook over his shoulder. Before him is an altar, which in its ground form is a pillar, somewhat taper- ing upward, with a thick plate placed horizontally over it. Before it stands a man, perhaps a priest, in the dress of a warrior, turned toward the god and with his right hand pouring a libation from a ves- sel. To the right is another identical scene, only that here a priestess in long dress offers the libation to a seated goddess. Upon the altar here a bird is sitting. This is worthy of notice. The type of aseated goddess with a mirror or flower in the hands and occasionally a bird sitting upon the altar or upon a table before her, meets us often on the Hittite sculptures. We may safely recognize in it Semiramis, to whom the dove was sacred, or, as she is also named, Ma of Comana, etc. At Irviz, on the border of Cilicia and Cappadocia, there is seen upon a rock in a lovely and fertile region a king or priest in adora- tion before a god of fertility. The god is marked as such by having in one hand a vine with many clusters, in the other a cornucopia from which water is streaming. As unique creatures of religious fancy may be mentioned the sphinxes and gryphons. The formeriare fantastic beings with lion bodies and human heads, and generally winged. Upon one relief the sphinx is given even two heads, one of a lion in natural position and the other of a man placed perpendicularly upon the neck. The gryphon has the body of a man, but the head of a vulture, and also has wings. The examples of Hittite architecture remain for the most part still buried. Only in one place, at Senjirli, North Syria, have extensive excavations been made, to be described in a future publication, uncover- ing the site of an ancient city. The city was surrounded by a double, nearly circular, wall protected by towers. Within this large circle was the citadel proper, raised upon an elevated site. It was inclosed by a second wall, likewise provided with projecting towers, and on the south side was a large gate of a characteristic plan, for the wall was not merely cut through to effect an opening, but considerably thickened at the gate, so that it has two passages, in front and in the rear. The space between the passage within the wall on both sides is partly unfilled, so that a large quadrangular court is formed. On either side of the outer door large towers project. All the walls are of extraordinary thickness, even several meters thick, and consist, in the lower portion of uncut stones, to keep off moisture, and the upper part is of unburnt bricks. Clay is employed as building mate- rial through the entire Hither Asia, even where other material is available, and the custom dates back to Babylonian influence. The inner walls of the gate and palace rooms were faced with stone slabs, THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 699 1 to 14 meters in height, adorned with reliefs. The edifice in its simplest form was of a quadrangular ground plan with colossal walls and had varied chambers. The front showed two large towers, which, however, were not an organic part of the building. Between them an open vestibule with columns formed the entrance, to which a few steps led up. The columns must have been of wood, as nothing is left of them excepting the stone bases, which were formed of single or pairs of sphinxes. A gate very similar to that of Senjirli was found at the village of Veynek, in Cappadocia. Part of the large stone slabs used as wall dressing, upon which are representations of sacrificial scenes, as also two large sphinxes which flanked the gate passage, are still in place. At Boghazkeu, also, numerous wall remnants of an extensive ancient city are found. In the northern part of it are still discerned the foundation walls of a large palace of quadrangular ground plan, with many rooms. The walls are preserved to the height of about a meter, and consist, like those of Senjirli, of rough, uncut stones. From this circumstance it may be inferred that here, too, the upper part of the wall consisted of unburnt bricks. To the excavations at Jerabis, on the Euphrates, on the site of the ancient and oft-mentioned Carchemish, we owe our knowledge of the wall slabs with reliefs, which until now represent the high-water mark of Hittite artistic development in sculp- ture (see pl. m1), in which, however, Assyrian influence is distinctly discernible. It shows itself in the position and carriage of the figures and in the care applied to the reproduction of ornamental details. Worthy of notice is the remarkably high relief employed in some of the Jerabis sculptures. The reliefs, accompanied by inscriptions, evidently form the decoration of the entrance to a Hittite palace. The subjects of the Hittite sculptors, so far as can be understood, are chiefly religious, and have been largely referred to above, but special mention may be made of a unique work upon a rock at Boghaz- keu. It has a human head with a pointed cap upon it, while the entire body is composed of four lions. Of two of them only the fore parts are represented; they form the breast. Their bodies, to the right and the left, are turned outward, and appear at a distance like arm stumps. The two other lions represented in full are bent with their heads downward and turn their backs to the right and the left out- ward. They represent the body of the figure. Im place of legs, which are not indicated, there are perpendicular straight lines, which unite at the bottom. ‘The frequently occurring double eagle (fig. 3, pl. 11) is also remarkable as a second instance of the composition of fan- tastic figures of animals, but especially because it forms a directly connecting link between modern times and Hittite antiquity, for the Austrian double eagle is borrowed from the latter. It was first 700 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. adopted in the Orient by the Seljuk sultans (in 1217 a. D.), and from them descended through the German emperors, its first appearance on their coat of arms being in 1345. Among nonreligious sculptures, tombstones will first be mentioned. Fig. 3, page 693, and probably fig. 1, pl. 1, are such representations. They are stone slabs of human size, provided at the bottom with a stone peg to fit into a socket to keep it in an upright position. Upon the fore side the dead is invariably represented sitting at a meal, alone or with another person. Before him or, in the latter case, between them, is seen a table with crossed legs, resembling our camp stools, upon which food and drink are set. Fig. 3 shows two women, each hold- ing in one hand a pomegranate (or a spindle? ), while in the other hand one woman has a mirror, the other woman a bowl which she carries to the mouth. Besides these we have the lower parts of two human statues, provided with inscriptions. The execution is very stiff and shows only feeble attempts at reproducing the folds of the drapery. Of animals, the lion is most frequently represented. Head and chest stand out free from the stone slab, while the body is merely in relief, as the work was for a gate ornament, and had to be represented with one half of the body fitted into the wall. Regarding the character of the Hittite sculptures, that is, those thus far known, they must be considered as rude, childish, and stiff, though improvements and efforts to enliven the figures can not be denied. As we are not able to read the inscriptions on the sculpture no date can be assigned to the work, and we are therefore unable to describe the historical development of Hittite art. A conelusion from purely artistic view points, considering the manifold circumstances which influence civilized life, would easily lead astray. Thus sculptures found in two different places, some of which may be very rude, while others point to a considerably higher degree of art, may belong to the same period. The explanation of this would be that the former dec- orated the palace of a petty unimportant prince without the means to engage the best artists of his time, while the latter come from a con- temporaneous, but powerful and rich ruler. Only when productions of different art degrees are found in the same place is a chronological arrangement of them to a certain extent justified. This is the case at Senjitli. Here were found at the southern gate of the city wall sculp- tures which are certainly older than those of the southern gate of the citadel wall. But the material is too meager for establishing a develop- ment in detail. Most of the sculptures are executed in low relief. In the crudest the representation is a simple outline, within which muscles, drapery folds, and other details are merely indicated by awkwardly incised lines, so that the legs or wings of animals sometimes appear as merely mechanically attached to the body. This line drawing betrays metal THE ANCIENT HITTITES. FOL work as the starting point of stone sculpture, for figures in metal are driven from the back of the plate to the front, and the muscles and other details are then indicated by reversing the process in the respec- tive parts of the metal. The writing of the Hittites also indicates such origin for their art, the oldest inscriptions showing the characters cut in relief, which is much more difficult than intaglio work to produce in stone. The primitive sculptures also show an utter lack of proportion. The lower part of the human body is usually much too small in pro- portion to the upper part, or the arms are two thin and too short. Animal bodies are either excessively drawn out or are shortened. But while these faults are less evident in the better sculptures, there is common to all an almost entire absence of perspective. Of objects with some depth only the fore side is represented. Thus in fig. 3 and pl. 1, table and chairs seem to have only two legs each, and the plate of the former is merely a line. The toes on the feet of human figures and the claws of lions are generally piled one upon another instead of being entirely or partly spread out, while the old artist always has endeavored to show as much as possible. In pl. rv the chest of the god who advances to the right is completely turned about so that it appears in a front view. Both shoulders, besides being too much drawn up, are not shortened. The artist evidently desired to bring the emblems of the god into clear view, but was not equal to the task of combining it with a natural attitude of the body; and he probably also hesitated about hiding the face by the arm and hammer. The existence of such a principle among artists of western Asia is evi- denced by numerous Assyrian reliefs, upon which the bow and bow- string are simply omitted when they would cover the face or chest. The unnatural position of the arm of the god or goddess (pl. 1) is probably to be explained in the same way. In order that the vessel might not obscure the drapery, evidently executed with much care, the artist extended the arm far to the front. Upona relief at Ueynek, which depicts a person ascending a ladder, the ladder is represented with a front view, but the person with a side view, so that he seems to climb upon the cross beam of the ladder. On this as on other sculp- tures the artist tries to do justice to the laws of perspective by short~ ening the figures in the background, but does not maintain a propor- tion as regards their breadth or in relation to the other figures. Thus on a relief from Marash a warrior is considerably larger than the horse which he leads by the bridle. Frequently also rear figures are placed on the same level as front ones, giving the appearance of adults and children, although judging from the above characteristic this is not at all intended. Where several rows of figures ranged one behind the other are to be represented, as upon the Marash relief mentioned above, they are placed, as on steps, one above the other, because the TO2 THE ANCIENT HITTITES. artist could not conceive and reproduce a picture in its entirety, but could only take each group separately in view. The attitude of the body is conventional. The personages are rep- resented as walking by placing one foot in front of the other. One arm is extended to hold or carry a staff, a vesseJ, or an ornament and simi- lar objects, the other is bent at a right angle and placed against the chest. There seems to be no attempt at individualizing. Even where several personages or animals appear, each figure, almost without exception, is moving in the same attitude as the other. The eye is always drawn with a front view and is generally too large. Profile representation is the rule. The only example of drawing with front view is upon a relief found at Carchemish representing a winged goddess, which is certainly due to Babylonian influence, as the goddess Ishtar very often appears in that attitude on seal cylinders of that country. The lifeless monotony of Hittite art is enhanced where only a single personage is represented, which is mostly the case. The cooperation of several personages on the same tasks is seldom observed, even where a larger sculpture series is found. For even here each figure generally seems to be so little influenced by the action of its neighbors that its absence would not be missed. Battle scenes are until now entirely wanting. On the other hand we have the rep- resentation of a lion hunt, accompanied by a Hittite inscription, which belongs to the better productions of this art. Upon a war chariot, supposed to be drawn by two horses, although only one is sketched, while the other must be imagined as covered by it, there stands by the side of the charioteer a bowman in the act of shooting an arrow at a fleeing lion. The lion, already hit by an arrow and infuriated by it, rears high upon his hind legs and with terrific roaring turns the upper body, with raised fore claws, toward the bowman. Under the horse a dog is represented in a rapid run. A very similar representation of a deer chase, evidently coming from the same place, has recently been discovered. As regards technology the Hittites seem to have been quite skillful in working metals. The mountains between Cilicia and Cappadocia are rich in silver, and silver mines were found which must have been worked in very ancient times. And, indeed, among the few remnants of Hittite industry that have come to us there are several objects of silver such as the sword knob in figure 2 and some seals. In one of them, artistically executed, the several parts are held together with silver alloy. The Hittite treaty, described on a previous page, was engraved upon a silver tablet. Bronze works have been discovered in the excavations on the soil of the Kingdom of Van. One of these is a bronze votive shield, wpon which rows of walking lions and bulls in repoussé are represented in concentric circles around the center of THE ANCIENT HITTITES. 708 the shield. Besides there were found arm rings, belt buckles, parts of artistic thrones and statues of bronze. The statues and animal figures had been covered with very thin gold plate and set with gems, the gold plates being fastened to the bronzes by narrow bent edges sunk into cuts in the bronze. The excavations in Van brought to light a unique floor mosaic com- posed of black, white, and red stones combined with bronze. Around a bronze rosette the colored stones are grouped in eoncentric rings. Other figures of the same material are worked into rhombic forms. 38 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 3y Cyrus THOMAS. The Mayan tribes of Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala, and western Honduras had reached at the time of the ** discovery ” the highest stage of native culture found in North America, except possibly in political organization, in which the ancient Mexicans, or Aztecs, excelled. This advance is shown by their architecture, as seen in the ruins of stately stone structures found throughout the region indicated, by their sculptures in stone and wood, by their complicated calendar system, by their arithmetical computations, and, above all, by the near approach they seem to have made to alphabetic writing, their system falling apparently but a step behind that of the ancient Keyptians. They engraved their peculiar hieroglyphic characters on stone tablets, on great sculptured monoliths, and on the walls and lintels of their buildings, painted them on plastered surfaces and on pottery, and wrote them in books. As most of these glyphs have rounded outlines, early authors imagined they resembled somewhat a section of a pebble, and the term ‘‘calculiform characters ”—from the Latin calculus, ‘‘a pebble”—was for a time applied to them; but this is no longer in use, the term ‘‘hieroglyph,” or simply ‘‘ glyph,” having replaced it. Where inscribed on stone or wood (for they are carved on both, but chiefly on the former) they are made to stand out in low relief, as may be seen in plate 1; but occasionally they were scratched or incised on shells and pottery, in which cases the glyphs are generally quite rude, Inscriptions composed of these peculiar hieroglyphs bave been found in the ruins of temples and of other structures in the States of Chiapas and Yucatan, Mexico, and in Guatemala and western Honduras. They are found in different situations, some of them on stone slabs set in the inner side of the walls of the temples, one of which, from Palenque, Chiapas, is among the collections of the Smith- sonion Institution. A very extensive inscription is on the inside wall of the structure at Palenque, named by Stephens the ‘*Temple of Inscriptions.” At Copan, in western Honduras, and at Quirigua, in astern Guatemala, the more important ones are on the sides and backs of the great stone statues which stood, and, in part, are yet standing, in what the native priests considered sacred precincts. The 705 706 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. lintels of the temple doors and, in a few instances, even the steps lead- ing up to these edifices were utilized for this purpose. Casts and excellent photographs of most of these inscriptions have been made, thus bringing them in reach of students for investigation and study. Most of the ruins are found covered with a heavy forest growth, which has to be removed before exploration can be carried on. ‘The present condition of one of the ruins at Chichen Itza, in Yucatan, named by Prof. W. H. Holmes the ‘‘Temple of Tables,” is shown in plate n, where the growth has been partially removed. The glyphs of the inscriptions, which were carved so as to stand out in low relief, are, as seen in plate 1, somewhat square in outline, vary- ing from 35 to 4% or 5 inches square. Each of these squares, which are as a rule in straight columns or lines, constitutes a hieroglyph or glyph, but they are usually composed of several elements or parts. This characteristic, which can not be easily explained in words, will be readily understood by reference to plate 1. Some of these elements, as will be observed, consist of lines and dots, mostly at the left side or on the top of the glyphs. These are of special importance and will receive further notice. Some of the glyphs consist chiefly of an oval figure surrounded by a rim, as in the Egyptian cartouch. These inclosed characters, with probably a single exception, are symbols of Maya days. It is by means of these day symbols and the month symbols, which are also given in the inscriptions, that students ascer- tain that Maya people were the authors. Diego de Landa, a Spanish bishop, who went to Yucatan as a missionary in 1540, when persons were still living who could read the symbolic writing of the codices, has preserved in his work (De las Cosas de Yucatan) the forms of these symbols, each with its proper name attached, and this is the initial point of later investigations. As these names are those of the Mayan days and months, and the ruins are in the regions inhabited, so far as known, only by Mayan tribes, the remains as well as the inscriptions are attributed to these tribes. However, Maya scribes were not limited in their symbolic or hiero- elyphic writing to stone or wood, but wrote or painted their characters in manuscripts. Four examples of these manuscripts, or codices, as they are usually termed, remain. These are the Codex Troanus and Codex Cortesianus, thought by some authors to be parts of the same book, which are at Madrid; the Codex Peresianus, whicn is in Paris, and the Codex Dresdensis, the most important of the sc cies, which is in the Royal Library at Dresden. The first two strongly resemble each other, and were probably written in Yucatan, as they follow the calendar systeri of that region. The Codex Peresianus differs in some respects frora all the others. The Dresden codex, which is of chief importance in studying the PLATE |. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Thomas. Fla. 1.—PALENQUE TABLET (IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION). PLATE Il. Fig. 2.—TEMPLE OF TABLES, CHICHEN ITZA. CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 707 written glyphs, agrees closely with the temple inscription in essential points, and was probably written in Chiapas or Guatemala. These manuscripts are on a kind of paper made of the Maguey plant. A description of one is substantially a description of all, though the size and the number of pages vary. The Troano codex, which will be taken as an example, consists of astrip of maguey paper about 14 feet long and 9 inches wide, both surfaces of which were first covered with a white paint or varnish. The two faces were then divided into spaces about six inches wide by black or red lines across the strip, in which spaces the characters and figures, in black, brown, red, and sometimes blue, were painted... The strip was then folded back and forth, like a pocket map, into 35 folds corresponding with the cross lines, repre- senting, when pressed together, the appearance of an ordinary octavo volume. The glyphs and figures cover both sides of the paper, form- ing 70 pages, the writing and painting having been done apparently after the folding, as the folds do not interfere with it. A page is shown in facsimile in plate 11. The order in which this writing—if it may properly be so termed— is to be read was for many years a subject of discussion, some authors contending for one direction, as from left to right, or from the top downward, while some thought that the reading should be in the oppo- site direction. The proper order in which the inscriptions and the text, in part, of the manuscripts is to be read was first pointed out by the writer in 1882.¢ In the inscriptions, which usually consists of two, four, or six col- umns, the columns are to be taken by twos or pairs from left to right, and the glyphs in each pair of columns are to be read from left to right and from top to bottom, in the order of the letters in the diagram (fig. 1). Where there is a single column the ;-— Sea reading is from the top downward, and in sin- ie Q gle horizontal lines it is from left to right. e 5 The order in which the glyphsin the codices are | ~~~ cag rs to be taken, where there is a regular arrange- : ment, is substantially the same. Although the g h columns may consist of but two lines in depth they are read in the order a, 6, c, d in the dia- gram, at least in the Dresden, Troano, and Cortesian codices. In the Dresden codex, however, the numeral and time series, some of which are quite long, are in some cases to be read from right to left by lines across the page, the lines following one another from the bottom upward. Usually there are in the inscriptions, besides the elyphs, figures of priests and deities, and symbolic representations. A considerable portion of almost every page in the codices consists of Fig. 1. @Study of the Manuscript Troano, 708 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. pictographic representations such as are seen in the spaces below the text or lines of glyphs in plate 1. An important class of characters consists of those which as is now known denote numbers. These are of two quite distinct types; one, which is the usual form, found in both the inscriptions and the codices, but more abundantly in the latter, consists chiefly of dots and short lines. Thus. (one dot) signifies 1; .. (two dots) signify 2, and so on up to 4; 5 is indicated by a single short straight line, thus —; 10 by two similar lines, and 15 by three similar lines. To represent 6 the Maya scribes used a straight line and one dot + ; for 7 a straight line and two dots, and so on to 9. Eleven was denoted by two straight lines and a dot; 12 by two straight lines and two dots, and so on to 19, which was represented thus **~* FG. 2.—Symbols for number 20. = The lines and rows of dots are usually horizontal in the codices, the dots above as shown here, but in the inscriptions, where they are always attached to glyphs, are mostly perpendicular and placed at the left side, as at T17 and U 17, plate 1 (the columns in the figure being de- noted by letters at the top and the horizontal lines by figures at the side as in a reference map). The numeral sym- bols of this type do not appear to have been used fora greater number than 19, other characters and relative position also, as willbe @ @D

Kp} shown, being used for 4 higher numbers. Line and dot numerals of two colors are quite common in the codices, the one class black, the other red; but the red characters are not used (except in a single unexplained instance) to denote a number greater than 13, and refer almost exclusively to the numbers given to the days, as explained ona subsequent page. This is one instance, at least, in which color Fig. 3.—Symbols for 0, or full count. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Thomas Plate Ill. storey al? » (>) + 5 Caer irc 7 Wile S Copy of Plate XXIX, Codex Troano (Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Edition) o* CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 709 has special significance in these native manuscripts and suggests the probability that the different colors of the dots used to denote num- bers in the Aztec codices in the time counts have a specific meaning, though this has not as yet been determined. The number 20 is represented by several different forms, as shown in fig. 2. Those marked a, 4, ¢, d, and e are found only in the codices; those marked 7, g, 4, and ¢ occur chiefly in the inscriptions and are attached to the left side of the glyphs. Naught (¢ )) 1 is also represented in the inscriptions by characters numbered 1 to 10 in fig. 3, those num- bered 1 to 8 being placed at the left side or on top of the glyph when used. Numbers 9 and 10 of the figure are used chiefly in double-face characters, as those seen in fig. 6. Number 11 of fig. 3 shows the characters for naught (0) used in the Dresden codex. The use of these symbols for naught is interesting, as it manifests a very strict adher- ence to mathematical steps in the representation of numbers, no blanks being allowed. The Maya scribes were capable of carrying their numeration to a high number, and this they did in the codices, not with new or different symbols from those mentioned, but by relative position, on the same principle that we denote higher numbers than the Arabic digits by the position of these digits. Thus we increase the value of a number ten- fold in our decimal system at each step to the left, while in the vigesi- mal system, used by the Maya scribes, the numbers increased twenty- fold at each step, to indicate which they placed their digits, if we may so call them, in a column increasing from the bottom ean, so that a line and dot, mentioned above as denoting 6 if placed at the bottom, as seen in the margin of the page, would denote 6, ; = but if placed. one step upward would denote 120, or - equal 2, 160 6 by 20, and one step higher would, according to |. equal 120 their regular vigesimal system, be equal to 2,400, or - equal 6 6 by 20 by.20, but in their time counts, ne th are ati esha the only numeral series in the third place, or third order a units, would be 6 by 20 by 18, ene 2,160. ee other sepe upward increase uniformly twentyfold. As ‘hee rise att SS high as the sixth step the value of the unit in ie 6th order — 2,880,000 Sub ec 5th order 144,000 several steps or orders of units would be as shown ne 2 = ONG : B ) order Tee in the column at the margin, As the day was the | 34 order 360 primary unit, a single dot in the sixth step or | 2d order 20 order would denote 2,880,000 days. A single | Ist order 1 dot in the fifth order would denote 144,000 days, ar and two dots in that place would denote twice that amount; three dots, three times that amount, and so on up to 19. This applies to each of these orders, except that in the second, where 18 is the multiplier. The highest number that can be inserted is 17. They are the same in principle as our compound denominate numbers—as pounds s, shillings, 710 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. and pence—the highest number given in the pence place is 11, as 12 would be 1 shilling; and 19 the highest number to be given in the shilling place, as 20 would be £1. These series, or units of the various orders, can be reduced to the lowest denomination—which is days—in fhe same way that pounds, shillings, and pence are reduced to pence. Some of the numeral series in the Dresden codex amount when reduced to over 12,000,000 days. As an example of their use of large numbers, one numeral series from plate Lx1x of the Dresden codex is presented here, the num- bers indicated by the numeral characters being placed at the left in parentheses and the equivalents in days at the right. The names placed at the extreme left (great cycle, cycle, etc.) are those adopted by Mr. Goodman for the respective orders: ’ Days. (great cycles) (4)... . equal 11,520,000 (cycles) (5) equal 720, 000 Bg (katuns) (GS) 6 6 co Geiue! 136, 800 (ahaus) (13)... equal 4, 680 (chuens) (12) .. equal 240 (days) (8)... equal 8 Rotaless cee aes ae 12, 381, 728 That is to say, 4 great cycles (or 4 units of the sixth order or posi- tion) equal 11,520,000 days; 5 eycles (or 5 units of the fifth order) equal 720,000 days; 19 katuns (or 19 units of the fourth order) equal 136,000 days; 13 ahaus (or units of the third order) equal 4,680 days, and so on. The total amount expressed by this series is over 12,000,000 days. This is a large number to be handled by a pre-Columbian native, yet it can be demonstrated by actual count that the Maya scribe used this number correctly in a calculation. Writers of the present day have adopted the simple method of expressing these numeral series thus (using the above example), posi- tion indicating the orders of units 4-5-19-13-12-8, ascending toward the left just as we may express £4, 12 shillings, and 6 pence, thus — 412-6. A knowledge of the Maya numeral system and method of counting and expressing numbers, as given above, is absolutely necessary in the attempt to decipher the glyphs. It is also necessary to give here a brief notice of the Maya calendar, as a knowledge thereof is another requisite in deciphering. The process with the Maya glyphs, so far as it has been carried, is wholly different from the method pursued in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs and the cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria. There the phonetic value of the characters being ascertained, the combinations to form words can be followed and tested by the CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. (a result. In the Maya, with the few exceptions which will be mentioned later, the glyphs, so far as determined, are to a large extent symbols (not phonetic characters), used to denote numbers, days, months, ete. Hence the only means so far discovered by which to test an interpre- tation is the demonstrable relation of one character to another, thus: Having a symbol known to be that of Monday, another to be that for 7, another to be that for the month of March, and another for the number 120, and finding them placed in an inscription in the order: Monday, March 7, 120, and this followed by twoimperfect or unknown characters and 5, thus Q ?5, and having ascertained that the intermediate numbers, as the 120 in this case, indicate the number of 62 CK) Kankin. Muan. Se Gane Kayab. Cumhu. Uayeb. Fic. 4.—The symbols of the months. days from the first date to a second, we count 120 days from Monday, March 7, which brings us to Tuesday, July 5. This gives us Tuesday and July as the two unknown or doubtful characters of the terminal date. Just as it is necessary, in the example given, to understand, in part at least, our Gregorian calendar, so is it necessary to understand the Maya calendar in attempting to decipher the Maya hieroglyphs. The Maya years consisted uniformly of 365 days, no reference to or evidence of bissextile years (corresponding to our leap year) having been found in the codices or inscriptions. They were divided uni- formly into 18 months of 20 days each, and a supplemental month of 5 days following the 18th. Each of these months had a name and a sm 1903 46 lord ~ — © Z CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. symbol as shown in fig. 4. They always followed one another in the same order, the year uniformly beginning with Pop. The 20 days were also named, each haying its appropriate symbol as shown in fig. 5. The order in which they followed one another was uniform, though the year did not always begin with the same day, the 5 in the supple- mental month carrying the count-forward 5 dayseach year. Although the days had their month numbers, as 1, 2, etc., to 20, as we say the Iie Akbal. Kan. Chiechan. Cimi. G oho ° 3 Manik. Lamat. Mulue. Oe. Chuen. Eb. Ben. Ezanab. Ahau. Ahau. Ahau. Ahau. Ahau. Fig. 5.—The symbols of the days. fifth, sixth, and seventh day of the month, there was another number- ing which applied to the days only. This, however, was from 1 to 13, beginning again with the unit. These numbers were prefixed to the days and followed in regular succession, no day being without its num- ber. It follows from this method that a day bearing both the same name and the same number will not recur until 13 months have passed. This gives a cycle or period of 260 days, which appears to have been CENTRAL AMERICAN. HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 713 more in use as a ceremonial or religious period, both among the Mayas and Mexicans, than the secular year of 365 days. The order of the days and their numbering passed on from month to month and from year to year without a break or change in the reg- ular succession. There is one series of 312 years in length in the Dresden codex, in which there is not a break in the succession, nor an indication of a bisextile year. In the series given above, also from the Dresden codex, which covers 34,059 years, 9 months, and 13 days, the date of the commencement and of the ending being given, which calculation shows to be correct, this is evidence that there can be no break or change in the succession of days, day numbers, or months. In this regularity of succession lies the possibility of deter-* mining the time series of the inscriptions and the codices. In order to show what advance has been made in deciphering: this ancient American writing, it is necessary to present examples from the codices and inscriptions that the reader may have the glyphs referred to before him, for words alone can not describe them so as to be understood. Beginning with the inscriptions, which appear to be older than the codices, attention is called to plate 1, showing the inscription on the Palenque tablet in the Smithsonian Institution. As a means of identifying the individual glyphs, a letter is placed over each column and a number at the side opposite each line, as in refer- ence maps. R,S, T, U, V, W, X have been selected because they are the letters used for these particular columns in Doctor Rau’s scheme. @ The column R being separated from the others, and a single col- umn, it must be read from the top downward. Passing by this, attention is called to the other six, which are to be read two and two, beginning with the two at the left, going from the top downward, taking the glyphs alternately in the left of the two columns and then in the right, thus: First glyph, S 1 then T 1; next, S 2, T 2; then S 3 and T’ 3, and so on to the bottom. Then columns U and V are to be taken in the same order, and after these columns W and X. As it would require a somewhat extended study of the subject to follow out understandingly a complete explanation of the steps in the process of decipherment, an outline only of what has been accomplished in this direction can be given. Reading down columns S and T in this manner, the first glyph which has been determined, or rather could be determined if unin- jured, is T 2 (or the second in the T column), which, from the sur- rounding border or band and the number attached is known to be the symbol of a day, but on account of the imperfect markings or weath- ering of the face, is not indentifiable with certainty. Here, however, is an instance where a knowledge of the Maya calendar system # Palenque Tablet, in Sm. Cont. Knowl., vol. xxu, p. 61. raw! CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. becomes important, as it enables us to limit the investigation to one of four out of twenty days. As the next glyph which follows—that is, S 3 (or the third in the S column)—is the symbol for the month Pop (see fig. 4), the first month of the Maya year, and has attached to the left the symbol for 20 (similar to that shown at 7 fig. 2), it is evident that the day at T 2 is the 20th day of the month. As there are but four days (Ik, Manik, Eb, Caban—see fig. 4) in the calendar system used in the inscriptions that can fall on the 20th, it is evident that it must be one of these. The reader will observe by inspecting this glyph in the figure that there are two short perpendicular lines and a dot at the left; these denote that it is the day 11—? Passing on to S 10, T 10, we find another date, the glyph S 10, being the symbol for the day 11 Lamat, and glyph T 10, the symbol for the month Xul with the numeral character for 6 at the left. For the days mentioned reference can be made to fig. 5 and for the months to fig. 4. However, for the illustration the names of the days and the months are not essential, but are added here to avoid using blanks. It will be observed that above and below the little dot in the numeral characters at the side of each of these glyphs is a little semicircle or crescent. These, which might be mistaken for number dots, have no significance, but are used to fill out the space or to guard the dot. To be able to say that certain glyphs denote days, others months, and others numbers is one step in the process of decipherment, but the step is a comparatively short one unless their relation to one another and the object of their introduction into the inscription can be ascertained. This relation has been determined in part through inter- mediate number series. For example, by passing on to glyphs 5 12 and T 12, we find the number series 9 days, 3 chuens (or units of the second order), and 13 ahaus (or units of the third order)—or 15-3-9— which, reduced to the lowest denomination, gives 4,749 days. Count- ing this number of days, according to the Mayan calendar, from 13 Lamat, 6 Xul, the date given in S 10, T 10, and mentioned above, we reach the date 2 Caban, 10 Xul, which is the date given two lines below at S14 and T14. That is to say, the number in the numeral series is the exact time included between the immediately preceding and the immediately following date. This is proof positive that there is a connection between the date at S 10 and T 10 and that at S 14, T 14. Nor does the connection series end here. Glyph § 15 is a short-number series of 123 days which connects the date 2 Caban, 10 Xul, of glyphs S 14, T 14, with the date 1 Ahau, Zip of glyphs T 17 and U 1; or, omitting names, it connects the last preceding with the next following date. Dropping from consideration the names of the days and months, introduced to avoid blanks or explanatory phrases, the important fact - CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. HAS) remains that there is a connection between date glyphs that stand some distance apart. ) It has been stated above that the Maya writing included two types of numeral characters. One of these, consisting of dots and short iines and the use of position, has been explained. The other type con- sisted of face characters, some of which are shown in fig. 6. In order = ‘Stages im YS Nite 2 (9) Semmes) Symbol of calendar rounds. Fic. 6.—Face characters representing numbers. to show how these are used, attention is called to fig. 7, which repre- sents part of the inscription on the east side of Stela (or statue) F, at Quirigua, Guatemala, as designated by Mr. Maudslay, from whose great work (Biologia Centrali-Americana, ‘‘Archeology”), part x1, pl. 40, our figure is taken. 716 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. As seen in this illustration (fig. 7), there is at the top or beginning a large quadruple glyph, below which follow, in the order of the num- bers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 at the sides, six double glyphs, each composed of two faces. There are other ee double-face glyphs below, but the igus ta six will suffice for illustration. Omitting from present consider- ation the large character at the top, attention is directed to these six glyphs, from which we may Co == ne something of the mistakes ae Sane made in the attempts at decipher- rt a 41 ment. A little ae than : dee- PLAGE Ghee Copy ade ago there was almost univer- sal agreement among students of the Maya hieroglyphs that these face characters, especially those in commencing series, as shown in fig. 7, were symbols of deities. ee investigation, how- ever, has shorn them of their sacred character and reduced them to mere symbols represent- ing numbers. The left face of each of these six double glyphs is one of the smaller numbers (1 to 19), which we have designated ‘*Mayan digits;” for instance, the left face in glyph number 1 de- notes 9; that in glyph 2 stands for 16; that in 8 for 10; that in 4 for 0 (naught), and that in 5 also stands for 0 (naught). These are the numbers prefixed respec- tively to the symbols of the orders of units in the inscription repre- sented. The right face of num- ber 1 denotes the cycle or fifth order of units; adding the prefix |} 9, the double glyph will signify 9 nS Se a eee ae copy cycles or 9 units of the fifth order. ee wir The right face of glyph 2 is the katun or fourth order of units; that of 8 the ahau or third order of units, ete. Glyph 6 is the day (1 Ahau) and glyph 12 the month (3 Zip), forming together the terminal date of the seriés. “fei ka ae! a a a a J CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. WON Briefly stated, this series (fig. 7) and all those of like character are made up of numbers and dates, and not of deities, as was formerly supposed. The differences in these face characters, by which their respective values are determined, have not in every instance been so clearly ascertained that they can be determined by inspection alone. In the left face of glyph 1 the circle of dots on the cheek forms the distin- guishing characteristic for 9, but peculiar markings of others are less distinct. The face characters representing the orders of units, as the cycle, katun, ete., can be determined by position alone. The great quadruple glyph at the top is the symbol for the sixth order of units (Goodman’s *‘ great cycle”), which seems to have repre- sented the limit of Mayan time counts, although according to Doctor 3rinton their numeration in the regular Maya number system was carried a step higher; and Goodman intimates that their time counts reached an additional step in the scale, amounting at the extreme to 280,800 years or 102,492,000 days. This large so-called ‘‘ great cycle symbol,” with the number characters and the immediately following date, form what Maudslay has termed an ‘‘ initial series,” as the large glyph is never found except at the commencement of an inscription. The month symbol which helps to make up the date in this instance is somewhat distant from the day symbol, five compound glyphs inter- vening; nevertheless there is numerical evidence that the two are con- nected and that the date is part of the ‘‘initial series.” There is also evidence that the initial series in the inscriptions at Copan, Quirigua, and some other localities where the number of cycles is 9,as in this case, start with the same date (4 Ahau 8 Cumhu), this date being apparently the beginning of an era with the priests and scribes of those sections. As this is but one instance of a number where the count in these initial series gives the proper terminal date in the inscription, the proof that they have been correctly interpreted seems to be complete. This conclusion necessarily carries with it the accept- ance of the interpretation given the glyphs and also the calendar sys- tem as above explained, though the native priests appear to have pur- posely used characters which would be understood only by their own class. The codices, as will be seen by referring to plate m1, which is a facsimile of three of the four divisions of plate xx1x of the Codex Troano, contain a much larger proportion of pictographic representa- tion than the inscriptions. Besides the pictures there are two classes of hieroglyphs; first, the ordinary numerals represented by dots and short lines, which are of two colors, black and red. The latter, which do not exceed 13 in value, are the numbers attached to or belonging to the days—the day, where the symbol is omitted, as in the lines of the alternate black and red numerals in this instance, being understood. 718 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. The column at the left side of the lowest division consists of the symbols of 5 days, which form the basis from which the count by the black and red numerals is made. The day columns for the two upper divisions are in a preceding plate, the line of numerals running through more than one plate. The two lines of black glyphs running across the upper part of each division forms what may be termed the ‘* text.” These are read in this instance by groups of four, considering them two short columns, as those over the bird and personage in blue at the left side of the middle division, the order being the same as a, >, c, d in the diagram, fig. 1. But little progress has as yet been made in deciphering this so-called “text.” So far as the writer is aware, but three characters of the text of this plate have been determined save in the manner mentioned below, These are the symbols of three of the cardinal points, and are the first, third, and fifth glyphs in the upper line of the upper division, counting across from the left. That the text in most instances contains reference to the figures below is quite evident. This is shown in plate mm by the fact that some feature of the pictures is represented by one of the four glyphs which stand above it, as in the middle section the bird’s head forms one of the glyphs over the figure in which the bird appears; and likewise the dog-like animal and worm in the same division are represented in the glyphs of the text above. These would therefore seem to be simple abbreviated pictographs or conventionalized figures and not in any sense phonetic characters. In the lower division of the same figure the three persons to the right are holding in their hands something like the symbol for the day Ik (fig. 5) (which signifies ‘‘ wind” in the Maya language); the same symbol appears in the text above the head of each, but its signification in these places is unknown. We may surmise if we like, but the proof is wanting. P As the glyphs in the middle division of the figure, on which the per- sons and other forms are sitting, appear to represent something out of which plants can grow and has the elements of the symbol of the day Caban (see fig. 5), it is possible they denote earth (cab in Maya signifies ‘earth ”). In the upper division the Kan-like symbols (one of which a bird is pecking and another is bitten by a little quadruped) prob- ably represent grains of corn, supposed to be in the ground, the two to the right throwing out sprouts. If this interpretation be correct, this entire plate probably has reference to the cultivation of corn and the dangers it is subject to. However, from what has been stated, the reader can judge as to the portion of this codex that has been deter- mined with certainty, which is but little, and as to what is as yet but theoretical. Of the text proper, scarcely anything, as before stated, has been absolutely determined. This failure to decipher is attribu- — eS ee CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. (OG) table in part to the fact that where the suggested signification may be absolutely correct, no means, except where numbers come into play, has been found to verify the conclusion. From what has been stated and the examples presented from the inscriptions and codices, it is apparent, notwithstanding the number of glyphs whose signification has been ascertained, that practically no progress has been made in determining the phonetic equivalents of these characters. In other words, no satisfactory evidence has yet been presented to show that any of these glyphs are phonetic, although there is sufficient evidence that the language used was Maya. The nearest approach to proof on this point is in regard to a few symbols, such as that for the month Tzotz (fig. 4). The usual form of the elyph is the conventionalized head of the leaf-nosed bat, and in one instance (Stela D, Copan) the full form showing the wings and body is introduced as the symbol of the month. As tzotz is the Maya word for bat, it is possible the word relates tothe symbol. Pop, the name of another month, signifies in Maya literally a mat, or rug, the refer- ence being apparently to the structure, and the chief feature of the symbol for the month consists usually of interlacing like basket work. These and a few other instances of similar character consti- tute the strongest indications of phoneticism that have been observed, but as the elements of these glyphs found where the character can not be determined by other means furnish no aid in decipering them the inference of phoneticism is doubtful. It is possible that some of the characters are phonetic, yet it must be admitted that no satisfactory proof thereof has yet been presented, although the author, with others, thought but a few years ago that continued investigation would soon produce this evidence. The general purport of the inscriptions has not been ascertained with certainty, yet the fact that half of them belong to the classes heretofore described—the numeral symbols, calendar symbols, ete.— leads to the conclusion that they contain little, if anything, relating to the history of the tribes by whom they were made. The indications that the Maya priests, by whom these inscriptions were doubtless designed, if not carved, recognized a prime or ruling era from which a large portion of the initial time series are counted, are so strong that most recent authorities who have devoted attention to the subject have concluded to adopt the theory, at least tentatively. We might hope that further research will prove that this has some relation to Maya history were it not that the beginning was placed about four thousand years prior to the time when the inscriptions were made—a date so remote as to preclude the supposition that it related to any noted event in the history of the tribes. 720 CENTRAL AMERICAN HIKFROGLYPHIC WRITING. The progress made in deciphering the text of the codices is less than that made in interpreting the inscriptions, as the number of numeral, time, and other symbols in the former which have been determined is less in proportion to the whole than in the latter. However, this proportion is limited to the text of the codices and does not include the accompanying numeral and day series. Nevertheless, the aid fur- nished by the figures which are introduced, together with the relation a large portion of the time series bear to the text and figures, often furnish some indication of the general purport of the plates, but all attempts to give the details have thus far failed, from the lack of means of verification. Two or three of the plates of the Dresden codex are devoted entirely to a single numeral series. These can be followed throughout and the obliterated characters in most cases restored; in fact, some of them seem to be little else than the steps of the caleula- tion made by the original scribe. Possibly their relation to adjacent series may yet be ascertained and their signification determined. This has been accomplished in regard to the series running through plates 46-50 of the Dresden codex.4 A brief answer to the question, What has the progress thus far made in deciphering this hieroglyphic writing added to our knowledge of the ancient history, life, and attainments of the Maya people? may properly close this brief article. That it has shown a greater advance in culture along particular lines than was previously known is certainly true. Much has been ascer- tained from the remains of stone structures and the sculptured designs thereon in regard to the advance of the Mayas along certain lines of art and their ability to form and to carry out comprehensive plans and designs; but the study of the hieroglyphs has brought to light evidence of mental capability and attainments of a higher grade in some respects than has been shown elsewhere. It would be some- what difficult for anyone at the present day, except a mathematician, to calculate back 84,059 years 9 months and 13 days from a particular day in the present year, using our Gregorian calendar, and determin- ing the exact month, day of the month, and day of the week that will be reached. Yet this was accomplished by the Maya priests according to their calendar and with their cumbersome vigesimal system. Not only was 1t necessary to reduce the several orders of units (cycles, katuns, etc.) to the lowest denomination, but the sum had to be changed into years, months, and days. The modern mathematician has his books of tables, and his paper, ink, and pen and pencil, and a numeral system that is simple and easy to handle. How did the Mayan scribe solve the same problem with the means he had at hand? The study of the glyphs has brought these facts and this question before us. “The Maya Year, by Cyrus Thomas, Bureau Am. Ethn., 1894. CENTRAL AMERICAN HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. TA The steps which have been made in decipherment have made it evident that the Mayan priests had an understood era or a well-under- stood point of departure in their time counts. They also indicate that the inscriptions at Copan and Quirigua were carved in substan- tially the same period, the range, judging by the terminal dates of the initial series, being comprised in two hundred years. But the attempts to connect. the dates in the Mayan inscriptions and codices with dates in the Gregorian calendar have failed, though greater suc- cess has attended the efforts in this direction with the Aztec count. Another fact made prominent by the study of these glyphs is the uniformity in the system, art, and culture, along the lines indicated, in Chiapas, Guatemala, western Honduras, and with slight exceptions in Yucatan. The collection of hieroglyphs from the inscriptions of the latter section are not sufficient to determine whether they follow the Troano and Cortesian codices or the system of the inscriptions of Chiapas and Guatemala. The study of the inscriptions and codices has made it evident that no adjustment between the Maya year and the solar year was made in any way that appears in the record or interfered with the calendar count. Although the efforts at interpretation have succeeded in few if any instances in tracing the connection throughout long inscrip- tions, they have made it evident that there is connection, or, in other words, that these inscriptions (with possible exceptions) are continu- ous records from the initial glyph to the end, though it may consist of little else than number series and time counts. Both inscriptions and codices evidently relate very largely to ceremonies and priestly duties, more particularly the latter. Another result of the study of the hieroglyphs is the clear distine- tion it has established between the Maya and the Aztec symbolic writings. The Maya writing has been studied to a greater or less extent by Leon de Rosny, Hyacinth de Charencey, and Brasseur de Bourbourg, of France; P. Schellhas, E. Forstemann, and Eduard Seler, of Ger- many; A. P. Maudslay, of England; Charles Rau, Edward Holden, D. G. Brinton, J. T. Goodman, Marshall H. Saville, Cyrus Thomas, G. B. Gordon, and C. P. Bowditch, in the United States. i Pea is TRACES OF ABORIGINAL OPERATIONS IN AN IRON MINE NEAR LESLIE, MO.¢ 3y W. H. Houmes. Early in April, 1903, a communication was received by the Bureau of American Ethnology from Dr. 8. W. Cox, of Cuba, Mo., stating that evidences of ancient mining operations had been discovered in an iron mine operated by him near Leslie, Franklin County. This report was confirmed by Mr. D. I. Bushnell and other St. Louis archeologists, and the present writer, who is especially interested in the quarrying and mining industries of the aborigines, repaired at once to Leslie to make a study of the interesting phenomena. It was found that the miners had encountered a body of iron ore, of unknown depth and horizontal extent, lying immediately beneath the surface of the soil on a gentle slope reaching down to the banks of Big Creek, a branch of Bourbois River, and that they had removed the ore from a space about 100 feet wide, 150 feet long, and to a depth at the deepest part of between 15 and 20 feet, as shown in plate 1. In beginning the work traces of ancient excavations were observed penetrating the soil which covered the surface of the ore body toa depth of from 1 to 5 feet, and as the work progressed it was found that the ore had been fairly honeycombed by the ancient people, the passageways extending even below the present floor of the mine, as at the right of the figure in the plate. There were many partially filled galleries, generally narrow and sinuous, but now and then larger openings appeared, two of these being of suflicient dimensions to accommodate standing workmen. In the débris of the old excavations many rude stone implements were encountered, and upward of 1,000 of these had been gathered by the miners into a heap on the margin of the mine. (PI. 11.) These sledges are exceedingly rude, consisting of hard masses of stone or hematite weighing from 1 to 5 pounds, and roughly grooved or notched for the attachment of withe handles, no trace of the latter remaining, however. The great number of these implements made it certain that extensive operations had been carried on by the ancients, nae with Bagioee from the ence fGriengea neice vol. Nor 13; July—-Sept., 1903. 724 ABORIGINAL OPERATIONS IN AN IRON MINE. but the exact nature of the work was not readily determinable. The first impression was that the compact masses of hematite were sought for the purpose of manufacturing implements such as were employed by the mound-building tribes in many parts of the Mississippi Val- ley, but examination revealed few traces of the shaping of this material, save that it had been used in making the rude sledge heads or hammers found in the mine. In breaking up the ore the white miners encountered small, irregular seams and masses of flint, but these were too limited in extent and too brittle in texture to have been utilized successfully in the manufacture of implements. Some workable flint was observed in the vicinity of the ore body, and flakes and rejectage of blade making, as well as a number of well-finished spearheads, arrow points, and leaf-shaped blades were intermingled in the filling of some of the superficial pits, but this flint shaping appears to have been an incident only of the work on the site. The evidences of this shaping work are not sufficient to warrant the conclusion that the extensive tunneling was cafried on for the purpose of obtaining material for that purpose. Besides, this flint is found in large bodies in many sections of the general region and could readily have been obtained in quantity by the Indians. It was observed, in approaching the mine, that the exposed surfaces of the ore and the ground about were everywhere a brilliant red. The workmen were red from head to foot, and anyone venturing to handle the ore soon found his hands smeared with red oxide, repeated wash- ing being required to remove it. The prevalence of the red color sug- gested at once the idea that the site had been an aboriginal paint mine and that the red and yellow oxides were mined and carried away to be used as paint—an article of utmost importance in the aboriginal economy. As the charges of dynamite used by the miners broke down the walls of the mine it was observed that the deposits were of irregular hardness, that certain portions of the ore were very compact and flinty, containing much quartz, and of dark-bluish or purplish hue, while the larger part was so highly oxidized as to be easily broken up. Extend- ing through the ore body in all directions were pockets and seams of soft red and yellow oxides, and in places there were irregular open- ings and partially filled cavities. Two of these openings are shown in plate 111, a view of the face of the mine taken by Mr. Clark McAdams, of St. Louis. The miners would drill with great difficulty through the hardest of ore, to have the drill drop suddenly into a cavity of unknown depth. This occurred at the spot shown in plate rv. It was difficult to discover just which of these openings and cavities were artificial, or whether or not they had been penetrated by the ancient workers, as changes are constantly taking place in such ore bodies. Percolating waters fill up or clear out the passageways. Generally, Ud ‘youysng “fd Aq yde. “SANIIA| LNSIONY SHL 4O SONINSdO HLIM LHOIY AHL LV AGOgG AYO 3HL SO 3O0V4 3HL ONIMOHS ‘ANI NOY] S3HL 40 MSIA IWH3SN35 7 mas Pa~zw: *saLUu[OH €06| ‘Hoday ueiuOsYy}iWS “| aLlvid PLATE II. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Holmes. HEAP OF STONE SLEDGE HEADS, ABouT 1,200 IN NUMBER, COLLECTED ON THE MARGIN OF THE MINE. Photograph by D. J. Bushnell. ABORIGINAL OPERATIONS IN AN IRON MINE. (25 however, as the walls were broken down by our miners the open- ings were found to connect with the superficial pittings, as indicated in plate v. It appears certain that the larger tunnels or galleries in which the sledges were found had been opened up or enlarged by the ancient miners and that, in the search for other bodies of the desired product, they had followed weak lines and partially filled passageways, removing the projecting masses of hard ore, where these interfered with the work, by means of the sledges. Sketches of these rude implements are shown in fig. 1, and the specimensappear on plate vr. It is appar- ent that the sledges could have had no other function than that of crushing and breaking up the solid masses of ore to be used in the manufacture of implements or in opening new passageways through the ore body. Although these sledges were made in the main of com. Fic. 1.—Sketches of the rudely shaped mining implements. pact bits of the ore and of the flinty masses associated with it, they correspond very closely in general characteristics with the bowlder sledges used in such great numbers in the copper mines of Lake Supe- rior. Nearly all appear to have been hafted for use, and the majority show the rude grooving or notching necessary for the attachment of the withe haft. It would seem that in the narrow passages of the mine the use of hafted implements would be inconvenient if not entirely impracticable, and we are left to marvel at the feat accom- plished by the ancient workmen of penetrating a compact ore body in dark, sinuous passages hardly roomy enough to admit the body of a man, with the aid of rude bits of stone held in the hand. The char- acter of these openings is indicated clearly in plate m1, which shows the face of the mine as freshly exposed by the mining operations; and plate v indicates somewhat imperfectly the manner in which the tun- nels 6r borings penetrate the ore body connecting with the superficial G ©) 26 ABORIGINAL OPERATIONS IN AN IRON MINE. pits and extending to unknown depths beneath the present floor of the mine. Three of these borings are seen in the wall of the mine shown in plate vir. One is exposed at the right of the right-hand figure, and a second occurs beyond this, extending from the stump on the margin of the mine down to and beneath the feet of the man whose back is turned toward the observer, and a third passes down from the second stump, being the same opening as that shown at d d in plate v. Numerous examples of the implements found and specimens of the ore in its various phases, together with a large mass of the compact ore, one surface of which shows the markings of the mining tools of the aborigines, were presented to the U.S. National Museum by the proprietor of the mine, Dr. 5. W. Cox. I have now examined mines and quarries of the aborigines in twelve distinct materials, and each new example has added to my former high estimate of the enterprise and perseverance of the native peoples when engaged in the pursuit of their normal industries. ‘SONINSdO SANIW LNSIONY SHL 4O SNOILOSSG ONIMOHS ‘AGO 3YO SHL JO 30V4 ‘Il ALV 1d "SAW/OH —'E 06] ‘Hoday UviuOsYyyiIWS PLATE IV. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Holmes WORKMEN ON THE OUTER MARGIN OF THE MINE DISCOVER OPEN GALLERIES BENEATH. *AGOg 3YO SHL SLVYLANSd SONIYOG YO SSINSTIVS LNSIONY S3HL HOIHM NI YSNNVI) SAL ONILVOIGN| NOILOSS pas ce ae or - wy | ] >. Wy," is a. 7 Y ( (iy 2 Uy i ‘i Wh . 7h 1 AY 7 . y \) ll | i | | li ( | Ay | il y - ’ - SS SV SSS SS SSS SSs SSScvo SWS ‘A 31vV1d “saUjOoH— e06| ‘Hodey uRluosy}IWIS Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Holmes. PLATE VI. STONE SLEDGE HEADS, HAMMERS, AND RUDE PICK FROM THE ANCIENT GALLERIES. ONE-THIRD ACTUAL SIZE. “SULBPVOW YIBlDM “AW AG Ydvasoioyg "AGOG 3YO SHL HONOYHL NMOQ YONIGNSLXZ ‘STANNOAL LN3SIONY AHL 40 SHOVYHY] DNIMOHS ‘TIVAA ANIA SHL SO MSlA €06| ‘oday uelUuOsYyIWS "HA aLvid nee ** LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET.¢ By G. Ts. TsyBiKkorr.? After a journey of twenty-two days over the sparsely populated north Tibetan plateau, our caravan of pilgrims camped July 19,¢ 1900, on the banks of the San-chu, at the northern foot of the Bumza Mountain. The caravan had been formed at the Kumbum monastery in Amdo, and started April 24 on the way to Lhasa. There were about 70 persons in the party, almost all of them Amdo and Mongo- lian Lamas, and were quartered in 17 traveling tents. About 200 mules transported men and baggage. We here first met inhabitants of Central Tibet. Close to the road was a great black tent in which lived the local soldiery, an advance post on the lookout for foreigners. They had special orders to watch during the present year for P. K. Kosloff’s Russian expedition, of which the authorities at Lhasa had received information as early as April. The guards immediately approached our camp, but seeing that it was an ordinary caravan of pilgrims, the men were soon busied in making trifling exchanges to supply their wants, our men keeping a watchful eye on articles that might readily be stolen. After four short marches from here we reached the Nakchu monastery, the resi- dence of two governors of the local nomads, appointed’ by the central government of Tibet. One of them belongs to the clergy and is called a ironsieted fon ine a estia ae Ae ine ial ae ssian iGeocmpincal Syn St. Petersburg, vol. xxx1rx, 1903, part m1, pp. 187-218. b‘“*M. Tsybikoff is a Buriat by birth, and a Lamaist by religion, who finished his education at a Russian university, and, after having prepared himself for this journey, went quite openly, like so many other Buriat pilgrims, to Lhasa. There he remained more than twelve months, making an excursion to Tsetang (or Chetang) and visiting some of the most venerated monasteries, after having previously stayed, during his journey to Lhasa, in the Mongol monasteries of Labrang and Kumbum. During his stay at Lhasa he made, moreover, a most valuable collection of books, written by all the most renowned Lama writers during the last nine centuries. This collection represents 319 yolumes on philology, medicine, astronomy and astrology, history, geography, and collections of ku-rims (praises, prayers, and incantations, and so on). It has eee presented by the Russian Geographical Society to the Academy of Sciences.’’—The Geographical Journal, London, January, 1904. ¢The dates in this paper are old style, or twelve days behind the Gregorian calendar. sm 1903——47 727 028 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. ‘* Khambo,” the other is a civilian, called ** Nansal.” They supervise the collection of taxes and decide important matters that arise between the natives; and also control the government stations between Nakchu and Lhasa. It also devolves upon them to stop Europeans bound for Lhasa and immediately to notify the central government about them, as well as about all suspicious persons. I was halted as belonging to the last category, due to the chief of our caravan, who, out of friend- ship to the Tibetans and possibly to shift responsibility from himself, reported that there were Buriats in the party. Although the Buriats had of late been freely admitted, yet we were each obliged to pay 5 taels (about $4), which at once excluded us from the suspicious class and opened our way to Lhasa. The Nakchu monastery serves also as a custom-house. Here all pil- grims are obliged to pay a tax on each tent, the revenue being used for keeping the local pastures in grass. No penalty is imposed upon those who refuse to pay the toll, although an indirect punishment is inflicted by prohibiting the local residents from having anything to do with delinquents. After losing half a day here, the caravan left the monastery, situ- ated on the left bank of the small river Dre-chu,¢ and 7 miles away approached the left bank of the Nakechu. In the rainy season, when the river runs deep and swift, it is impossible to cross without boats, which evidently the native nomads can not build. Thence the caravan reached the broad Sun-shan Valley, bounded on the north by Mount Samtan Kansar. From this valley, across the low crest of Chog-la, the road enters the Dam Valley, inhabited by descendants of Mongols brought into Tibet by the Khoshot Gushi Khan in the middle of the seventeenth century. They are at present practically assimilated with the Tibetans, although some still use Mongol felt tents, and have not forgotten how to milk the mares and to make kumys. Mongol words have disappeared from their language, except official titles and some special technical terms. The Dam Mongols are subject to the Manchu Amban, who resides at Lhasa. Their occupation is cattle raising. From Dam across Lani-la, or ‘‘double range,” we enter a pass where we come to the first agricultural settlement of Central Tibet. It is more civilized here. The Pondo-chu is crossed by pedestrians over a bridge. In the rainy season baggage is taken across in skin boats, while animals ford the stream. On the right side of this swift river stands the castle Pondo-dzong. Twenty-seven miles farther on the journey we reached Penbu, or Penyul, one of the most thickly populated regions of Tibet. Cara- vans have from here a choice of two roads—one, without crossing the ridge, along the right bank of the U-chu, and the other, straight @Chu = river in Tibetan. LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. 129 across the high ridge of Go-la. About ten miles from the top of the ridge lies the capital of Tibet, Lhasa, which we entered August 3, 1900, after three month’s journey from Kumbum. Central Tibet—that is, the two provinces of U (Wei) and Tsang—has not been visited by Europeans since 1845, at least the principal part of it, although the literature on Tibet in general has increased every year. No Russian traveler entered the country either before or certainly after the prohibition. But for the last thirty years Tibet has been annually visited by Buriats and Kalmuks, who are Russian subjects. = Many of these pilgrims made notes on Tibet, but thus far only the report of Zayaetff (eighteenth century), and the diary of the Kalmuk Baza-bakshi have been published. It must be borne in mind that having penetrated a forbidden country in the guise of an ordinary pilgrim, obliged to pose before the natives as one in search of salvation in the holy land, and constantly in danger of suspicion as other than a pilgrim, the amount of information gath- ered under such circumstances could not have been great. I was well aware that several years ago an Indian penetrated Central Tibet and established connections with a certain ecclesiastic in Tashilhunpo, that through this lama’s servant he received books at Calcutta, and that both lama and servant were executed at Lhasa for daring to allow the admission of a foreigner. Tibet is truly a land of mountains, and the natives aptly call it ‘*Snowland.” In the region we traversed while in Tibet there are two snow mountains, Samtan-Kansar on the eastern end of the Nyan-chu- tangla and the crest of Kar-la on the southwestern side of the circular lake, Yamdok. The mountains that did not reach the snow line were nearly all treeless and their tops bare. The upper lands of the river valleys are narrow and unfit for culti- vation, but the middle and lower portions are wider and enable the industrious Tibetans to grow cereal crops. The steep and rocky mountains are the source of many swift streams during the rainy season, but most of them dry out when the rains cease. Many streams and springs, however, collect water at each rainfall in numer- ous irrigating ditches that keep the water mills busy. The year may be divided into two seasons, rainy and dry. In 1900 the dry season commenced in Lhasa on September 13, when the last rain of the year fell. October and November were entirely dry. The first snow fell December 7, but melted the next day. It snowed once in January, in February three times, in March four times. The first thunder was heard on March 14, and twice in April. The snow melted in the valleys immediately after falling, but remained for a time on the mountains. The first considerable rain fell on May 5, then on May 7, June 8, July 17, August 13, and twice early in Sep- tember. These rains were generally late in the evening or at night, 730 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. in squalls and large drops, and in May and June were frequently accompanied with hail. The clouds generally moved from west to east. g ‘Temperature observations were recorded at dawn, 1 p. m., and 9 p.m. for two hundred and thirty-five days. The average morning temperature was 41.45° F.; 1 p. m., 58.33° F.; 9 p. m., 48.65° F. December was the coldest month, with an average morning tempera- ture of 18.3° F.; noon, 34.5° F., and evening, 26.8° F; and June was the warmest month, with average morning temperature 58.6° F.; noon, 73° F., and evening 63.3° F. The large rivers are entirely free of ice in winter, but the small ones are covered by a thin crust. The soil freezes only at the surface. The total population of Tibet has been estimated from the fantastic 33,000,000 down to 38,500,000, or even 2,500,000. The most reliable evidence indicates that Central Tibet has not more than about 1,000,000 inhabitants. Reliable statistics of the whole population were not obtainable, but it is certainly not very great, for the many narrow river valleys between high, rocky mountains are unfit for agriculture and could not sustain many inhabitants. Besides, the numerous unmarried ascetic ecclesiastics of both sexes, and epidemics of small- pox and other fatal diseases against which the Tibetans are almost defenseless, not only retard an increase, but would appear to gradu- ally decrease the country’s growth. More than 10 per cent of the population of Lhasa and neighboring monasteries died of smallpox in 1900. Further evidence of the limited Tibetan population appears from the fact that only about 20,000 monks from all the monasteries in the vicinity gather at the so-called ‘‘great Monlam of Lhasa.” This, remember, in the center of Lamaism, where the principal sane- tuaries and the higher Tszanite schools are located, which to a consid- erable extent are supported by the government! The native Tibetans call themselves Bo(d)-pa, and it is also customary to refer to people according to the names of particular regions. Thus the inhabitants of Tsang are called ** Tsang-pa,” ete. The floating population of the cities is composed of Chinamen, Nepalese, Kashmiris, and Mongols. Most of the Chinamen, especially the emigrants from Sst-ch’uan, are employed in the garrison camps of the large cities, while those engaged in commerce transact their small trade with the local inhabitants, principally the women * * * . The Nepalese and Kashmiris, about equal in numbers, are merchants almost exclusively, though a few of the former are artisans. Accord- ing to tradition the Nepalese were for a long time the architects of the temples, the sculptors of the Buddha statues, and the ikon painters of Tibet, and they are still the most expert cloth dyers, and are skillful as gold and silver smiths, from small trinkets to the gilt roofs of temples. The Buddhist Nepalese, in distinction from the ruling caste, Gurka, in LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. ek their Kingdom, are called Bi(l)-bo. They avoid marriage with Tibe- tans, for such ties mean death in their native land, and they therefore remain permanently in Tibet. The Kashmiris, on the contrary, always marry Tibetans, whom they first convert to Mohammedanism, and rear their children in that religion. In administrative matters the Chinamen are responsible directly to the Amban. who resides and officiates at the southwest end of the city, near the ruins of the old city wall. The Nepalese and Kashmiris are subject to their elders, who serve as deputies in affairs before the central government of Tibet, with its jurisdiction. The Mongols, about 1,000 of them, are all monks, and only temporary residents, about 15 per cent of their number changing annually. They are dis- tributed over the various monasteries according to their parishes. The Russian subjects among them in 1900 numbered 47, being Buriat Lamas from the region across the Baikal, with one Kalmuk from the Astrakhan government. They are subject to the monastery regulations. The social classes are the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry. The nobility consists of the descendants of former rulers of separate principalities and descendants of the fathers of Dalai Lamas and Pan- chens, who are invested by the Manchu court with the rank of prince of the fifth degree. The princes, together with the monasteries and their parishes, are large landowners, and the peasants are serfs to them. The central government, or the Dalai Lama, owns, of course, more land and serfs than the classes named. There is apparently no distinct military caste. Military service accompanies the privilege of special land grants, but we could not secure detailed information about it. The houses are of stone or unburnt brick, cemented with clay. Most of those in the villages are one story high, while in the cities they are of two or three stories. The windows are without panes, or hung with cotton curtains, though in winter oiled native paper serves as protection from the cold. Fireplaces are used only for cooking. The houses have no chimneys, the smoke escaping as best it may through doors and windows, except that houses with upper stories have roof openings that somewhat alleviate the smoke nuisance, though equally a discomfort during rain. The principal fuel is dry manure of horned cattle and yaks. The clothing is of special design, made from native cloth in various colors. The poor classes wear white, the cheapest color; the richer people red and dark red, the soldiers dark blue, and yellow is used by higher dignitaries and princes. Women prefer the dark-red cloth. Of course, other colors are also met with. In proportion to their means, the Tibetans dress rather elegantly. Their jewelry is of gold, silver, corals, diamonds, rubies, pearls, tur- quoise, and other stones. G2 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. Tsamba, or roasted barley flour, mixed with either tea or barley wine, is one of the principal foods. The commonest vegetable is the radish. The favorite dish among all classes is ‘*tsamtuk,” a soup made by boiling zamba in water and flavored with bits of radish. Tsamtuk is best when made into broth with crushed bones, but it is comparatively expensive, and only the well to do can afford it every day. The Tibetans are fond of raw meat, and when entertaining they serve meat either raw or not fully cooked. The principal meats are yak, mutton, and pig. Beef is not considered good, and ass and horse meat are not used at all. The poor classes also eat fish. We did not see the Tibetans use fowl as food, although they keep chickens for the egos. Butter is much used, serving principally to whiten or flavor tea, and melted butter is burned in lamps before the idols. Sour milk, prepared also as thib-sho, is regarded as very noble food, and in poetry indicates something pure white. Both sexes of all classes are very fond of barley wine, and owing to its cheapness and slight intoxicating properties it constitutes the prin- cipal beverage of the poor. The men are heavy smokers of leaf tobacco in pipes, and the monks, while avoiding the pipe, consume no less tobacco in snuff. Because of the high cost of tobacco, and to reduce its strength, the laymen mix it with the leaves of the plant **shol,” and the monks use the ashes of ram and goat dung for that purpose. The principal characteristics of the Central Tibetan may be described as stupidity and flattery, doubtlessly explained by the economic and political conditions of the country. They are also pious through fear of losing the protection of the gods or of angering them. On this account they have frequent sacrifices, bowing and circling before their sanctuaries. They are very impressionable and superstitious, and at sxach new episode in their lives they seek explanation from Lama seers and prophets, and when sick they prefer to take barley grains blessed by Lamas and prophets, or to have curing prayers read to them, rather than resort to medicine, which, by the way, is less developed in Cen- tral Tibet than in Amdo or Mongolia. Despite all, the Tibetans seem to be inclined to joviality, which manifests itself in song and dance during their frequent sprees and public holidays. In their family life polyandry and polygamy exist, and the marriage of several brothers to one woman or of several sisters to one man are regarded as ideal relations. * * * Women enjoy perfect freedom and independence and take an active part in business affairs, often managing extensive enterprises entirely unaided. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the settled population. Bar- ley is the standard crop, from which tsamba is prepared; then comes wheat, for wheat flour; beans for oil, and peas, used by the poorer LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. 733 class in form of flour, or crushed for horses, mules, and asses. The field work is done principally by ‘‘dzo” (a cross breed of yak and ordinary cattle), yaks, and asses. The principal beasts of burden are the small, hardy asses, and to some extent the ordinary horned cattle. Inhabitants of the highland regions are engaged in cattle raising, breeding yaks, sheep, and some horses. They use yaks for burden, and sheep in some places. The horse and mule are, to a certain extent, a luxury to the Tibetan, and are therefore kept only by the well to do. The native horses and mules are very small and homely, so that the rich people use only those imported from western China. In the stables of the Dalai Lama and Panchen there are blooded horses from India. Commerce consists in supplying the cities and monasteries with agricultural products in exchange for articles of insignificant local manufacture and foreign import. The excess of domestic products is exported. The Tibetan has very few wants, chiefly limited to neces- sities, although some inclination toward objects of luxury, expensive ornaments, objects of cult and home adornment may be observed. The standard money is a silver coin valued at about 10 cents. The unequal distribution of wealth and the subservience of poverty to wealth are conspicuous. There is such little commerce that labor is very cheap, the most expert weaver of native cloth receiving about 8 cents and board per day, while an unskilled woman or man laborer earns only 2 or 3 cents. The highest salary is paid to the Lamas, the prayer readers, who receive 10 cents a day for incessant reading. A house servant almost never receives pay beyond food and meager elogiest eo eer °% I will now describe the more or less prominent cities and monasteries visited in Central Tibet. Chief of all, of course, is the capital, Lhasa. sometimes called ** Kadan” in literature, but both names have almost the same meaning—‘‘ the land of gods,” or ‘*fullof gods.” Its origin dates from the time of Khan Srongzang-Gambo, who lived in the seventh century, A.D. Itis said that this khan had among his wives one Nepalese and one Chinese queen, each of whom brought along a statue of the Buddha Sakyamuni, to whose worship temples were erected in Lhasa, and he settled on Mount Marbo-ri, where the palace of the Dalai Lama now stands. Lhasa is situated on a broad plain, bordered on one side by the river U-chu and on the other by high hills. If we disregard the Potala, or palace of the Dalai Lama, the city is nearly round, with a diameter of about a mile. But the numerous orchards in the southern and western parts, the proximity of the Potala with the adjacent medical college, the court of Datsag- hutuktu, and the summer residence of the Dalai Lama led to the belief that it was about 25 miles in circumference. Asa matter of fact, the circular road along which the pious make their marches on 134 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. foot or in prostrate bows is about 8 miles long. When these bows are faithfully performed the circle is completed in two days, making about 3,000 bows a day. The orchards and trees in the outskirts of the city are admired by the natives, and give the place a very beautiful appearance, especially in the spring and summer, when the gilt roofs of the two principal tem- ples glisten in the sun and the white walls of the many-storied build- ings shine among the green tops of the trees. But the delight of the distant view at once Fates upon entering the city with its crooked and dirty streets. * .* * A temple in which there is a large statue of Buddha marks the center of the city. The building is 140 feet square, three stories high, with four gilt roofs of Chinese design. The entrance gate faces the north. Each floor of the temple, with its blind external walls, is divided into numerous artificially lighted rooms, wherein stand various statues of Buddha. In the middle room on the east side stands the principal object of worship, Buddha Sakyamuni, under a sumptuous canopy. This bronze statue differs from the usual repre- sentations of the Indian sage in its head and chest ornaments of wrought goid set with precious stones, with a predominance of tur- quoise prepared and placed upon it by the famous founder of yellow- hat teachings, Tsongkapa. The face of the statue ever since the days of that same Tsongkapa has been kept painted by devout worshipers with gold powder dissolved in liquid glue. Upon-long tables before the god, melted butter, offered by the worshipers, ever burns in golden lamps. Two other statues in the temple command almost equal respect—the 11-faced bodisattva Avalokiteshvara, of which the Dalai Lamas are regarded as incarnations, and the statue Pal- Lhamo, the protectress of women. * * * Under the latter statue barley wine is being incessantly sprinkled and grains are freely seat- tered. Abundance of food and snug hiding places in the folds of the clothing of the statue have attracted numerous mice, that are here considered hely.. *** * Besides the principal court of the temple there are two additional courts, in which the gatherings of the clergy of the neighboring monasteries are held. Another small statue of Buddha stands in a temple in the northern part of the city and is called ‘*Jovo-ramozhe,” but both temple and statue are inferior in proportions and ornaments to the main tem- ple, and there is a noticeable difference in the reverence of the worshipers. Within the city limits of Lhasa there are four courts or quarters of eminent Hutuktu incarnates, who were once Tibetan khans. They are the best buildings in the city, and as each has a certain number of pupils of the Lamas they are really small monasteries. ‘Then, each "1SVQ 3HL WOUS MAIA IWYANAD ‘VSVHT Fri. * a 4 [ese alicl *syoniqhs | —e06| ‘oday ueiuosyziuisS “HLYON SHL WOUS ‘VSVH7 Ali i has oa Ps ie aig I] alwid ‘Jyox1qhs | —"E06 | LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. (35 of the eminent incarnates has his own inherited house. All other buildings belong either to the central government, or to the various communities of the neighboring monasteries. Buildings owned by private individuals are few and are mainly in the outskirts of the city. All these buildings are under the control of the palace of the Dalai Lama, Potala,about two-thirds of a mile west of the city, and built upon a rocky height. The foundation of the palace, tradition says, was laid by the above-named Srongzang Khan during the seventh century, but it was remodeled, with the addition of the main central portion, called -“ Pobrang-marpo” (the red palace), during the life, and even after the death, of the fifth eminent Dalai Lama. It is evident that the palace and additions were planned to serve as a means of defense, and from this point of view Potala looms up as one of the old castles, of which many ruins abound in Tibet, and in the sad fate of which Potala played the preeminent réle by subjecting them to itself. The palace is about 1,400 feet long and about 70 feet high in front. The front and two sides are surroundéd by a wall, the rear portion extending into the hill. In the construction of this palace the Tibetans displayed their highest architectural skill. Here are found the most precious treasures of Tibet, including the golden sepulchre of the fifth Dalai Lama, which is about 28 feet high. The treasures and apartments of the Dalai Lama are in the central portion of the temple palace, which is painted a tawny color and known as the ‘‘ red palace” —Pobrang-marpo. The remainder of the building serves as quarters for various attendants or followers of the Dalai Lama, including a community of 500 monks, the so-called ‘‘ Namegyaltsan,” whose duty it is to pray for the welfare and long life of the Dalai Lama. Near the hill are the mint, the house for the Dalai Lama’s subjects, the prison, and other structures. Upon the continuation of this hill stands the convent Miinbo-datsang, where 60 monks devote themselves to the study of medicine at the expense of the Dalai Lama. A little farther north is the idol temple of the Chinese Buddhists, and at the northwest foot of the hill is the palace of the fifth eminent hutuktu Kundu-ling, and about two-thirds of a mile west of the latter is the summer palace of the Dalai Lama. There are in Lhasa two temples where mysticism is taught, with an attendance of 1,200 men. The civilian population of Lhasa scarcely exceeds 10,000 persons, about two-thirds of them women, although the number may seem greater on account of the proximity of two large monasteries, the many transient visitors, and the gatherings of worshipers from lama- ite countries. As the political and religious center of Tibet, its sanc- tuaries an attraction for numerous worshipers, Lhasa becomes an 736 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. important business place, as well as the connecting link in the com- merce between India and northern Tibet and China with the East. The market place is located around the central or temple section, where all the ground floors of buildings and open spaces in the streets are occupied by stores and small exhibits of merchandise. Women are preeminently the sales people, although in the stores of the Kash- miris and Nepalese men do the selling. About the town stand the principal monasteries of Tibet, Sera, Brebung, and Galdan, known under the common name Serbre yesum. Brebung, the largest, is about 7 miles northwest of Lhasa; next comes Sera, about 2 miles north of the city, and last, Galdan, about 20 miles distant to the left of the river U-chu, on the incline of the steep mountain Brog-ri. They belong to one ruling sect of Tsongkapa and were organized during his lifetime, at the beginning of the fifteenth century.’ The Dalai Lama is regarded as the head of them all. There are 15,000 to 16,000 monks in all, of which 8,000 to 8,500 are in Brebung, 5,000 in Sera, and 2,000 to 2,500 in Galdan. In the Galdan monastery there is a vice-Tsongkapa, under the name, the ‘* Galdan golden throne,” a position established immediately after the death of the organizer, at the suggestion of his pupils and disciples. In olden times that office was filled by the choice of the Galdan monks, but on account of the confusion that followed elections the present method of installation was instituted, and the position is now filled in six-year terms by two Lamas, or, more correctly, wandering ecclesiastics, ‘*Chzhuds,” in the order of their service in the higher positions of their temple. The present incumbent is the eighty-fifth superior since Tsongkapa, or the eighty-sixth superior of Galdan, counting the reformer as the first. Each of the monasteries has its laws and its own land, and they are thus independent of one another. The Brebung monastery is the most influential, because of its wealth and numbers, which are both the cause and the effect. Much of this superiority is also due to the fact that Brebung monks were elevated to Dalai Lamas, to whose lot it soon fell to be at the head of the spiritual and civil government of Central Tibet. The lamaiste monasteries are now not so much places of refuge for ascetics, as schools for the clergy, beginning with the alphabet and reaching to the highest theological knowledge. It is true that the public school begins the instruction in religion, but the elementaries as well as the domestic occupations of adults are taught by private teachers chosen by the pupil. Nevertheless, every one, be he a boy five or six years old or a mature and even old person, is regarded as a member of the congregation and receives maintenance by becoming subject to the monastery laws. The prin- cipal subject taught is theological philosophy, which consists of five WAVI-IVIVG SHL SO 30V1IVd AHL GNV ‘Y-Od-YHVIA) LNNOIW “VSVH] “UW SHAT) yyoniqAst—e06| ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiws Smithsonian Report, 1903,—Tsybikoff. ; ; PLATE IV. TEVTTVT VIII cee ae EE ‘ - Co" 2 fe oe eee ee LHASA. POTALA, THE PALACE OF THE DALAI-LAMA FROM THE SOUTH. LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. ow sections of dogma, compiled by Indian pundits and translated into Tibetan. After the Tsongkapa reform, commentaries were made by various learned men upon those sections, which, according to the Lamas, do not differ in substance, all the commentaries adhering to the general idea of the teachings of the famous reformer. In the monasteries mentioned religion is taught from commentaries of six scholars in seven editions, each of which has a separate faculty. Three of these are Brebung and two each in Sera and Galdan. Beside these religious faculties the first two monasteries have a fac- ulty called ‘‘Agpa,” to perform the mystic rites and to pray for the welfare of the monastery. The clergy is very unevenly divided in the various faculties. In Brebung, for instance, there are 5,000 men in one faculty and only 600 in the other. It must be admitted that the monastic communities seem more con- cerned in securing ‘* daily bread” than in the education of their mem- bers. Honors and degrees are conferred only upon those who endow the community in some practical manner. High positions, too, are encumbered with an obligation to distribute gifts among the members of the community. The principal source of endowments comes from the incarnates; that is, the incarnates of the soul of some predecessor. Whosesoever soul he may incarnate, he is recognized in the community as such only after he has distributed a certain amount of money and food. On the other hand, howsoever learned a monk may be, he receives the degree only after he has made endowments. Conse- quently charity and scholarship are measured by the amount of gifts to the monastery communities. Each monastery has some special characteristic. Thus Brebung is famous for its prophets, Sera for its cells for the ascetics, and Gal- dan for various old curios. The cult of the prophets or oracles is in its turn based upon the cult of the so-called ** Choichong,” or the guardians of learning. Judging by historical tradition it may be presumed that Buddhism, introduced into Tibet in the seventh century A. p., could not be rapidly developed because of difficulty in conquering the native gravitation toward their former deities, to which the people were accustomed and which were dear to them because they were their own creation. Besides, the sorcerers or priests were no doubt defenders of the old cult. On the other hand, however, Buddhism was protected by the rulers of Tibet and was bound to spread, and in the hard struggle popular supersti- tion was granted some concessions. This compromise between Bud- dhism and sorcery was made, we are told, by a preacher of the ninth century, Padma-Sambava. He compelled the former local spirits to swear that henceforth they would defend Buddhist learning only, for which they were promised honors, rendered in the form of sacrifice of wine, barley seeds, etc. The highest of these spirits, which were 7388 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. imported from India, are called ‘*Idma,” while those of lower rank are called simply ‘*‘Choichong,” or ‘*Choisrung.” The Choichong speak with the lips of the prophets whom they inspire. Only Choichong of lower degrees thus descend to prophets. As pro- tectors and defenders of the faith the people imagine them to be horrible monsters in warriors’ outfit. On this account the prophet, before the descent of ‘*Choichong” upon him, dons a helmet and arms himself with spear, sword, or bows and arrows. The sense of the descent is contained in the fact that the spirit guardian of learning becomes incarnated in the chosen prophet for the sake of the living beings. Of such spirit guardians there are many, and the prophets are correspondingly numerous. The superior among them is the one confirmed by the Chinese Government—the Prophet Nai- chung-Choichong, whose gold-crowned temple and church suite is in the shady garden southeast of the monastery of Brebung. He is appealed to for prophecies, not only by ordinary mortals, but by all the higher clergy, including the Dalai Lama. Their mutual relation is as follows: Lama is ‘‘the abode of learning,” and Choichong, its ‘‘ euardian,” having sworn to defend the religion vigilantly, will be honored of all for it. The Lama, therefore, honors—that is, brings sacrifices to—the Choichong, and the latter forestalls all that threatens the religion and the Lama, its representative. They constitute a check on each other and are allies at the same time. In this role of defenders of the faith the Choichong—or, more correctly, their prophets—wield a powerful influence over all classes. Their power is so great that even the Dalai Lama and the highest Hutuktu must reckon with them; they endeavor to incline all toward themselves. * * * The ‘*ritods,” who are particularly numerous at Sera, are ascetic monks, who have retired from the world and buried themselves in meditation, which is regarded as one of the six means of attaining holiness—its origin based on Gautama’s abdication of kingly luxuries in search of truth. The later ascetics choose obscure nooks in dense forests or dark caves in the rocks as places for meditation. More recently they haye concerned themselves not only about their own attainment of holiness, but about the good of others, and their peaceful existence became distracted by the care of enlightening fellow-men. The silence of the cell for solitary meditations was broken by the cries of those hungry for knowledge, and to the lot of the ascetics fell the new care of their spiritual and material satisfaction. Then the idea of worldly vanity and comfortable quarters enticed the ascetics, and the cells were converted into comfortable dwellings, with quarters for pupils. The ascetic was thus transformed into the full master and ruler of his servants. Later on, with the appearance of the incarnates, the ritods become the inheritable property of the incarnates of the organizer, and several are transformed into separate monasteries. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Tsybikoff. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—LHASA. POTALA, FROM THE WEST-NORTHWEST. Fia. 2.—LHASA. POTALA, FROM THE NORTH-NORTHEAST. "14a1]| 4O ONIM G1O 3HL 4O 3O0VIVd 3H ‘YVSNYY NVGV5) “VSVH7 WAYS vad "yyoylghs | —"E06] ‘Moday uriuosuzWS LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. (39 However, the people still revere the ritods, and the tombstones of some of them are coveted last resting places for the dead; upon them the corpses are cut up for the distribution of the flesh and bones among the griffin-vultures. The relic curios, in which Galdan is rich, show us to what an extent His successor after his death sought memorials of the existence of the dear teacher, not content with his works. He did not believe that a, teacher could pass away leaving no footprints, and search was made for these everywhere about the monastery he established—where he passed his last years. His searches did not end in failure, and in various groves and among the rocks he saw traces of the wonder of the teacher, and explained them by one or another incident in his biography, and, conversely, with his biography explained those traces. Frequently meditating about his idolized teacher, he drew and chis- eled his image upon rocks, and the images of the Buddhas, his pro- tectors. In course of time all these signs and statues made by the closest of pupils of Tsongkapa under the known influence of supersti- tion began to be taken for wonderful relics and each worshiper began to venerate them. It is characteristic that such relics are being discovered up to the present time. Thus the present Dalai Lama obtained from a rock a treasure, consisting of a hat and other articles, ascribed to Tsongkapa. He deposited the treasure in a special chest and placed it for safe- keeping at the sarcophagus of Tsongkapa and on its place erected a monument. We will now briefly describe the other prominent monasteries and cities we visited. They are Tashilhunpo, and the cities of Shigatsze, Gyantsze, Samyé, and Tsetang. The monastery of Tashilhunpo is about 170 miles west of Lhasa, to the right of the river Brahmaputra, on the south side of a mountain peak that forms an arm between that river and its tributary, the Nyangchu, and was established in 1447 by a pupil of Tsongkapa, Ge- dun-dru, who is regarded as the first incarnation of the Dalai Lama. There are about 3,000 monks within this place, divided into three religious and one mystical faculties. The head of the monastery is the incarnation of ‘* Panchen erdeni,” who maintains the monks there. Five stone idols and gilt roofs in Chinese style constitute the ornaments of the monastery. About two-thirds of a mile northeast of Tashilhunpo, upon a sep- arate rock, stands the castle Shigatsze, at the foot of which grew up a city of the same name, with a population of scarcely above 6,000 or 7,000. Here are stationed small Chinese and native garrisons. The castle itself is well known from the fact that during the conquest of Tibet in the middle of the seventeenth century by the Mongol 740 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. Gushi-khan it served as the residence of the governor of Tibet, Tszangbo, who, after a long resistance, was conquered and killed. The castle is now in a semideserted condition, and prisoners sentenced to die are thrown from its roof to the rock below. About 50 miles from Shigatsze, in the valley of the Nyangchu, lies one of the old cities of Tibet, Gyantsze, which is a very convenient place on the commercial road to India from Lhasa and Shigatsze. From the religious standpoint it is famous for its great religious structure, Cho(d) den-gomang, five stories high, with many rooms and various objects of interest, especially ancient statues of Buddha. Commercially the city is known for the manufacture of rugs and cloths. Up to the recent past the Tibetans made rugs of only one-colored wool in narrow strips, but now they weave, according to Chinese sam- ples, continuous rugs with designs, which are much inferior in elegance to the Chinese, but in firmness much superior to them, as they are made of pure wool. We must assume that rug manufacture in Tibet could be considerably developed on account of the cheapness of labor and of sheep’s wool. The monastery of Samyé is on the left bank of the river Brahma- putra, about 65 miles southeast of Lhasa. It is the oldest of Tibetan monasteries, having been established at the beginning of the ninth century A. D. by the famous preacher of Buddhism in Tibet, Padma Sambava, and the Khan Tirsong-detszan. Its conspicuous feature is a five-story temple, a mixture of Tibetan and Indian architecture. The latter is evident by the fact that the top story is without columns, a feature so prominent in Tibetan style. This monastery, with its 300 monks, is maintained at the expense of the Dalai Lama treasury, and the idols are distinguished for their comparative cleanliness and care in the make-up. About 20 miles east of Samyé, on the right bank of the river Brah- maputra, at the mouth of the fruit-producing valley Yarlung, lies the city of Tsetang (or Chetang), famed for the production of cloths, knit- ting, and the yellow monk hats. According to tradition, the first ruler of Tibet, Niatri-tszangbo, was found in the vicinity of this city and set upon the throne. The place occupies a favorable point on the road from Bhutan to Lhasa, as it enters the valley of the river Tszang. On the border of Bhutan lies the city of Tszona, where there is a market each spring that attracts many merchants from Lhasa. Passing now to the government of Central Tibet, the dependence upon China is made evident by the Peking Court appointment of a Manchu resident to manage the higher government. At the head of the local self-government stands the Dalai Lama as the spiritual and secular head of Central Tibet. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Tsybikoff. PLATE VII. Fia. 1.—THE MONASTERY GALDAGN IN TIBET. Fig. 2.—THE MONASTERY TASHI-LHUMPO IN TIBET. LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. 741 The Dalai Lamas attained their spiritual importance at the time of the Lama Gedun-Gyamtso, the superior of the Brebung monastery, who lived from 1475 to 1542. He was the superior simultaneously of the two monasteries Brebung and Sera, and during his life ac- quired such fame that he began to be regarded as the incarnation of his countryman, the famous organizer of the monastery of Tashi- lhunpo, Gedun-dru. But the custom of finding incarnates in youths begins after his death, and one officer of the castle proclaimed his son as this prophet’s incarnation. This is evidently the first instance of the proclamation of an incarnate, and when he succeeded to the rights of his predecessor it was his fortune, worshiped almost from the cradle, to be invited by the Mongol, Altan-Khan, who gave him the title ‘* Vajra-dara dalai-lama,” which was sanctioned by the ‘‘ Ming ” Emperor of China. The significance of the Dalai Lama in Tibet, how- ever, was at first not very great, which explains the recognition of the son of a Mongol prince as the fourth incarnate, who, it is true, was killed in the twenty-eighth year of his life in Tibet. The Mon- gols claim that the Tibetans killed him out of race hatred, and that they even cut him open as the Mongols kill sheep. His successor, Ag-vang lo-sang-Gyamtso, now called simply ‘* Na-va-chenbo”—that is, the Fifth, the great—succeeded in acquiring the secular power, which at first was still only nominal. This Dalai Lama, in combina- tion with the first ‘* banichen,” did not hesitate to invite Mongol arms to his country in order to conquer the detestable secular governors. Although they succeeded in accomplishing it, Tibetan affairs began to be interfered with either by Mongol princes, or those recognizing the superiority of the Manchu dynasty, or those who struggled for inde- pendence. After the death of the fifth Dalai Lama, for a period of forty years, the Dalai Lamas became the pretense of political intrigue of various power lovers until a series of historical events destroyed the power in Tibet of the Mongol and native princes, and until finally in the year 1751 the Dalai Lama was accorded the dominating power in matters religious and secular. The election of the Dalai Lama, up to the year 1822, the year of the election of the tenth incarnate, was based upon the prophecies of the highest Lamas and decision of the prophets, which is equivalent to an election by influential persons. But when the tenth incarnate was elected the system of the Emperor Tsien-lung, the casting of the vote by means of the so-called ‘* serbum,” or ‘the golden urn,” was first applied. In this system the names of three candidates, determined by the former arrangement, are written upon separate tickets and placed in the golden urn. This urn is set before the statue of Jovo-Sakyamuni, and services are held there by deputies from the monasteries, praying for a righteous election. It is then carried over to Potala, to the palace of the Dalai Lama, and (a LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. there in front of a board upon which the Emperor’s name is inscribed, in the presence of the highest authorities of Tibet and a deputation from the principal monasteries, the Manchu Amban, by means of two chopsticks, draws out one of the tickets. He whose name is written upon the ticket is placed upon the Dalai Lama throne. The election is confirmed by imperial decree, and the fortunate or unfortunate young- ster is brought into the place with great honors. From this time on he is accorded appropriate honors and worshipers flock to him. In his youth he is taught reading and writing under the guidance of a special teacher—ioiu-tszini—selected from among the most learned famous Lamas. Then he is given a purely religious education, following the above-mentioned five sections with all their seven commentaries. For practical disputes one learned Lama is detailed from each of the theo- logical faculties of the three principal monasteries. These instruc- tors are called Tszang-skab-khanpo. Our Buriat countryman, Agvan Dorchzheyev, was one of these with the present Dalai Lama. After finishing the course of instruction he receives the highest degree in theology in the same manner as the other Lamas, but, of course, with a more liberal distribution of money to the monasteries and more careful questions on the part of the learned Lamas who dis- pute with him and who are appointed in advance. After this, when 21 to 22 years old, the Dalai Lama enters the ripe and independent existence. Since 1806 five Dalai Lamas have reigned. ‘The present incumbent, the thirteenth, Tubdan-Gyamtso, was born in 1876, so that now he is 27 years old. About six or seven years ago he had a struggle with his regent, most famous of Tibetan hutuktu, ** Demo,” and came out yictor, which no doubt saved him from the fate of his four predecessors, who perished at various ages, frequently the result of violence inflicted by regents or representatives of other parties that were striving to remain longer close to the ‘‘power.” The present Dalai Lama accused Demo of organizing plots against his life, confis- cated his immense wealth, and placed him under a rigid home arrest in a separate room, where Demo was discovered suffocated one beauti- ful morning in the autumn of 1900. The Dalai Lama assumed the head rule of Tibet, and one of his conspicuous acts is the abolition of capital punishment, which was practiced extensively by the regents. It seems in general that he is very energetic, and inclined to be a good man, with considerable love for knowledge. The second person of the lamaist hierarchy is the Panchen-Erdeni, who lives in a monastery in the provice of Tashilhunpo Tsang. The first Panchen-Erdeni was the Lama Lobzang Choigyi-Gyaltsan, who was born in 1570. This earnest Lama was the instructor of the fourth and fifth Dalai Lamas, when he played an important réle in political affairs, which served to enhance the power of the Dalai Lama. The official title, Panchen-Erdeni, and the imperial diploma and seal was LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. 7438 granted only the third Panchen, Pande-yéshé, in 1870 at an audience at Peking. At present the sixth incarnate lives; he was born in 1882, and is therefore 20 years old. The Panchen is next to the Dalai Lama in official capacity, but in the supervision of the lamaists he is considerably above him, because of his holiness. Especially is he regarded as the future king of the holy world ‘‘Shambala,” in which he will be the principal leader. It is customary to call the Dalai Lama also *‘Chyab-gong tham- chiid-mkhen-pa” (the omniscient—the object of faith), but the Tibetan applies this name to every eminent Lama incarnate he respects, since the charm of the Dalai Lama, as a holy individual, is less effective upon the religious feeling simply because of his distance than that of a Lama more easily approached, to whom be can appeal more often with inquiries relative to his religious requirements. The Dalai Lama, therefore, is known at places distant from Lhasa only as the principal ruler of Tibet, while the religious sentiment of the laymen is directed toward their patron, regardless of the sect to which he belongs. The teachings of Tsongkapa now reign supreme in Central Tibet, but after the struggle during the first period of their introduction they are now entirely reconciled and to a certain extent are indifferent toward other sects. The contemporary lamaist in general and the Tibetan in particular regard the objects of faith of the various sects with exactly the same reverence. Even the central government of Tibet, with the Dalai Lama at its head, frequently bows before the representatives of the old red-hat sect (the yellow-hat sect predomi- nates now). The laity does this, of course, out of ignorance and super- stition, but such explanation does not apply to the higher representa- tives of the yellow-hats, who are guided by Tsongkapa’s way of look- ing at the world and possess a knowledge of the difference in the views of other sects. We believe that the conduct of these men toward other sects is inspired by political motives, the desire to satisfy the superstitious requirements of the populace, and to be vindicated in case of popular suffering and unfortunate political events. The central government of the land is in the hands of a council pre- sided over by the Dalai Lama, called ‘*deva-dzung.” The principals in this council are four ‘‘ kalons,” or dignitaries, appointed by the Chinese kmperor, and their meetings are held in a special office—*t kashag,” or executive house. They are appointed from prominent aristocratic families, three of them civilians, the fourth a clergyman. For the local administration governors are sent from the ** deva-dzung,” usually two in number with equal powers—one a clergyman, the other a civil- ian. Districts are frequently leased, the lessee ruling according to established custom, being obliged to pay into the treasury a certain sum of money or to pay in kind. Usually these lessees are members sm 1903——48 744 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. of the higher administration, and they send their own representatives into the districts. Of late the central government has apparently begun to strive to accumulate land, for which purpose it takes away strips of land from the monasteries under various pretenses or makes purchases on installment from the annual income. The affairs of Tibet in general are ruled by the hereditary aristoc- racy, whether it be the son who inherits his father’s rights or the incarnate who inherits the rights of his predecessor. As the born aristocracy lives in strict isolation, not mingling with the common people, the central government, despite its deliberative character, may be called an aristocratic oligarchy. We stated that the Dalai Lama is the head of the central govern- ment. The question arises, Who takes his place in the interim between his death and the election of a new incarnate and until the latter becomes eligible? This question arose for the first time in 1757, after the death of the seventh Dalai Lama, and was solved by the appointment of a regent by the Chinese Emperor under the official name ‘*the director of the Dalai Lama’s treasury,” with the title **nomun-khan.” In writing, the Tibetans refer to him as ‘* the Khan’s viceroy’ and in their daily conversation simply ‘the Tibetan khan.” The first man appointed to the regency was the very eminent hutuktu ‘**Demo,” after whom other hutuktu were appointed. The tribunal and, in general, all administrative affairs are based on bribery, court examinations, on torture by means of lashes and similar methods, cauterization by means of burning sealing wax being regarded as the most severe. The punishments are execution by drowning, imprisonment, banishment with giving away into slavery, blinding, amputation of the fingers, lifelong fetters and foot stock, and lashes. The permanent army, maintained by the treasury, consists of 4,000 men. Its armament consists of spears, matchlock guns, and bows. For the protection of the body they have a helmet ornamented with feathers, a small plaited shield, and some wear armor. ‘They are officered by ‘‘daipons,” appointed from the higher aristocracy. The soldiers usually live in their homes in the villages and only peri- odically gather at posts, where they are inspected and taught to fire blank charges, and the use of the bows. The army is divided into cavalry and infantry. Despite the tendency of the Tibetans in the eastern provinces to indulge in pillage and highway robbery, the central Tibetan dislikes to make war; he is much more peace loving and more inclined toward peaceful labors, on account of which he regards military duty as superfluous and interfering with domestic pursuits. One frequently sees soldiers on the way from an inspection spin wool, stitch shoes, turn a prayer wheel, or repeat their chaplet. LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. TA45 Speaking about the East Tibetan robber tribes, we must say they try to prey upon the goods of others without bloodshed, threatening only the cowards. As soon as they see that the intended victims are determined to show serious resistance, they escape to their quarters. If one band of robbers strips a victim of everything, another band will clothe him and supply him with food. The monasteries are governed by their own laws, administered by their own elders, the highest of which in the principal monasteries are appointed by the Dalai Lama. Discipline and the whole régime is based on ‘‘ the fear of the governors.” This fear must be manifested even on the street: a monk must not show himself before them on the street. When, on very exceptional occasions, he does meet them, he must lie down, wrap his head in his hood, and lie motionless as if dead. Justice is also based principally on bribery, and the punishment is banishment from the monastery with a fine of money and lashes. The material condition of plain monks in Tibet is so bad that the convicted always prefers the punishment of the lash to fines. The foreign relations of Tibet are conducted with British India through Bhutan; with Kashmir through Ladak, and directly with Nepal, China, and Mongolia. Tibet imports from India, English materials, principally cheap cloths, enameled vessels, teapots, plates, and cups; objects of luxury, as coral, amber, brocade; medicine and dye stuffs; and various Eng- lish trinkets, such as mirrors, beads, jars, matches, penknives, ete. All these articles are imported by native Bhutanese, Nepalese, Kash- miri, and Chinese merchants. In general, the Tibetans are of late becoming more and more fond of English products; the English rupees, too, are beginning to compete with the local coinage. The things exported to India are yak tails, sheeps’ wool, borax, salt, silver and gold, yaks to a certain extent, and horses and mules brought over from northern China. From China the Tibetans import tea, which they love so well, china- ware, cotton and silk fabrics. From northern China, mules and horses are imported, and, to a limited extent, breeding asses. For use by the Chinese, Tibet exports little, and the considerable amount of native manufactured articles, together with those imported from India, that are exported there go to satisfy the demands of the Mongol lamaists. The articles exported are various objects of cult, as small statues, painted images, religious books, and prints made from carved wooden blocks, incense candles, ribbons, peacock feathers, leaf-shaped seeds **tsampaka,” and similar articles that bring high prices only because of the piety of the Mongol lamaist and his reverence for holy things from Tibet. The more famous the person that produces these articles 746 LHASA AND CENTRAL TIBET. the more eagerly they are purchased and the higher is the price paid. But Tibet also has a trade in cloths, in knit goods, and in the yellow hats of the ecclesiastics, and this class of traflic, which depends upon the religious sentiment of the purchasers, as is the case with presents to Tibetan lamas, attains a considerable sum annually. The commerce in ordinary merchandise, however, scarcely exceeds $60,000. Since objects of cult are exported to Mongolia and since only the treasuries of incarnates and monasteries possess capital, the commercial caravans are fitted out exclusively by the treasuries of the Dalai Lama or other rich incarnates and by monastery communities. The respon- sible officers of the caravans are called ‘*tsonpons.” The ‘* tsonpons” sent out by the Dalai Lama must double the original capital in three years’ time, which capital is estimated at a very inflated appraisal of the goods. Each succeeding ‘‘tsonpon” is the auditor of his prede- cessor—that is, he sees that the contract is fulfilled. Here and there the merchants in Mongolia, besides their commercial operations, make collections of contributions for one or another enter- prise of a monastery or an incarnate. If we add to this those immense sums that are being collected by famous and infamous lamas, whether they be invited to Mongolia or are there of their own accord, we can safely say that Mongolia to a considerable degree enriches Tibet. Up toa very recent period there were no relations between Tibet and Russia, although Buriats, who are Russian subjects, have for a long time made secret pilgrimages to Tibet, fearing oppression from the Russian administration, and entered Tibet under the assumed name of ‘* Khalkhas” Mongols, fearing exclusion as foreigners. About fifteen years ago ** Khalkhas” and Buriats belonging to one community in Brebung quarreled for some reason, and the former called the latter ‘*Oros,” or Russians. The matter reached the highest authorities, and, thanks to the able management of the affair by the Buriat lamas, it was established that, although the Buriats are Russian subjects, they are followers of the yellow-hat religion. The Khalkhas who raised the matter, having lost the trial, was obliged to leave the monastery, and the others received warning that they would be fined 5 lans (about $4) every time they call the Buriats ‘‘ Oros.” Russia can hardly hope to obtain a profitable market for her goods in Tibet, but it will pay her to establish relations with Tibet because it is the center of lamaism, to which are chained the thoughts of contemporary Mongols, of whom there are about half a million, under the names of Buriats and Kalmuks, who are Russian subjects. A JOURNEY OF GEOGRAPHICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN.¢ By M. A. Stern, Ph. D., Indian Educational Service. In June, 1900, the government of India placed me on a year’s special duty in order to enable me to carry out a long-cherished plan of archeological explorations in the southern portion of Chinese Turke- stan and particularly in the region of Khotan. Many previous antiqua- rian tours in Kashmir, the Punjab, and on the fascinating ground of the northwest frontier of India, had taught me the necessity of close topo- graphical observation as an important adjunct of historical research in those fields toward which, as an Indian archeologist, I felt most attracted. It was hence clear to me that the task awaiting me in Chinese Turkestan would have to comprise also surveying operations, such as are required for the accurate fixing of the position of ancient sites, and generally for the elucidation of the historical topography of the country. But in addition I was anxious from the first to avail myself of the opportunities the journey might offer for geographical work of a more general character in regions that had so far remained without a proper survey or altogether unexplored. The generous aid accorded to me by the Indian survey department made it possible to carry on a continuous system of surveys, by plane- table, astronomical observations, and triangulation, throughout the course of my journey. Its results have been embodied in maps which are shortly to be published by the trigonometrical branch of the survey of India. These maps, as well as the detailed report of my explorations on which I am at present engaged under the orders of the India government, will, I hope, show that I have spared no efforts to utilize the opportunities offered to me in the interest of geographical science. In the meantime, it is asource of sincere gratification to me that Iam enabled, by the courtesy of your council, to place this suc- cinct account of my journey and labors before the Royal Geograph- ical Society, which, since the days of those great scholars, Sir Henry Rawlinson and Sir Henry Yule, has done so much to clear the way for the critical study of the ancient geography of India and Central Asia. # Read before the Royal Geographical Society, June 16, 1902. Reprinted from The Geographical Journal, London, yol. xx, No. 6, December, 1902, pp. 575-610. 747 748 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. The plan of archeological explorations about Khotan, and of the journey that was to lead to them, was first suggested to me in the spring of 1897, by a series of remarkable antiquarian acquisitions from that region. Among the papers left behind by that distinguished but ill- fated French traveler, M. Dutreuil de Rhins, there were found frag- ments of ancient birch-bark leaves, which had been aequired in the vicinity of Khotan, and which proved to contain a Buddhist text in an early Indian script and language. On publication they were soon ree- ognized as the oldest then known Indian manuscript, going back to the first centuries of our era. About the same time the ‘* British col- lection of Central Asian antiquities,” which had been formed at Cal- cutta with the assistance of the government of India in the foreign department, and under the care of Doctor Hoernle, the eminent indol- ogist, received from the same region very notable additions consisting of manuscripts, ancient pottery, and other remains. These objects — had been sold to the political representatives of the Indian govern- ment in Kashgar, Kashmir, and Ladak, as finds made by native ‘‘ treas- ure seekers” at ancient sites near Khotan and in the neighboring portions of the Taklamakan Desert. A curious feature of these acqui- sitions was that, besides undoubtedly ancient documents in Indian and Chinese characters, they contained a large proportion of manuscripts and ‘*blockprints” in a surprising variety of entirely unknown scripts. While the materials thus accumulated, no reliable information was ever forthcoming as to the exact origin of the finds or the character of the ruined sites which were supposed to have furnished them. No part of Chinese Turkestan had as yet been explored from an archeological point of view, and, however much attention these dis- coveries attracted among competent European orientalists, it was evident that their full value for the ancient history and culture of Central Asia could never be realized without accurate researches on the spot. The practicable nature of such investigations was proved hy the memorable march which Dr. Sven Hedin had made in the win- ter of 1895-96 through the Taklamakan Desert northeast of Khotan, and of which the first accounts reached me in 1898. It had taken the famous Swedish explorer past two areas of sand-buried ruins, and, though his necessarily short halt at each had not permitted of any exact evidence being secured as to the character and date of the ruins, this discovery amply sufficed to demonstrate both the existence and comparative accessibility of ancient sites likely to reward excava- tion.; Hae Sees By the middle of April, 1900, I was at last able to leave steamy and overcivilized Calcutta for Kashmir, where I completed the outfit and transport arrangements needed for my camp. The many tours I had made during previous years through the mountains in and about Kashmir had furnished me with sufficient practical experience to enable EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 749 me to anticipate with fair accuracy the conditions of transport and supplies ona great part of the travels before me. The government of India had granted me permission to use the route through Gilgit and Hunza for the journey to Kashgar, which was to form my proxi- mate goal. By the end of May the snow on the mountain ranges between Kashmir and Gilgit had melted sufficiently to make the attempt of crossing the passes with laden animals just practicable. By that time, too, the subsurveyor’s little party, and another Turki servant sent by Mr. Macartney, the British political agent in Kashgar, had joined me, and all requisite stores and equipment had been duly collected and packed. Owing to the quantity of scientific instruments, photographic glass plates, etc., to be carried, and to the provision that had to be made for stores of all kinds in view of the distances likely to separate us thereafter from civilized *‘ bases of supply,” my caravan numbered 16 baggage animals when it set out on the morning of May 31 from Bandipur, the little port on Volur Lake and the starting point of the ‘* Gilgit Transport Road.” Though the snow still lay deep and the weather was trying, the Trag- bal and Burzil passes (approximately 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, respectively) were crossed without mishap. Pushing on by rapid marches through the Dard valleys of Astor, imposing in their barren grandeur, and across the rock-bound bed of the Indus near Bunji, we reached the Gilgit cantonment on June 11. Fresh transport arrange- ments necessitated a short halt at this last outpost of Anglo-Indian civilization. Thanks to the kind offices of Capt. J. Manners Smith, V.C.,C. 1. E., then political agent at Gilgit, I was there able not only to make good various small defects in the equipment of my caravan, but also to collect interesting information concerning the customs and traditions of the Dard population inhabiting these valleys. The Dards deserve, indeed, to be treated with respect by the historical student and ethnographist, for their tribes have clung to this forbidding ground of bleak rocky gorges and ice-crowned ranges ever since the days of Herodotos. Ancient, like the mountains themselves, looks the race, with its sharply defined ethnic characteristics and language. On June 15 I started from Gilgit filled with a grateful recollection of the kind help and hospitality which I had enjoyed among the last British officers I was to see for some time. Marching round the mighty buttresses of Mount Rakiposhi(with its highest needle-like peak soar- ing to an elevation of over 25,000 feet) and through mountain scenery that under a sky of dazzling clearness looked as grand as any I have ever seen in the Himalaya, we passed on the third day into the terri- tory of the chiefs of Hunzaand Nagir. Close to the hill fort of Nilth, famous for the brilliant little campaign of 1891, I visited with interest the deep-cut gorge descending from a glacier of Rakiposhi, where Captain Manners Smith climbed the most precipitous cliffs with his 750 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. handful of Gurkbas and Dogras, and, finally breaking the resistance of the Kanjuti hill men, won his Victoria cross. It was pleasant to note that the brave mountaineers who were vanquished here looked back upon this daring exploit of their quondam foe and conqueror with almost as much pride as if it had been performed by their own side. A short distance higher up the valley, near the village of Thol, I noticed a well preserved little stupa, a monument of those early cen- turies when this secluded valley, like the rest of the difficult hill tracts farther west, held a population attached to Buddha’s faith. Was it the same small Kanjuti race, puzzling by its complete isolation in regard to language and ethnic origin, which now occupies Hunza? At Aliabad, near the capital of the Hunza chief, I spent two days busily occupied with the rearrangement of all loads for transport by coolies; for the difficult mountain tracks by which alone the Tagh- dumbash Pamir ean be approached during the summer months, from the side of Hunza, are absolutely impassable for any beast of burden. Acting on the instructions kindly sent in advance by the political agent at Gilgit, Wazir Humayun, the energetic chief adviser of Mubammad Nazim, the present Mir of Hunza, had made ample preparations for the trying route ahead. It was difficult to realize that this little mountain chieftainship was, until ten years ago, by reason of the free- booting and slave-raiding expeditions which it sent forth—and Wazir Humayun himself had led more than one successful raid of this kind— the terror of all neighboring regions. On June 20 I moved my camp to Baltit, where I paid a return visit to the Mir in his old and highly picturesque castle. I was interested to note in the carved woodwork of mosques and other structures dec- orative elements of ancient Indian type, while in the furniture and fittings of the Mir’s residence modern central Asian and Chinese influ- ences were plainly discernible. On the following day we commenced on foot the series of trying marches up the gorge of the Hunza River. The winter route, which crosses the river bed at frequent intervals, had become wholly impracticable, owing to the melting snows and the swollen state of the river. The precipitous mountain spurs and the great glaciers descending to the left bank of the river had daily to be crossed by tracks which may rightly be described as a succession of Alpine climbing tours of a decidedly tiring nature. They often led over narrow rock ledges and by rough ladder-like galleries (rafik) along the faces of cliffs, where the carrying of loads would be nervous work for any but such extraordinarily sure-footed and active hill men as the people of Hunza. Frequent enough were the places where even my little fox terrier, accustomed to rough climbs from many a tour with his master, had to be picked up and carried. Toiling along these precipices, amidst scenery truly inspiring in its rugged splendor, I was often reminded of the vivid accounts which EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. rey Fa-hien and other ancient Buddhist pilgrims from China have left us of their experiences on the journey through the gorges of the Indus. From Ghulmit, the second stage onward, the scanty settlers occupy- ing the few patches of cultivated ground in the valley proved to be of Iranian origin, speaking a Wakhi dialect closely allied to that which is used by the Wakhan immigrants found in Sarikol. Thus, in this part of the Hindukush, too, the line of contact between the great areas of the Indian and Iranian families of language does not completely coincide with the geographical watershed. After six days spent in more or less continuous climbing, Misgar, the northernmost hamlet of Hunza, was reached, where I was able to discharge the hardy hill men who had carried our impedimenta without the slighest damage over such trying ground. On June 28 at last I crossed, by the Kilik Pass (cire. 15,800 feet above the sea), into Chinese territory on the Taghdumbash Pamir, using the yaks of the Sarikoli herdsmen, who, by Mr. Macartney’s arrangement with the Chinese authorities, had awaited me at the southern foot of the pass. From K6kt6rok, our first camp on the Taghdumbash, at an elevation of over 14,000 feet, we commenced our plane-table survey, on the scale of 8 miles to the inch. Throughout our travels in the mountains I endeavored to supplement it, as far as my limited time permitted, by photogrammetric work, for which I used the excellent Bridges-Lee photo-theodolite kindly lent tome by Mr. Eliot, the head of the Indian meteorological department. Systematic triangulation by theodolite was started at the same time with the help of the points supplied by the surveys of the boundary commission and Captain Deasy, while regular astronomical observations for latitude were made by Babu Ram Singh from here onward at all camps, the exact determination of which possessed topographical interest. The constant and direct super- vision which I exercised over the plane-table work enabled me to pay special attention to the local nomenclature. A good deal of philo- logical and historical interest attaches to the latter in regions like the Pamirs and a considerable portion of Chinese Turkestan, over which have passed the waves of great ethnic migrations. I believe, there- fore, students interested in this part of central Asian geography will derive some advantage from the pains I took to correctly ascertain and to record with phonetic accuracy all local names throughout the terri- tories covered by our surveys. From the height of the Khushbel peak, the first ‘hill station” of our survey (close on 17,000 feet above the sea), I could simultaneously see the ranges which form the watershed between the drainage areas of the Indus, the Oxus, and the Yarkand rivers, and which politically divide the territories of British India, Russia, and China, Afghanistan (pl. 1). Pressed for time, as I necessarily was in regard to all that (D2 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. touched my topographical interests, I could not resist the temptation of pushing westward, at least as far as the Wakhjir Pass, which leads from the Taghdumbash Pamir to the headwaters of the Oxus. Camp- ing close to the summit of the Wakhjir Pass (cire. 16,200 feet), I visited on July 2 the head of the Ab-1 Panja Valley, near the great glaciers which Lord Curzon first demonstrated to be the true source of the river Oxus. It was a strange sensation for me in this desolate moun- tain waste to know that I stood at last at the eastern threshold of that distant region, including Bactria and the upper Oxus Valley, which, as a field of exploration, has attracted me ever since Iwas a boy. It was the threshold only I had reached, and T knew that this time there was no entrance for me into the forbidden land. Notwithstanding’ its great elevation the Wakhjir Pass and its approaches, both from the west and east, are comparatively easy. Comparing the topographical features with the itinerary indicated by Hiuen Tsiang, the great Chi- nese pilgrim, Iam led to conclude that the route which he followed when traveling, about A. D. 649, on his return from India, through the valley of Pa-mi-lo (Pamir) into Sarikol, actually traversed this pass. As I marched down the gradually widening valley of the Taghdum- bash Pamir toward Tashkurghan, the chief place of the Sarikol dis- trict, | fully realized the contrast which its expanses of comparatively rich grazing offer to the rocky destitution of the Hunza gorges. Increasing numbers of nomadic herdsmen, both Kirghiz and Wakhi, now frequent the valley, which was an utterly deserted waste, and rarely used, even as a route, while there were Hunza raiding parties ready to swoop down from the mountain fastnesses southward. I also felt glad to be once more on the track of Hiuen Tsiang, whose footsteps I had traced to so many a sacred Buddhist site of ancient India. ‘The position and remains of Tashkurghan were found to agree most closely with the description which Hiuen Tsiang and the earlier Chinese pilgrim, Sung-yun, give of the capital of the ancient Kie-pan-to. The identification of the latter territory with the modern Sarikol, first suggested by Sir Henry Yule, was thus fully established. The ruined town, which extends round the modern Chinese fort of Tashkurghan, and still shows a quadrangular inclosure of crumbling stone walls, ‘rests on a great rocky crag, and is backed by the river Sita” (i. e., the Yarkand River), on the east, exactly as the pilgrims describe it. As a striking instance of the tenacity of local tradition, it deserves to be mentioned that I found the curious legend which Hiuen Tsiang relates of the princess imprisoned in ancient days on a rock fastness still clinging to the identical locality of this valley. I believe that Tashkurghan, as an historical site, has claim to even greater antiquity than that implied by the notices of Hiuen Tsiang and Sung-yun. Nature itself has plainly marked it not only as the EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 753 administrative center for the valleys of the Sarikol region, but also as the most convenient place for trade exchange on an ancient and once important route connecting great portions of Central Asia with the Far East and West. Judging from local observations, everything tends to support the view first expressed by Sir Henry Rawlinson that Tashkurghan, ‘‘the stone tower,” retains the position as well as the name of the Az@zvos TUPY OS, which Ptolemy and, before him, Marinus of Tyre, the geographer, knew as the emporium of the extreme western frontier of Serike—1i. e., the Central Chinese dominions. From Tashkurghan the road lies equally open to Kashgar and Khotan, and thus to both the great trade routes which led in ancient times and during the Middle Ages from Turkestan into the interior of China. At Tashkurghan, also, the two best lines of communication across the Pamirs converge, the Taghdumbash Valley, which gives access to the upper Oxus, being met here by the route which leads over the Naiza- Tash pass toward the **Great Pamir” and thence down to Shighnan. In order to extend our survey over ground that was geographically interesting, I chose for our further march to Kashgar the route which passes through the high valleys between the Russian Pamirs and the western slopes of the great transverse range of Muztagh-Ata. On July 13 1 had reached the shores of the ‘* Little” Karakul Lake, at the northern foot of the ‘‘ father of ice mountains,” and about 11,000 feet above sea level, where I found a fairly large encampment of nomadic Kirghiz. The ample supply of sturdy yaks which we obtained from them greatly facilitated transportarrangements. It thus became pos- sible within the comparatively short time available to establish a series of excellent survey stations on various high spurs descending from Muztagh-Ata. They enabled us to extend the triangulation brought up from the Taghdumbash to the great g@lacier-crowned ranges facing Muztagh-Ata from the north and northeast and overlooking the ‘* Lit- tle” Karakul Lake. (PI. 1.) Their main peaks, though rising to over 23,000 feet, remain below the elevation of Muztagh-Ata. Yet these mighty walls of ice and snow, stretching their crest line of dazzling whiteness for a distance of at least 24 miles, and streaked by numerous great glaciers, appeared perhaps even more awe inspiring than the grand ice-girt dome of Muztagh-Ata itself (pl. m). Our stay in the midst of this mountain world fell in what was probably the most favorable season; yet the hours when any considerable portion of the panorama was clear of clouds: and driving rain or snow were few indeed. Notwithstanding the rapid changes of the atmospheric conditions and the difficulty of working a delicate instrument on heights ever exposed to cutting winds at tem- peratures that readily fell below freezing point, the Bridges- Lee photo- theodolite proved very useful for recording topographical details. From the rounds of phototheodolite views which were secured by me 154 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. ata series of excellent survey stations, Lieutenant Tillard, R. E., of the trigonometrical branch office of the survey of India, succeeded in constructing a map of the Muztagh-Ata region on the enlarged scale of 4 miles to the inch, which shows much additional detail. It will be published along with the general map embodying our survey. But both the taking of the phototheodolite views and the working out of the results has absorbed a great amount of time and labor, and refer- ence to the plane-table sections has, I believe, often been found indis- pensable in plotting. For the purpose of the phototheodolite survey, and also in order to gain some closer personal experience of the ‘* father of ice-mountains,” I made on July 18-19 two ascents on the western slopes of the central mass of Muztagh-Ata. The route chosen lay up the ridge which flanks the Yambulak glacier from the north, and, as seen from below, seemed to ascend unbroken to the northern of the twin peaks of the great mountain. It was by the same route that Dr. Sven Hedin, in the course of his explorations of 1894, had reached his highest point. But since the visit of the great Swedish traveler, the physical conditions on the surface of the ridge seem to have undergone a considerable change for the worse. At the time of his ascents the ridge appears to have been bare of snow up to-an elevation estimated at over 20,000 feet, and consequently it had been possible to use yaks both for riding and transport. I found the ridge from about 15,500 feet upward enveloped by heavy masses of snow, which seem likely to transform themselves gradually into a mantle of ice, such as lies over the other elevated slopes of the mountain. Only on the very edge of the precipitous rock wall by which the ridge falls off toward the Yambulak glacier small patches of rock protruded here and there from the deep snow. Above 17,000 feet even these disappeared, and at about the same height it was necessary to leave behind the yaks, which, foundering constantly in the deep snow, had become useless. On the opposite side of the glacier the. southern wall of rock is topped by athick layer of ice to a far lower point, and consequently little avalanches would be seen gliding down from it as the day wore on. Luckily, on our side the glittering snow sheet over which we ascended seemed to rest-as yet firmly on the rock. The weather was by no means favorable, and on the second day we had to contend with frequent gusts of violent wind, and with occasional showers of snow. The maximum elevation I then reached was, by the evidence of the hypsometrical readings, within a few feet of 20,000 feet. It had taken nearly eight hours of constant toil to attain it from my camp, pitched at an elevation of over 15,000 feet. The couple ef Kirghiz who could be induced to set out with us were, curiously enough, first seized by mountain sickness, and had to be left behind with their yaks. At an elevation of about 19,000 feet, Ram Singh, the subsurveyor, Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. PLATE I. Fic. 2.—Icy RANGES NORTH OF MUZTAGH-ATA, SEEN FROM LITTLE KARAKUL. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. PLATE II. Fig. 3.—MUZTAGH-ATA, SEEN FROM LITTLE KARAKUL. (e pet Fig. 4.—PEAK * KUEN-LUEN No. 5” (oR “*MUZTAGH”’), SEEN FROM NORTHWEST, WITH RANGES ABOVE YURUNGKASH GORGE ON RIGHT. EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 755 was obliged to stay behind, overcome by headache and lassitude. Next Ajab Khan, the active Puniali, who had accompanied me as an orderly from Gilgit, fell out, and ultimately only the two splendid men of the **Hunza levies,” who had been selected for me by the Mir of Hunza, and had proved most useful as guides, plodded on with me. The previous day, while engaged in phototheodolite work, I had sent them ahead to reconnoiter the ridge. Excellent climbers as they are, they had then reached a point apparently about 2,000 feet higher up. Their progress was there stopped by a sheer precipice of impass- able rocks descending to what I conclude to be a transverse glacier previously hidden from view, separating the great ridge we followed from the main mass of the northern summit, and communicating north- ward with the Kampar-kishlak glacier. Owing to the threatening aspect of the weather, I had to forego the attempt, which our bodily condition would have otherwise well permitted, of reaching this farthest accessible point of the ridge. I was thus unable to judge with my own eyes of the true mountaineering difficulties that would have to be faced in the event of a systematic effort being made to climb the northern summit from this side. An ample allowance of time, a good Swiss guide or two, and a sufficient number of hardy Hunza mountaineers to carry loads, would seem to me indispensable provisions for such an effort. As we descended, the clouds lifted toward the west and revealed a panorama vast and impressive beyond description. It extended prac- tically across the whole breadth of the Pamir region. Far away to the southwest it was bounded by glittering pinnacles, in which I could recognize the mountain giants that guard the approach to the Indus Valley. They had worthy rivals to the north in some towering masses of ice and snow, which I could not fail to identify with Mount Kauf- mann and other great peaks of the trans-Alai range. The night, which I passed uncomfortable enough in my tent, pitched with difficulty at an elevation of about 16,500 feet, brought fresh snow with driving gales, and after vainly waiting next day for a change, I was forced to descend once more toward Lake Karakul. Before leaving this inhospitable, yet so fascinating, neighborhood, I had the satisfaction to ascertain that the Kirghiz legend of a hoary saint (Pir) mysteriously residing on the inaccessible heights of the great ice moun- tain, still retains distinct features of the ‘told story” which Hiuen Tsiang heard of the giant Buddist hermit who was seen entranced ** on a great mountain covered with brooding vapors,” evidently identical with Muztagh-Ata. On July 23 I started down on to the plains of Kashgar by the route of the Gez defile. Owing to the collapse of one of the bridges in this remarkably narrow and difficult gorge, I was obliged to make a con- siderable detour, which entailed the crossing of the huge Koksel or 756 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. Sarguluk glacier descending northward from the great range we had surveyed before from the side of Lake Karakul. ‘The lower portion of the defile was rendered altogether impassable by the summer floods of the glacier-fed Yamanyar River. So] had to take to the difficult track known as Tokuz-Dawan, ‘‘ the Nine Passes,” and barely passable for laden animals, which crosses a series of steep transverse spurs descend- ing from the little-known eastern slopes of the great snowy range behind Muztagh-Ata. Leaving the sub-surveyor and heavy baggage to follow by easier stages, I pushed on by rapid marches, and after a finishing march of some 50 miles from Tashmalik, on July 29 arrived at Kashgar. There, under the hospitable roof of Mr. G. Macartney, C. I. E., the political representative of the Indian Government, the kindest recep- tion awaited me. After fully two months of fatiguing and almost incessant travel in the mountains I felt the need of some bodily rest before I could set out again for Khotan, the proper goal of my explo- rations. But my four weeks’ stay in Kashgar was mainly accounted for by other and more pressing considerations. In view of the wide extent of the area that was to be covered by my travels within a period practically limited to one autumn and winter, the careful organization of my caravan was a matter of much importance. In this respect the experienced advice of Mr. Macartney and the practical assistance of his establishment were of great value to me. It was essential to limit the baggage with a view to rapidity of movement, and at the same time to insure that all stores and equipment required during prolonged travels, and under widely varying conditions, should be kept readily available. I found that, including riding animals for myself and followers, 8 camels and 12 ponies would be needed for my caravan. ‘The trouble taken about their selection was amply repaid by the result; for, not- withstanding the fatigues entailed by our subsequent travels, which covered an aggregate of over 3,000 miles, none of the animals I brought from Kashgar ever broke down. In the same way the number of fol- lowers was kept down to the indispensable minimum, the party includ- ing 2 camelmen, 2 pony attendants (one of whom had to act also as Chinese interpreter), a cook, and a personal servant for myself. Apart from the subsurveyor’s Rajput cook, who had accompanied us from India, all the men came from Kashgar or Yarkand. An important object of my stay at Kashgar was to familiarize the provincial Chinese Government with the purpose and character of my intended explorations. Mr. Macartney’s efforts in this direction were entirely successful, owing mainly to the great personal influence and respect he enjoys among all Chinese dignitaries of the province. The result showed that from the Tao-tai, or provincial governor, down- ward, all Chinese officials I came in contact with were ready and anxious to render me whatever help lay in their power. I look back EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. fasy to their invariable kindness and attention with all the more gratitude, as it was shown at a time when, as they knew well, the conflict with Kuropean powers was convulsing the Empire in the East. Such imperfect explanations and illustrations as, with an interpreter’s help, I could give of the historical connection of ancient Indian culture and Buddhist religion with Central Asia, probably helped to dispel any doubts and suspicions which might otherwise have been roused by the intended excavations, etc. In this respect I found my references to the Si-yu-ki, the records of Hiuen Tsiang’s travels, singularly helpful. All educated Chinese officials seem to have read or heard legendary accounts of the famous Chinese pilgrim’s visit to the Buddhist king- doms of the ‘‘ western countries.” In my intercourse with them I never invoked in vain the memory of ‘‘the great monk of the Tang dynasty (Tang-Sen),” whose footsteps I was now endeavoring to trace in Turkestan, as I had done before in more than one part of India. Busily engaged as I was during my stay at Kashgar with practical preparations, I managed also to survey a number of instructive ancient remains, chiefly ruins of Buddhist Stupas, in the vicinity, and to con- tinue my studies of Turki. On September 11 I finally set out on the journey to Khotan. Choosing for the first portion of the march the track which crosses the region of moving sands around the popular shrine of Ordam-Padshah, I was able to fix the position of that curi- ous pilgrimage place more accurately than is shown in existing maps. From Yarkand onward I followed the ordinary caravan route, which leads along the southern edge of the great desert, and mostly through barren, uninhabited wastes of sand or gravel, toward Khotan. For me it hada special historical interest; a variety of antiquarian and topo- graphical observations which I was able to make proved beyond doubt that we were moving along the identical great thoroughfare by which in earlier times the trade from the Oxus and the Far West passed to Khotan and on to China. It is impossible to refer here in detail to any of this evidence. But I may briefly mention at least the curious patches of ground frequently passed on the route beyond Guma, where the eroded loess is thickly strewn with fragments of coarse pottery, bricks, slag, and similar refuse, marking the sites of villages and hamlets long ago abandoned. Such débris areas, locally known as ‘‘tatis,” are to be found in many places beyond the present limits of cultivation in the whole Khotan region; in some places they extend over whole square miles. They exhibit everywhere most striking evidence of the powerful erosive action of the winds and sand storms which sweep over the desert and its outskirts for long periods of the spring and summer. The above- named fragments rest on nothing but natural loess, either hard or more or less disintegrated. Having alone survived by the hardness and weight of their material, these fragments sink lower and lower as the 758 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. erosion of the ground beneath proceeds, while everything in the shape of mud walls, sun- burnt bricks, timber, etc., as used in the construe- tion of Turkestan houses, has long ago decayed or been swept away. On October 12 I reached Khotan town, the present capital of the territory which was to form the special field for my archeological explorations. I had entered the oasis on the preceding day with some feeling of emotion; for even before the discoveries that rewarded my labors there was much to suggest the important part played by this little kingdom in that most fascinating chapter of ancient history which witnessed the interchange of the cultures of India, China, and the classi- ‘al West. 1 lost no time before commencing the local inquiries which were to guide me as to the sites particularly deserving exploration. Apprehensions about possible forgeries, which experience proved to have been fully justified, had prevented me from sending in advance information as to the object of my journey. I now found that some time would have to be allowed for the collection of specimens of antiq- uities from the various old sites which Khotan ‘‘ treasure seekers” were in the habit of visiting. I was glad to utilize the interval for a geo- graphical task which I Knew to possess special interest. That portion of the Kuen-luen Range which contains the headwaters of the Yurung-kash or Khotan River had never been properly sur- veyed, the only available information being contained in the sketch map of the route by which Mr. Johnson, in 1865, had made his way from Ladak down to Khotan. Colonel Trotter had already, in 1875, expressed the belief that the headwaters of the Yurung-kash were much farther to the east than shown in that map, and probably identi- cal with a stream rising on the high plateau south of Polu. Captain Deasy, working from the side of Polu, in 1898, succeeded in reaching the sources of this stream at an elevation of close on 16,000 feet, but was prevented from following it downward. Thus the true course of the main feeder of the Yurung-kash, together with most of the orography of the surrounding region, still remained to be explored. On October 17 I started with the lightest possible equipment for the mountains. Pan-Darin, the amban of Khotan, had, during the few days of my halt, done all that was needed to facilitate my arrange- ments for transport and supplies, and to assure me local assistance. Subsequent experience showed that I had found in this amiable and learned mandarin a true and reliable friend, thoroughly interested in my work, and ever ready to help me with all that was in his power. I feel convinced that without his active cooperation, and subsequently that of his Keriya colleague, neither the tour through the mountains nor the explorations in the desert could have been accomplished. The valley of the Yurung-kash becomes impassable within one march of its debouchure. There, near the small villages of Jamada and Kumat, the precious jade is dug, from which the river takes it name— 7 Jt 9 ~ EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. ‘** white jade.” Hence the route to Karanghu-tagh, the southernmost inhabited place, leads over a series of more or less parallel ranges that separate side valleys draining from the east. These outer ranges, rising in a succession of plateaus fissured by deep winding ravines, exhibit in a most striking form the results of that extreme disinte- eration which is the characteristic feature of the whole mountain sys- tem. Nothing but loose earth, gravel, or conglomerate in the last stage of decomposition is to be seen on the surface of the hillsides; while their high elevation and the dryness of the climate prevent the growth of any but the scantiest vegetation in rare patches of low, tough grass. The effects of the dust haze which rises so constantly over the desert plains were still sufficiently marked to prevent any distant view being obtained from the Ulugh Dawan, by which we crossed the Tikelik Rangeatan elevation of about 12,000 feet. But fromthe next ‘ange, between the valleys of Buya and Pisha, a very extensive pan- orama opened out before us. In a grand mountain mass raising its glacier-crowned head in solitary splendor to the southeast, it was impossible to mistake the ** Kuen-luen peak, No. 5,” already triangulated from the Ladak side (pl. 1). Behind this great mountain, for which the tables supplied by the survey depart- ment indicated a height of 23,890 feet, to the south and southeast there was to be seen a magnificent line of high snowy peaks marking the watershed toward the westernmost portion of the Aksai-chin plateau of Tibet. It soon became clear that the Yurung-kash has cut its way between the main range and the great mass of ** K5,” or Muz- tagh (‘the ice mountain,” Kaz’ éSoynv, as it is called by the few Taghliks of these valleys). Its course is indicated by a gap between the stupendous spurs which descend from Muztagh, and from the almost equally high peaks on the watershed range, and could, in the remarkably clear atmosphere that favored us, be made out for a con- siderable distance to the southeast. It was found to run exactly in the direction where Captain Deasy had traced the real source of the river. In other respects, too, the orographical features actually before us differed strikingly from those which the above-mentioned sketch map had led me to expect. The next outer range, which was crossed at an elevation of close on 14,000 feet, offered a still better view of this magnificent panorama. But vainly I searched the crest line for other peaks which could be identified with points already triangulated from the Ladak side, and which would thus secure to us the eagerly sought connection with the Indian trigonometrical system. The descent which followed, of some 6,000 feet, to the deep rock-bound gorge of the Yurung-kash, was by its steepness and ruggedness an experience long to be remembered, especially as night overtook us. The track was almost impracticable sm 1903 49 760 SXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. for our baggage ponies. Fortunately it was possible to replace them by yaks at Karanghu-tagh, a small settlement of herdsmen which, owing to its inaccessibility, is also used as a penal station for select malefactors from Khotan. ‘* Karanghu-tagh” literally means ‘* moun- tain of blinding darkness”—a fitting enough name for this terribly bleak place of banishment. The Kash River, on which it lies, is fed by a series of great glaciers on the main range to the south, and joins the Yurung-kash a few miles below the hamlet. Leaving the ponies and whatever of baggage could be spared at Karanghu-tagh, I endeavored to follow up the gorge of the Yurung- kash as faras possible toward the head of the river. The hillmen knew of no track beyond a point known as “ Issik-bulak,” from its hot-spring. There the river, unfordable even late in the autumn, fills completely the narrow passage it has cut round the mighty southern buttresses of ‘*‘ Kuen-luen No. 5,” and progress becomes impossible, even for yaks. Accompanied by Ram Singh and a couple of Taghliks, I penetrated, on October 27, a few miles farther into the gorge, climbing with difficulty along the precipitous cliffs which face the frowning ridges on the south. But no track could be discovered prac- ticable for load-carrying men, and ultimately I had to turn back. It was impossible for me to wait for the chance of the river getting com- pletely frozen. Even then I doubt whether a practicable passage could be secured, considering the rigors of the winter and the masses of fallen rock likely to be encountered. It is from the high but com- paratively open ground near the sources far away to the southeast that the uppermost portion of the river course will have finally to be explored. From Karanghu-tagh we proceeded to the northwest by a difficult route, which forms the only connection of the valley with the outer world besides that we had come by. It required a good deal of nego- tiation and ‘*demiofficial” pressure before the surly hillmen of Karanghu-tagh would supply guides and yaks for it. The inhospitable mountain tract into which it took us had so far remained wholly unexplored. Over a succession of high transverse ranges we crossed into the yal- leys of Nissa and Chash. By camping close to the passes we managed to climb to some excellent survey stations, particularly on the Brinjak ridge, some 15,300 feet above the sea. The views I obtained there will show, better than any description could, the weird grandeur of this mountain scenery. Belowa glacier-clad crest line, of an approxi- mate height of 20,000 feet, there rise in all directions fantastically serrated ridges, with deep gorges between them, like the waves of an angry sea. Exceptionally clear weather favored us; but the increasing cold and the exposure inevitable on such elevated ground made survey work, especially with the phototheodolite, very trying. (PI. m1). EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 761 Beyond the Yagan-Dawan Pass, by which I crossed into the drainage area of the Kara-kash (‘‘ black jade”) River, I had ample opportunity to observe the extraordinary results produced by erosion on mountain formations subject to excessive disintegration (pl. m1). It appeared to me that only the erosive action of water could have produced that perfect maze of deep-cut arid gorges through which we had to wind our way. Yet in this very region the fall of rain and snow is now very scanty, and the consequent absence of water is a serious obstacle for the traveler. Luckily, we could overcome it by the transport of ice. I had almost despaired of connecting our survey work with the Indian triangulation, when unexpectedly the last range we had to cross toward the plains revealed a view more extensive than any before. Among the many high snowy peaks visible southward, and also beyond the upper Kara-kash River, two more triangulated points, besides ** Kuen-luen No. 5,” could be identified with certainty. It thus became possible to determine our position on the Ulughat-Dawan, close on 10,000 feet above the sea, by theodolite and to measure angles to all prominent heights of the ranges within view. To the north there extended, boundless like the sea, the vast plain of the desert. The light dust haze covering it looked beautiful as it reflected the brillant moonlight of that first night I spent on the pass waiting for the arrival of water. The dinner for which it was needed, did not get ready till2 a.m. I knew that a wind raising the haze would eftec- tively stop further survey work. So I hurried to reach another high ridge farther east, with an equally extensive view, that would allow us to complete the triangulation. It was successfully climbed after a great detour that cost us two days, and just in time. As the work Was approaching completion, a strong wind sweeping over the desert carried up a thick dust haze, and for weeks effaced all distant views. Some prominent peaks in the outer range of hills, which are visible from Khotan town when the atmosphere is clear, have been fixed by our work. With the help of these points it will be possible to connect Khotan with the Indian trigonometrical system, and finally to verify its longitude. But such occasions of dust-clear weather are rare, and of the only one which occurred during my subsequent short stay in Khotan, in April, full advantage could not be taken by myself. Thus this task is still left to a future traveler, who will be able to afford time for patiently awaiting his opportunity at Khotan. By the middle of November I had returned to Khotan, where, after our rough and rapid marches through the mountains, I was elad to allow my men and animals a well-earned short rest before starting once more for the winter’s work in the desert. I myself was busy at work with the examination of the antiquities which the prospecting parties, sent out a month earlier, had brought back from various sites 762 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. in the desert. I also made a series of excursions for the purpose of a close survey of the old localities within the Khotan oasis itself. This enabled me satisfactorily to settle numerous questions bearing on its ancient topography, and in particular to locate almost all the sacred Buddhist shrines which are described to us by the early Chinese pil- erims. Their positions were invariably found to be occupied now by Muhammadan Ziarats, or Saints’ tombs, which form the object of popular pilgrimage. Local worship can thus be shown to have out- lived the great change in religion consequent on the Muhammadan conquest. Its tenacity has indeed proved quite as useful for the study of the ancient topography of Khotan as it had proved to me before in Kashmir and other parts of India. I must restrict myself here toa few remarks only concerning the most interesting of those old localities—the site of the ancient capital. Its débris layers, which have furnished by far the greatest portion of the Khotan antiquities, such as terra cottas, seals, coins, etc., acquired by former travelers, he buried deep below the fields of the little vil- lage of Yotkan, some 7 miles to the west of the present town. Gold- washing operations, originating from an accidental discovery of gold some thirty-seven years ago, have gradually led there to the excava- tion of an area over half a mile square. The careful examination of the banks thus laid bare showed me that the ‘‘culture strata,” as I should call them, of Yotkan are composed of the rubbish that gradu- ally accumulated during the centuries while the site continued to be occupied by houses, from about the commencement of our era until after the advent of Islam (in the eleventh century of our era). These *Sculture strata,” themselves 5 to 14 feet thick at various points, are covered by a layer of pure soil from 9 to 20 feet in thickness. This layer, which shows no sign of stratification, is manifestly due to silt deposit, the necessary result of intensive and long-continued irrigation such as prevails all over the oasis. Owing to the disintegrated condi- tion of the soil, all the water that is brought down from the mountains by the Yurung-kash and Kara-kash rivers, and subsequently distrib- uted by innumerable irrigation channels, carries an excessive quantity of sediment. The silt thus deposited over all cultivated areas is amply sufficient to account for the gradual burying of the rubbish layers of the ancient capital and for other curious observations I have made as to the gradual raising of the ground level throughout the oasis. All antiquarian and physical evidence combines to oppose the assumption of a great flood or similar catastrophe, such as some earlier Kuropean visitors of the site have suggested. Among: the ancient sites in the Taklamakan Desert which are fre- quented by Khotan ‘‘ treasure seekers,” and which the prospecting parties sent out by me had visited, none seemed to offer better oppor- tunities for systematic excavations than the one known to them as PLATE III. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. Fig. 6.—ERODED RANGES TO SOUTHEAST OF YAGAN-DAWAN. Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. PLATE IV. Fig. 7.—STuCCO SCULPTURES AND FRESCOES IN BUDDHIST TEMPLE CELLA EXCAVATED AT DANDAN-UILIK. Fi@. 8.—ROOM OF ANCIENT DWELLINGS (FIRST FIND PLACE OF INSCRIBED TABLETS), NiyA River SITE, AFTER EXCAVATION. EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. KGe Dandan-Uilik. Turdi, an old and, as experience showed, reliable member of that fraternity, had brought me from there some interest- ing relics, including fragments of Buddhist sculptures, an inscribed piece of fresco, anda small but undoubtedly genuine scrap of paper with ancient Indian Brahmi characters. Further inquiries made it certain that Dandan-Uilik was identical with the ruined site which Dr. Sven Hedin had seen on his march to the Keriya Darya, and which in the narrative of his travels is spoken of as ‘‘the ancient city Taklamakan.” After hurriedly completing in Khotan the preparations for our winter campaign, I started on December 7 for Tawakkel, a small oasis on the outskirts of the forest belt which accompanies the Yurung-kash on its course through the desert. Thanks to the stringent orders issued by Pan-Darin, the kindly amban of Khotan, I speedily secured there the 30 laborers I wished to take with me for purposes of exca- vation, as well asa four-weeks’ food supply. Owing to the reluc- tance of the village cultivators to venture far into the desert, it would otherwise have been difficult to obtain sufficient labor, especially in view of the rigors of the winter. The ponies, for which the desert offered neither sufficient water nor food, were sent back to Khotan, while we set out on foot, the heavily-laden camels carrying the food supplies, together with the indispensable baggage. Marching in the drift sand was slow work, though the dunes amidst which we passed as soon as we had left the east bank of the river nowhere rose above 15 feet. Within five days Turdi had safely guided us through the sandy waste to the area where the trunks of dead poplars, rising shriveled and gaunt from between low dunes, indicated the vicinity of ancient cultivation. On the following day (December 18) I had my camp pitched in the middle of the ruins I was in search of. I soon found that the structural remains of the site consisted of isolated groups of small houses scattered over an area about 1$ miles from north to south and three-quarters of a mile broad. The walls, constructed throughout of a wooden framework covered with plaster, were either broken down within a few feet from the ground, if exposed, or, where covered by low dunes, could be made out by the wooden posts of the framework sticking out from the sand. The structures left more or less exposed had already been searched by native ‘‘ treas- ure seekers.” Their operations repeated in successive seasons had, together with the erosive action of the wind, caused great destruction among these ruins. But the scanty remains left on some walls of frescoes representing Buddhas, or Bodhisattvas, showed at once plainly that the ruins belonged to the Buddhist period, and that some of them must have served as Buddhist places of worship. Luckily the native ‘‘ treasure seekers” are prevented by the diffi- culty of carrying sufficient supplies from stopping longer than a few 764 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. days, hence they had never been able to attack the ruins more deeply covered by the sand. Thus, when I commenced with my little force of laborers the systematic excavation of structures half buried by low dunes, most interesting archeological results soon began to reward me. From the cellas of little Buddhist shrines there came to light in large numbers stucco images and relievos, frescoes and painted wooden tablets, all showing representations of saints and legends of sacred Buddhist lore (pl. tv). In style and technical treatment they exhibit a close resemblance to that period of ancient Indian art which is best known to us from the latter Ajanta cave paintings. Wherever protected by the dry desert sand, the colors have survived in remarkable freshness. Here, then, were rising from their tomb long-lost relics of that Indian art which had found a second home in Buddhist Central Asia before spreading farther into the Far East. Great was my joy when, on excavating what must have been the ground-floor room of a small monastic dwelling place, the men came upon the first leaves of paper manuscripts. Carefully extracted with my own hands and cleared, they proved to contain portions of a Budd- hist canonical text in Sanskrit. Judging from the paleeographic char- acter of the writing, these and subsequent finds of fragmentary Sanskrit manuseripts from Dandan-Uilik ruins may approximately be assigned to the sixth or seventh century of our era. In addition to such texts in the classical language of India, the literary discoveries of this site include a considerable number of manuscript folia and of detached documents on paper, written in Indian Brahmi characters, but in a non-Indian language. Taking into account that the same strange language appears in inscriptions affixed to some frescoes, it seems probable that we have here records of the indigenous tongue actually spoken by the Khotan people of that perioa. Only the close study of all these documents—a task which may take years—is likely to lead to a decipherment, and thus to a solution of this interesting question. In the meantime it is fortunate indeed that the discovery of Chinese paper documents in other small monastic dwellings permits us to determine with accuracy the period when the settlement represented by the settlement of Dandan-Uilik was finally abandoned. Among the neatly folded small paper rolls containing letters, records of loans, petitions, and similar matter, there are three at least which already, on preliminary examination at Kashgar, proved to be dated with pre- cisicn, the Chinese years indicated corresponding to the years 778, 782, 787 of our era. There are good reasons for assuming that these petty records do not precede by any great length of time the date when the dwellings were abandoned. We thus obtained the end of the eighth century as the approximate chronological limit for the existence of Dandan-Uilik as an inhabited locality. This dating is EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 765 entirely supported by the evidence of the numerous old Chinese coins I found at the site, the latest bearing the symbols of the dynastic period which corresponds to the years 713-741 A. D. The three weeks I spent in continuous excavations, from the early morning until daylight failed us, enabled me to explore all ruins trace- able under the sand. It was a happy time for me personally, though the physical conditions were trying. The severe winter of the desert had already set in when I started from Khotan. During my stay at Dandan-Uilik the temperature at night usually went down to a mini- mum of about 10° F. below zero. In the daytime it never rose above freezing point in the shade. The weather was cloudy, but luckily there was very little wind. Its absence is an essential condition for all prolonged work in the desert. The dead trees of the little orchards which once surrounded most of the scattered groups of shrines and dwellings supplied fuel in plenty. Yet the men suffered from the exposure as well as from the badness of the water, the only available supply coming from a brackish well they had succeeded in digging in a depression of the ground over a mile from the main ruins. My own little tent, brought from India, though provided with an extra serge lining, was a bitterly cold abode at night. When the temperature had once gone to about 6° below freezing point, writing or reading became impossible, and I had to take to my bed, however anxious I might have been to study the manuscript finds of the day, ete. But, from long experience, life ina tent seems the one most congenial to me, and, with such fascinating work to occupy me, the four and a half months spent in the desolation of the desert were indeed an enjoyable time. During my stay at Dandan-Uilik, Ram Singh had again joined me from the direction of the Keriya River. I had dispatched him a month earlier on an independent survey of the high range which extends between ‘* Kuen-luen No. 5” and the mountains eastward where connection could be obtained with Captain Deasy’s work about Polu. On comparing my own plane-table fixing for Dandan-Uilik with his, a gratifying surprise awaited me. Notwithstanding that we had brought our survey from entirely different directions and over great distances of such deceptive ground as sandy planes and dunes, | found that Ram Singh’s position differed from my own by only about a mile in latitude and a half mile in longitude. My detailed survey of the Dandan-Uilik site, together with other observations of a semitopographical, semiantiquarian nature which gradually accumulated during my explorations at this and other sites, make it very probable that the lands of Dandan-Uilik were irrigated from an extension of the canals which had, down toan even later date, brought the water of the streams of Chiraand Gulakhma to the desert area due south of the ruins. I must reserve for another occasion a 766 EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. discussion of the archeological evidence as to the causes which led to the abandonment of this advanced settlement. There is every reason to believe that this abandonment was a gradual one, and in no way con- connected with any sudden physical catastrophe. The Sodom and Gomorrha legends heard all over Turkestan about ‘*old towns” sud- denly submerged under the sand dunes are more ancient than the ruins of Dandan-Uilik themselves and interesting as folklore. But where we have plain historical and antiquarian evidence to the contrary, scien- tific inquiry can have no concern with them. On January 6 1] dismissed my Tawakkel laborers who had worked so valiantly, and after a three-days’ march over truly forbidding ground, struck the Keriya Darya. ‘The successive ridges of sand, rising to heights of about 200 feet, were the most formidable I ever crossed. A four-days’ march along the hard-frozen river brought us to the oasis and town of Keriya, where Khon-Daloi, the amban, accorded me the heartiest welcome. There I first heard of the exist- ence of ‘tan old town”—kone shahr, as all ruins are popularly called in Turkestan—in the desert north of the well-known pilgrimage place of Imam-Jafar-Sadik. The information was very scanty, and the dis- tance great. But certain indications pointed to a site of special inter- est; so I decided to set out for it after a few days’ halt needed to rest my followers. At Niya, which is the easternmost permanently inhabited place of the district, just as in the days of Hiuen Tsiang, who notices it under the name of Ni-jang, I received most encouraging proof that I was on the way to a site far older and hence more important than any I had examined so far. Owing to its great distance, the Khotan ‘* treasure seekers” knew, luckily, nothing of it. An adventurous young vil- lager from Niya was the only man who in recent years had visited the ruins. From one of the ruined houses he had picked up two small wooden tablets. When they were brought to me I noticed at once that the writing they contained was in the ancient Indian script known as Kharoshthi, and of a type that chronologically belongs to the first and second centuries of our era. I hid my delight as well as 1 could, and pushed on still more rapidly, after securing a sufficient number of laborers and the needful supplies for prolonged excavations. After a three days’ march through the belt of thick jungle which lines the winding course of the Niya River through the desert, the curious shrine of Imam Jafar Sadik was reached. There the river finally loses itself in the sands, and as water can not be obtained by dig- ging, we had to depend for our further progress on what could be varried along from that locality. Fortunately the intense cold still prevailing through this and the following month (on January 26 I reg- istered a minimum of 12° F. below zero) permitted its convenient and regular transport in the form of ice. EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 767 After a march of about 30 miles through the desert northward, I arrived on the evening of January 27 at the southern edge of the wide area over which are scattered the ruins I was in search of. The subsequent explorations showed that it extends for over 11 miles from north to south, with a maximum breadth of about 43 miles. Pitching my camp near a small stupa half buried in the sand, I pro- ceeded next morning to the ruined house where Ibrahim, the young Niya villager already mentioned, had unearthed his inscribed tablets. He declared he had left more in situ. It was a moment of cheerful excitement when I approached the timber débris, rising like the remains of a wreck from the eroded ground around it. On the sandy slope I found at once some tablets actually exposed, and many more scattered about undera slight layer of drift sand within the small room where Ibrahim had originally unearthed them (pl. tv). The house which contained it had, like the rest of the buildings at this site, been con- structed of a wooden framework of massive beams and posts. Between the latter rose the walls of hard plaster, strengthened internally by thick mattings of rushes. These walls had completely decayed where not actually covered by sand, but the posts, now blanched and splintered, still rise high above the surface. In the building first explored, the sand, which during former centuries must have protected it, had largely driftedaway. The remarkable state of preservation in whichmany of the - inscribed tablets were found was hence all the more surprising. Over 100 were cleared from the little room already mentioned, and the excavation of a large room of the same building, on the day fol- lowing, more than doubled that number. Unfortunately the protect- ing layer of sand was here only about 2 feet deep, and in consequence all materials not lying quite flat on the floor had decayed completely. The present condition of this ruin, which originally appears to have been used as a monastic building, illustrates strikingly the destructive effect of erosicn on this and other structures of the site. The actual remains of the building occupy a small plateau raised now 12 to 15 feet above the immediately surrounding ground. The lower level of the latter is the unmistakable result of erosion. While the strip of ground actually protected by the débris of this and similar structures retains the original level, the open surface near by, consisting of mere loess, has been gradually lowered by the action of the wind. The drift sand carried along this portion of the desert is not sufficient at present to fill the depression thus created. From the geological point of view, not less than from the archeological, it would be interesting to study the exact conditions under which the power of the desert winds asserts itself in its two main lines of action—erosion and the movement of drift sand. But Iam convinced that it will take years of minute and systematic observation before any safe conclusions can 768 EXPLORATION IN -CHINESE TURKESTAN. be arrived at as to the rate at which the work of these forces proceeds in various parts of the Taklamakan. And even then there will be lit- tle to guide us as to the corresponding conditions prevailing during sarlier historical periods. While most of the buildings of this important site had suffered from erosion, there were others where parts at least were still buried under deep sand (pl. v).. From some of these my excavations brought to light many very interesting objects illustrating the industrial arts of the period. The articles of ornamental wood carving, which include elab- orately worked chairs, small architraves and other achitectural pieces, etc., show decorative motives familiar to us from the relievo sculp- tures of the ruined Buddhist monasteries on the northwest frontier of India, the ancient Gandhara. The date thus indicated fully agrees with the chronological evidence of the Kharoshthi writing on the wooden tablets, apparently memoranda and lists, found Scattered in various rooms of the same dwellings. Broken pieces of arms, house- hold implements, a musical instrument and similar objects of domestic use, all of wood, help vividly to bring before our eyes the conditions of everyday life of this distant region in the first centuries of our era. It was difficult for me to realize fully that so many centuries had passed since these dwellings were deserted while I traced the plan and arrangement of the orchards and gardens once surrounding them. tows of fallen poplars, some 50 feet in length, half covered by the sand, showed the position of avenues, such as are planted to this day everywhere along the roads and canals of Turkestan oases. The rush fences used then, as now, for the inclosures of gardens could be seen sticking out from the sand. A little digging along them often revealed small heaps of dry leaves that must have accumulated there while the trees, now reduced to blanched and withered trunks, were still thriving. Among these my diggers had no difficulty in distinguishing various fruit trees, such as the peach, plum, apricot, mulberry, ete., with the wood of which they are familiar from their own homes. The character and conditions of the articles found within the houses plainly showed that they had been cleared by their last inhabitants, or soon after their departure, of everything that possessed value. Luckily, there were left behind the rubbish heaps to reward me with finds of the greatest antiquarian interest. The richest mine of this sort was struck in a small and much-decayed building, one room of which proved to contain a consolidated mass of refuse, lying fully 4 feet above the original floor. Among the layers of broken pottery, rags of felt and of woven fabries, pieces of leather and other rubbish, I discovered there over two hundred documents on wood, of all shapes and sizes. Besides tablets with the Indian Kharoshthi writing, which form the great majority, there came to light numerous narrow pieces of wood bearing Chinese characters, and two dozen Kharoshthi docu- Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. PLATE V. Fig. 10.—COVERING TABLETS OF ANCIENT KHAROSHTHI DOCUMENTS ON WOOD, WITH CLAY SEALS (2). Smithsonian Report, 1903.—Stein. PLATE VI. Fig. 11.—RELIEVOS AT OUTER SOUTHEAST CORNER OF QUADRANGLE OF RAWAK STUPA CouRT. FIG. 12.—COLOSSAL STATUES ON INNER SOUTH WALL OF RAWAK STUPA CouRT. EXPLORATION IN CHINESE TURKESTAN. 769 ments on leather—a material one could hardly expect to find among a Buddhist population with an Indian civilization. Many of the Kharoshthi tablets unearthed are in excellent preserva- tion, and still retain the original clay seals and strings with which they were fastened (pl. v). Weare thus able to study exactly the tech- nicalities connected with the use of wood as a writing material. This is not the place to discuss such details, but I may mention at least that sach document intended as a letter or record of some importance, whether wedge-shaped or oblong, is provided with a carefully fitted covering piece or envelope bearing the address or ‘‘docket” entry. An ingeniously designed system of fastening with a string and a neatly inserted clay seal, prevented unauthorized inspection of the contents. The remarkable series of clay seals discovered on these tablets is of exceptional interest, because it furnishes most convincing evidence of the influence which classical western art has exercised even in distant Khotan. Aq scollection fromiss 2.22228 32 sea ane eee eee 28 Coelostat; improvedformvotsss2525 Vas ea ee ee eee 23 Cold aud the absolute zero, Dewar’s history of -.--..-.--..----.-------2= 91 Collins: (GitN je n2e sce sree ea Ee et Ree el eee ee 33 Cometary theory, application of radiation pressure to.......---.---------- 132 Comets’ tallses4 2,02 24222220 220 eS et ee 90, 134 Congress, acts and resolutions of, relative to Institution. ......---...------ LV—LXI Congress-of Aimenicanists te 2592 Soe eee aaa ee ee eee ees 16 Onientalista: <2. ao2sy30rs Pe ee eee 16 Contributions tonkmowledees smithsoniantesse =e sss se en ceee ee eee eee ee 11, 89 Cook; (Oss ue sys Ss ee eye se Fe SN aay Nn ee oa 33 on food plants! ofancient "America 2255.2 = eee 4 See ee 481-497 Coquiliet, D. W., on new diptera from North America. ---.----- SoA ek pale 93 Coral Rouleion naturalshistonyioless-— eee eee aoe eee ee eee eee eee eee 92 Cortelyou, George B., member of Smithsonian establishment .---...-.-.-- xin, 12 Coulter». Mb 2252 e pnd .ct ee dae Sa eoe eee ne ee ee ee 33 Coupin, Henri; on animals that hunts323s 2225 fen oe ee ee 567-571 Coville; BscV 22 32225288 sence See a es ee ee Se eee 37 on desert plants as a source of drinking water -_...-----.----- 499-505 Cox, John, on comets’ tails, corona and aurora borealis. ..........-.-.---- 90 Crania, acquisition ohcastsjols == 329 sa esse. ee eee ee eee eee 27 Craniolosy, of maniandsanthropordeapess ass oes eae eee 91 Creak, Ettrick W., on terrestrial magnetism in its relation to geography -.. 391-406 Crookes, Sir William, on modern views on matter_........-=.....---.--:- 229 . Tadium apparatugiole=- sese ee = eae eee eee 190 Cross; W hitman, fossils fire riers ys eee ae ee ea eee 30 Crustacean fauna of Nickajack Cave, Tennessee, observations on ....--...- 93 region about Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, by W. P. Hay- 95 Crustaceans from Cuba, Hay’s paper on a collection of.............-.----- 94 Culin, Stewart). 42 2 Jla5- sos 5 ee ee ee ee 39, 42 Cullom, 8. M., member of committee on powers of executive committee _.. xv, 3 Recent ofthe psins titulo ree see eae XIV, Xv, 4 Cunningham, EB. S:.5.0 22 ee ee ee ee eee 69 Curie,-E:; On radium. 32. 5530s ee 187-198 Currie, Rolla: P 2...22.0 526 32 oe ee 30 @ushine. Ps oss eels 6. oo ce ares See ogee ee ee 43 INDEX. 86é dD. Page. Dy RAV ln cir SET Poser se Sesser cn at Ae ee See ee | ake Pe SS eyes ee ah 33 donations to National Museum library..--........-------- 15, 87 OHESiWOpsisrol tamnnliva Wiener iC eyes ns eee eee enna 94 Dalla, UO. ehoiMe OVO Oleoes cence soseoees sencos see doese saonescon 243 WanvwinenGeorveontidal movements 22.) 4522s esse ese een enee | s5 eee eee 105 * Dastre, A., on a new theory of the origin of species..........-------.----- 507-517 omen o hari abe aye ver oye ey ae 8 cot ee pane ae ey es BY erp CNT 91 Daughters of the American Revolution, report of ........-.-.---.-------.-- 15 Davenport: Cab: cat smithsonian Naples Mablev sos 225-5 sse esse eee saee 9 Davenport. omer, collection from’ 422. S254 ssi 2222-25 ee ee eee 28 Webrerne wVeachinalmMTdISCOMeRIes Dyjesss 225-545 25 22 ene eae ee i aS 28 187 Wepb rads kaya alll Oompa mae eer cere One aie eine Seo eee eee 176 MeimardseEphraimscollectionsmirom: saesee. s ee ee eeeee eee en ee 26 Dentomes Dupuy. balloontexperiments by 22-2: 2------- + secs ee seo eee ilyfe3 [Dyexaiikstayay, (CxS gee Soe Ae ese ay aso ee a eee ee eo of Derkeysters John atismadonablonsybye- a5 -22 25-6 eoeee a] oe eee 15, 86 Wesertyplantsiassarsourceol drinkinoewateree es eee aoe eee eee 499-505 [Davyrse) alts} logulloyorahs 3 5 se as aes See SI ee Oe ee ae ey eae a 168, 176 Devonie and Ontaric formations of Maryland, Schuchert’s paper on ..----- 94 DeMies suc smutation bneory Olesen. so2 2. ces. se 2s eee e one eee ee ae 507 Dewar Jamessonncoldvand thevabsoluterzero==. +22 s62 2s ss seeeee ee ne 91 Michonany researches ‘ontcoloning ses -—e a. =e ee eee eee 300 Fuller, Melville W., Chancellor of the Institution ........---...--- XIV, XV, XVIII, 4 member of committee on powers of executive com- Mittee-s0.d¢.200 shea een ot eee eee eee eee ee XVII, 3 member of Smithsonian establishment..-.-. -.-...---- xi 2 Fusus, Grabau.on phylogeny of -..65- 2-2 0402s csem ee eens 22 eee 14, 90 INDEX. 865 G. Page Galvanometer atpAstropiysicali@bservatorya- 22+ ee eee ee eae ee eee ee 78 Cannes chomas;onimounds imimorthern Honduras) 2520222250222 sees see 96 CrannISON | CeOLO Crease ears Bote eens ee eee ee ee 97 Gatschet-eAllbenrtios sUMoUIStIG WOLK. Dycena-soe a sae eo eee ee 39 (Caucnye Al berin Onpne we hUmMane type ane anne fee ase oie eens St ee oe 91 Geographical exploration in Chinese Turkestan ............-.-----..----- 747 knowiled ses pnosresstOlms.9 So 6c.) eee oe eee eres ae 91 Geography, relation of terrestrial magnetism to .........-..1.....-----2=- 391-406 RElAtOMeO ie GO; COLOR ye se sae ye oe ce oe hse eee De te me eee rae 373 Geclacied aAcciiions toe VMUSeMIMs. L255. 22. 2. 2 eee Le ee ee 29 Geology. Lapworth on the relations/of |... 2... .Jsces,o.5n52 ce tec gaceeee 363-390 Gibson, George H., on high-speed electric interurban railways ..---------- 311-321 CHOC, VOM 2RHoe Ss as SA en ee eR eae ee See 38 (GHEE SI HOIS A OMA KOLOR Ms & Seas A See Sees SR RE et Ree ee ee adn eS 173 Gallente Coulee lancalianepoOnrpolsey trons = oo en. a = esia ss ae a= eee 27 GilibenieaGrakebiocraphivaOtdk: WieeoOwell byes == =.= 4522-2 seen eee 92 Grillo Wyo a SE ee oan oe lee Se ee eer 77 ColeDeltanceymullustratin oswOtkeby 7 -es--- Keon irozennm amin Ot hain Oe his eee ee ee 611-625 Herzer: He collection trommn = ase eo oce ose oe ee eee ee eee eee 30 Hewat. Ji0Ns. Bi eee = eee eee ee creat teense eee eee eee 38, 42, 44 Hieserly phic writincan Central Amend 2 se. sees aee ee eee eee 705-721 Fligegas Bryan sonratonnrculiypOthesisiaeae me sem eee eee ee 246 Bolderwh. Ee vanthropolosicaltcolleciions\biyesseeee eae eee eee 26 Hinds, Warren Elmer, on insects of the order Thysanoptera inhabiting North America £0. 32 ee: cece eee eee ae ee eee 94 Eustoricalicollections received @ny, Mise umm s sees ee eee 27 Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, member of Smithsonian establishment..........- xiii, 2 Hitt, Robert R., member of executive committee. ........_...._.........-- XIV , Regent of the Institution.............- eee Se XIV, xvii, 4 Etittites: theranclenteee 2 sae = so eee ee eee eee ee re 681-703 PLGA ge; Wy Wisc as ee ee eee es oe cn Sear tee cee etree ee ree ee a 38, 41, 42 delegate to Congress of Americanists.................-...---- 16 report on International Exchanges by ©22-2:-22-.-2252.--4--2 49-64 Efodp kins fund ei 5 ie eee sere ayer leral ee etc eer a XVI, XXI, 9 orants for Tesearchesiia.caeme sat to eee eee 7 publications cl ergs steers eee arene feet ee 89 Holbrook’s salamanders, Stejneger on rediscovery of .............-.------ 94 Holdich, T. 8., on progress of geographical knowledge ...........-.....-- (SIL folimes: * Wrlliiainy Ee ee ee ae a eo nop ak yee eer Xvil, 32, 33, 42, 43 anthropological explorations by 222-22 -2-2.- 22-22 27, 30, 35, 92 chief/of Bureau of Ethnology = 21-2 eee 3, 18, 26, 34 classification and arrangement of exhibits of an anthro- OMG EKCM MUSEO 32 te ooosebobosausuebspousds seuss 92 instructions to anthropological collectors ..........---- 95 on fossil human remains found near Lansing, Kans. --- ol report on Bureau of Hthnology by-.:2-------- 2.2222: 34-48 report on exhibit of National Museum at Pan-American Exposition co 5550 Sees oe en oe eee 92 on traces of aboriginal mining operations in Missouri... 723-726 Hough; Walters S555 2c 525 yee a eee cee ae ere ee ee 42, 92 Howes, G. B., the morphological method and recent progress in zoology. - - 92 Howland Sa SsenCOll ect omiehro rine eee 26 ELrdlickas Ae eassistamit. curate Teese eee eee 26 hub band’s GiGi si. ee ee ee eee ne 33, 87 Hulbert, Homer B.; on the’Koreanjlanguace. = 520 se ee ee ee 805-810 Hull, G.F:; ‘on the pressure:due to radiationeeson fee ee se se eee 115-138 Hulst;'GeorgeD i. 2 3... ee ee apr eer e 95 Hyatt; Alpheus. 22.1 See eee ee 31 it Indian texts) transl aria rl of ese se seas eee are 38, 39 tribes; dictionary Of sooo ee ee ee 20, 38, 41 tribes of Purtis River; ‘Brazil; narrative of visit toc 422+. eae eee eee 92 Insects; psychical staeullities i ie meee psa ers ere ee 587-599 species of the order Thysanoptera inhabiting North America ._-_-.- 94 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature .......-..-.--2---.-------- 15, 87 INDEX. 867 Page. International Exchanges, acting curator’s report on...........-.---------- 49-64 fi MAA CESRO lessee Rais ee ee es ey eae LO-duiie Wie (93 mie En Od SiO hae Ease ay eee ee Ree AG eee 90 Secretanygs rep Onto l= =e 20 ima -avomicchemicaltreactions:s. 2. -- 22st Jee ea case see nee eee 279 Vieiteed Uc ONMIGCECT ONO ype ere saree raoe ae er Ne te oe ee aren 263-293 Meer duaimnescarches by DArUs: .<) S2s.6. aceite Sees ee ee oe so eceee ee 89 Iron mine near Leslie, Mo., aboriginal operations in-..............--.---- 723-726 iste Oscar biography, of Rudolph. Virchow 222.52. s-se=- 22-2 seeeeeno-e o2 Ae Jacob, Georg, on Oriental elements of culture in the Occident .........---- 92 aMmesoure) Olan ham Kime ae arta ery oe ane cele se eee a 96 a pAWesetapElMN eC Vallipers stepe essa ee ae eis 2 noes a NelGemeo ne see Soe oe ee 793-804 fishes, Jordan’s note on certain specimens of ...........-..-.--- 95 fishes and new species of Aboma, Jordan and Fowler’s notes on - 93 loaches, Jordan and Fowler’s review of ..-...............------ 95 stalk-eyed crustaceans, Mary Rathbun on...................--- 94 Venki Owe scollechoneirom sees ae oe ok 2 Sao e co ee oe aoe 28 chm, ARNT) SEE 3 ke ey Pear ec Se tee 40, 96 Jesup Moris ke president Peary Arctici@luby---2--- os. ++ sce 5 eo. ee eee 427 Johnston, Sir H. H., on pygmies of Great Congo Forest.............-..--- 91 Jomes} Waillleins IbinmS Ke AOA ion oeaneeaeeseooSessssooesseeseasosoos= 40 Meornclayans ID real Syed A nee A Sale ai a ea ne See ae ee eI aR Aro - Boss collectionshromimnc cuss seieoe meen. oe reece nes oe eee 28 HITLES OfMPAMersMWWaacetee er Sete areas here ee Ss eee 93, 94, 95 Jouet, Cavalier H., index to literature of thorium by ........-.....-.-..-- 14, 90 K. iKeasbeyep lem dl cya Vibe resets Seah a eae Senn moose Scere ieete ee 96 Kincaideeirevoracollectionsiromt 2 ot es caae ee oe tere ae ane eee 29 Kiowaslndianssnresearches amon Citas eee eee ee eee cece eee o7 JIVE» AIGSISEY & 2s i See yea ee eee een wee oD AO rape yy) ponte © 39 Kirkaldy, G. W., on maternal solicitude in rhynchota and other nonsocial TMS (SGI ets es Oc ia ene ar epee eR et ead 577-585 iitesaGrahaniebellusptetrawednale] co aasscse ne occa eee oe eee eee cee 183-185 ilaceomineamncollection-tromls secs === Sen oaemas2e eae meee eee ee 28 Kloss, C. B., birds collected in Andaman and Nicobar islands by...------- 93 Knox, Philander C., member of Smithsonian establishment.............-- rails Y Koreantlancuac cer eer mee ssemter nee f5 ce tan Sees, sense mane eee moe 805-810 INTRO OS Ey avo tel RY ae ROMET CE MOO te eee ee ras AuoS ea aae aeons Goes Sea eee meee 174 VERT OYE SYS a Nae eet ALR a oe a Pegi a gina ARE e Ee yea at eee 40, 42 L. an ole yar S tke COOGLSCCIN GS ae See eae eee a ele eae ee mee Slee 91 mechanical flightexperiments by --.---25222---.--- FAVS Mo lliisy 17) MOUECOMEN=TaySiOueN- LONG Oleee eee ene ete ae oon ae one eee 207 report on solar eclipse expedition of 1900................-- 95 represents Regents in new Museum construction -..-.-.-.-- ade AY mecretary of the, institutvone:- 22s 22-2 eco. 2.css52 5: 5 SOs 2Oi5 Raya Onitem perature. immOOMese. - seer eeaee soon see eee eee 108 Lapworth, Charles, on the relations of geology_...--.--- Pts oe e te te LS 363-390 Ley yiGiTe ESSE Io) ala 1 Cees ahem ee es ere re a ys SR i gl 96 868 INDEX. Page. Lebandy?s balloon vt. << 2... semen Se ea aaa ner 169, 176 Lebedew, Peter, investigations on pressure of light by ......-.-.-.---.----- 90 Le Bon, Gustave, on intra-atomic energy. 222 esses es ee a ee 263-293 Leland Stanford Junior University, collection from--.-.--.-.-------------- 28 Lepidoptera, North. American, Dyar’s listiol 25-23-2027 a oes eee 32, 95 Lewis, William; photographic investigations! by 2. s-5-----o-- 2 eee 344 Lhasa and Central: Tibet 222 S22 bs Scere cs ares See eee (se ee 727-746 Librarian, reportiok 23. 3202s Soe sie ee nee eerie rte ts rere eer 85-88 Lbibraries, sectional, in.Nationall Museum)ees= sen ssee= = eee eae nea 88 Library, accessions t0's. 3-07-42 2u5 hes ee eee ee eee eee 85 Bureau. of Ethnology: i232 es2e- sere se eee eee eee eee 46 Nationale Miuseume accessions. tOnseee eeeeeer eee reese eee =) 335 om of Congress, (Smithsoniamrdeposibh im 222e5 26 —e=— ee 15, 85 Secretary's veportionas-c.caac. ese Se eee ee een ee ee 15 Life‘of matter; Dastre on: 2222 2222 ce eset a eee eo oe ee are 91 Light, Lebedew’s investigations on pressure of.........---:.-----------+-- 90 Lilienthal: Otfo; aeronautical researches bys 2oes=se5 4-2 =e ee 180 Linguistic researches by Bureau of Ethnology -.....---------------------- 40 lanton; Hawi, ‘collection troms222- -ssem- 22s sae eee ee een eae 29 Lodge, Sir Oliver, on modern: views’ on matter: 2-22- J- sees ee eee 215-241 doomis, Henry, collection irom 0222. = ee ne ee ee ae ee 28 oper, 'S:, Wards;collectionsirom 22222. 22) o.set—s see aa eee eee 30 I-oulsianaseurchaseelixppOsitiom! ae oer, see tae eee ys eee ta ee eee 16, 33, 42 Tou@asy Wh: gAss Sas 2 ao Soe seer etd sie we Sie ele eye etre aarti el eee 30, 94 umimer: (O; ron ratio ol spevitic heath est ee ase a eee eee eee ee 89 Lyon, Marcus Ward, jr., observations on young bats. ...:--.-..----------<- 94 M. MacDonald, “William s:2 22 s<= 220-2. cae Sceetae ee fe see ee ee ee 96 MacFarland, F. M., at Smithsonian Naples Table....-.----.----.--2------ 9 Macnamara, N. C., craniology of man and anthropoid apes...--...-------- 91 MeCarthiy,/Charles=- 222 oe n = esse oe eae nee Be se ee nS eee ree 96 | McCormick; Ji. 'Hi<.2: 3 22322 ae ee ee eee ee 42 MeGees Woda oe oa Ee are ee ne oe oe 34, 35, 96 MeGuire, Joseph: Ds 22.232. Sin 2 ee eee eae eee 42 McKendrick, John Gz, ,experimental phoneticss=22—-eo5 9 ee eee ee 91 Mckinley, Mountaniexplorationi tomes —- = eee eee ee ee 407-425 Meliaughliny He s2ss52 25555 Soe er a a ee 69 MicMurrich, Je Play fam note ontsearanemoOne aes = ese ae ae eee 94 Madagascar; ‘fossilere trom 22222 5.S5555 2 Soe ae eo eee 28 Magnetic charts 52: os. SS 52s 5 Se ee 402 instruments fortravelerse=s-s-s2eeee seco eae eee eee 404 poles ofthe earths 255 22s stan eee Se ne ee 396 shoals....- 2.25 See ok Se a See eee eee eee 400 SUPVCVS: 2 2.23 so 520 2 See oe oe eee eee 392 Magnetism, terrestrial: 2.2. 2seeR eee ee ee 391-406 Mahan, Alfred Thayer: 2.222222 2602 See ee ee eee oe eee Maiden, Joseph Henry, on eucalyptus from the Philippines. ...-.-.-------- 95 Malay Peninsula: wild ‘tribestof-=-- eee eee en ere eee eee 91 Mammal, Gill on idea expressed by the name!-522222--22=- -25--)-22--—-2—= 537-544 specimens received! by, Museums sess eeee ener eee ae 27 Mammals collected by W. L. Abbott in Sumatra, Miller’s paper on ....---- 94 Mammoth in:Siberias. 2-22 ee ee ee ra 611-625 INDEX. 869 Page. Manuscript collection of.Bureau of Ethnology -..---.------.-------------- 43 Maps as means and symbols of earth knowledge ---.----..---------------- 387 Marienfelde-Zossen high-speed electric-railway trials..........-..-.----.-- 323-33 Marine invertebrate collections received by Museum.-.....--......------- 27, 28 Mamie mMaiyeTsityeaiovaaVemies Cane COTY Ame ye fes ee afee oe erase see Nome eee 92 Markham, Sir Clements R., on first year’s work of national antarctic E3549 CNG © Most reer Saye es ser a Se eye an Pape Iie cai alana eee go be ae Set 459-465 iMeymalovalllle \wye id Bee rsrente above Eibre(s hb ae lessees eee Pere Sires tere PSE eee eae eat Le 26 Meantinignes meport-olenrupbons ath. ---—-o4] 552s" - a2 yee eee ce eee e 91 Maso, EMR sae esacetaeeem aes oe Eee Sie ec eS ee te ae ee 26, 32, 42, 95 Maternal solicitude in rhynchota and other nonsocial insects -....-.-..-_-- 577-585 Matte, Key Ones asel a ARB a eee ene eee Lee Sete Senn ae ae age 2 9] MOC CLUMeVvile WiSEO Dyers eee oe Steer hs re oso Syn pe 215-241 NIDA ONT Shs VOR OMINeO eereiss aco ce bebe te eae eee eS aoa eee oe 42 WeavermmVillicam ys none wirelessitelesraphive e252 4. - eee see a oe eeee 91 Maxim, Sir Hiram, experiments with flying machine...................-- 178 Wepxom, \Willient Se as See oo eee seen eee ser sae iee eee eee hee 29, 33 REMC LIONATY Sha 2k ne bes footer Oe MG See hate eee os acse cone 4] iMiehyaiMeCalen GaTssySUCTNS ser xste aes aye Seer eer rere ns Sate 96 WUE STS, aie 6 Ie ISS ts es ee a ee gg oe re eee eee 3 Means, Thomas H., on the Nile reservoir dam at Assuan.._............--- 92 BISA S spree A ee SP ea a ect he toy rape ee ee cS at) te ey op ses 27, 29, 93 Nira Sl COmAMNM AMS a 252 San Fo Soest sooo eos eee se SEE 2 eos one 545-566 Nr rll CONRCM ae see Se nee cick sos ose one com Sec ReE ec e es cace oor 33, 92 Messerschmidt, Leopold, on the ancient Hittites .....................--.- 681-703 Mefeoric specimens received by Museum: .-..22--:..--222222-22-0.---5.-- 29 Meteorites hassinvon the CasasiGrandes=- soo. © ses. cee eee ee wee 93 INeteorol aotcalumebhod stem aes py fee sO a ee eee 151-165 Meverek-b:, Ol anwugquity of the lion in Greece... 02 fs.-c5222 2-255 e 661-667 Michelson, Albert A., spectroscopic measurements by...------------------ ~ 89 IWinlieie, (GretealiiSys Ses sees Seas aoe Gata es ee ee ee Pel ae ee, 30, 94 Mindeleff, Cosmos, on localization of Tusayan clans........--.------------ 96 Mineralogyenel anlOonOmCeOlOry LOk = o-se4- 22 ese ccomie cer eae ee eee aes = 370 MinoiCas wah omltbnsonians Naples Mable 22-525 .55 55.55. 5-26 eae eee 9 Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian quarterly issue of.......-----.----- 14 Secretary ¢s: Teport ONeoes ee eine Ses ee eee 13 Witches ssa eu ncollectionm toms. - i. so Ace: eee nce ese snes Sec eee ee 28 GNECOMpOsibion OL expIned sale as sees se ee eee 89 MOM ETIEMLO WStONM IMA LCn a ian aera ee See ht eo Se eines ve Se wie icre 215-241 Shelia, Ankrhiye) t= 2 See See SS Oe eee ne tener eee 4] NVWvos liars ea aif etree Meee seen oo wo cies as aS ten a ete I pan eich 33 Monmnacenshbeodores blopraphy. Ole ~ 2-52 cities ost ae ener e ees eee oe 851-858 Miro a) Shams beta eae a ge ee Seas re Ry are Ale Sys ney Rea eh cle 727 Moody, William H., member of Smithsonian establishment. ..-.....------ xr, 2 Moon scomparisonorteatunes of canthvandi=oe= 24 - Sae eae ee oe ee 89 SEMELAGeSGrIPUGMeOlabhCvseee Meee cers eee oaae cee Seana ane 1038-113 PLOpOsed publicationion photographs Ofse---5-— ease see eee aoe 13 Ricchey7s po tograp hele seer seer a een aoe ee ee ee ae 13 VEO OM ere AIC) tes yey Se a arr ee ce ea oe ee reeds ee 37, 41, 42, 96 Witonem@ Mar lespA ea Spek ae cer eR els ane 0 Pan 2 ed Soe 427 INTVOU Tete en G ks Wik seers eset eae £ Rye be ete ney eet eee ee th 97 MI OOTE re Grae Deer CUSLOU Ae Sat er oe See ERS SE ares eS AE pe es 26 Mosman, 1... E.. atwsmithsonian Naples Table.-.-2s-22.--- 2-2 -22225- 2.3.45 9 870 INDEX. Page. Morgan, IT) Hi. on Naples Table advisory committee==2e2—- 29a ee ae 10 Morley, Edward W., on densities of oxygen and hydrogen..._.........--- 89 Morphological method and recent progress in zoology.-.--..-------------- 92 Moths; Americans: 2256 2. 352 See Sac eee eee eee ee eee 93, 94 Mounds.in northern; Henduras =o: 252.55 - eee ae a eee 96 Mowbray, Juouis, specimen fromm <= 22h. 225 oat eae ee 28 Muskioxen in captivity +.2 60. hc2 eee ec a eee 601-609 Mutation theory, DewV ries. 3.2 ss ee oe ese ee eee oe ee 507 N. Naples zoological station; Smithsonian tabletat. 2: -22222--5--5--2----seeee 8-10 NEIGH Shonika loys ALDEN ON 5 oe ne adoeoseosaonsccseaseeeseosSscas 96 National antarctic expedition, first year’s work of the ..........-..--.---- 459-465 Ever barium: accessions (lees see sense Seer ee eee ee 29 Conti butionssemiaee see eee eee eee eee 33 National NuseumsaccesstonsitOmesreeeeneee er eee terse eee ae ~-. 18,25, 26 ; APDPLOpHations tomes aee os ee eee ee eee ee XXVI, LI, 6 assistantisecretary’s reporton, 2-22-8252 eee ee 25-3: estimate for. 2 22 eb soa ae i ee ee 6 exchanges by = 22-9 eee ee ee eee 31 exhibitiatist. Wouists-s-c le sees sree he ee eee 33 exhibitionvhalls"olee os ies ate sae eee 31 expendiiurestoret reacts oes eres eee ee eae XXVI library: 0 Beet ies Ue eee naa ee Ree ee ery 15, 33 meetings andilecturesini 265: poset ae ee 32 new, buildine = t2ie52 oe eet cece eee eee ee ee 4,16, 25 OTgani Zab lOmMpal CYS tate eee ere rea ee 26 publications Ofte 24 eet ek eee a eee 32, 92 report of special committee on needs of ............---- XVII Secretary Ss reporviom 2 oa ee see ee ee ee ee 16-18 VISILOTS GO: Seacer cae ots Senet soe eee ne 32 National)Zoological) Parkewaccescions ton eeee eee ee earn eee eee 68 ATMO Sri ea ae ee ee ree 21, 70 APPLOPLMablOnMONe a eee ee eee XLVI, L111, 6, 65 estimate for S222 oe eo ee eee ee 6 expenditures {Or 2.2.2. See ee ee XLVI improvements at: a2. -eaes esses ee eee eee 65-68 SISOREUBIAY SING) VOI Ole = escosoacbcusoscssodsseus 21 Superintendentis report ones sss 65-75 Navy Department, mod elsiofiyesselsstromseseere-eeeeee ee ae eeeee eee eee 27 Needham, James G., genealogic study of dragon-fly wing venation.-----.-- 95 Neumann, Oscar, through southern Ethiopia to the Sudan _........-..---- 775-792 Newell i. He onthe reclamationrotathenViestess. seeeee ee eee eee 827-841 Newhouse, Sethi 22 2s. 55 ee ee a nee er ee 38 Nichols ES F2s on the pressure duestosr ci aitl @ lee epee eee 115-158 Nile reservoir dam:‘at*Assuam: so: 5 usc eeee osteo ere Sees eee eee 92 Nordenskidld, Otto, on work of Swedish antarctic expedition.......------- 467-479 Nordmann, Ch., on the sun-spot period and temperature of the earth ....-- 139-149 North: polar exploration, “Peary oms== > iss o25 sete eee oe ee eee 427-457 Nerays of :M: ‘Blondlotec2 =i222.sese te ee eee ee eee 207-214 Nucleus, structure of22 [2.3 Se os ee ee eee 7,11, 89 Numerical systems of Mexico and Central America ~..--.::.-...-.-.-.----- 96 Nutting; C:-@s.52 ges Sates ceteuke 7 ee ere 31 —— eee INDEX. 871 O. Page (ls aval Gils ern wig leahe ciel OF Ses eo eae oe a A ee ee er ee ene a ne 93 Beso ncns.\ Viearme s paperon 2,2. 5222s see Se ce ae ae aa eee wee es 93 Olorovcsevirss DoS collection: tom ..<22c2e2clat oe a2 aoe eee Sees 28 Olney-ehichards Resentiot the Imstitutions=--. 2 sss. 22-2. s5 see se RLV MV Oological collections received by Museum.................--------------- 28 Oriental elements of culture in the Occident-.-... 22-222. b2e- 2k 2 eee ae ee 92 Prgms pecies, We Vries theory of the... .22.+-2 2226022 5--=oee see ee 507-17 CDecoarel, lalerd overt hel Ot 2B eek ee eee ey a eee ee Selene 2 1h ee 96 Osteological collections received by Museum ................--.----+--- oe 29 Pearenrand HyOrosen .densiges,OL 25-2. 2622-2 ssn setee wast ee eeee ee 89 P: eres tay aim WVRUSeUnh: sere 3 22 Pk 5 De he ee 26 Paleontological collections received by Museum ....---------.----..------ 29 IP amanmianmunCekvepul op ll@ Olas a. = asin ete Ss oui Se ce ee eee Se 811-826 Reine REO REIN CAN Me meee ae ee pte oT a a ee Se A eee oe Pan-American Exposition, True’s report on exhibit at................._-- 92 Ranken Ver ey entomolccarnpide TUunnace!s 22-285 4255... jo 5s5 yee See ass ee 298 RaGhitinelia Ne collectionsirOM = -52 22 Seen ose. 5 cee ee! see acceee 29 Ea cum ne lee ea = heen Sel ee ye ee Gee. a eee 40 Payne, Henry C., member of Smithsonian establishment ..............--- XIII, 2 Peary, Commander R. E., on field work of Peary Arctic Club ........._--- 427-457 er KoMoeme a ICS als nec Keeees apes Spee Fe Set eee Se ee tie tesa a oe eee 96 BeMMinemineomMrlihtCes LOpOUO OL. 2. sus = 2.2 Sa. San a exces on ode scle een XVI Pernter, J. M., methods of forecasting the weather .....-...........------ 151-165 Eemomocicalnideiss Mealliongevoluionmiol.2=-422-222.2.5202- scseee ele ocee 91 Philippine bureau of agriculture, collection from.........-...........----- 29 EOMCIEMeScAanChes Dy SCMipvules.= oo Meo S552 o6 occ Seas wo os re nee oS 58 8 Eoucdes experimental, by Mek endrick. 2.2.22 2 25-2205. 52. 2. eee 91 PioMetap iy bbe beCimmMines Ol 2/2 5.222o5.252 26 f2.2 6. 2 ese ee ese ee 333-361 Physical tables; Smithsonian, second edition of.........2......-2......-..- 14, 90 JE PSS Saye BUNT oa) 0 i pF aye.t =: 0) C0) ae ea a ey eT SSS 37 Puchene zeronatitical experiments -.- =... 22. 6/2s2 = 2.02 <- 26 -eeecn seen 180 SPS Ne OL etn ce NN fet a eaten ye eee en ree 69 Eats scollectionsireceived by Museum ..---...-.-2-.-.------5------..¢2 30 CiMrCMe Gln Cua se m8 eee Ue oN eee eee 22. l Se 481 Platt, O. H., member of committee on powers of executive committee —__-- XVII, 3 ReseninoMmines mshi UbONeasse a -= ss ose see ee oe XIV, XV, MV, + TEOMA MSpCelal COMMUNITEE Le eA. Veet CM ee RE el oe 2 Ene Ch Aw rayne eeu eeieah eet Pere on ces. me 2 Aen ke s 69 EAOISOU OUSOOL COPS seers eek aor ter: Cee Se Nik eee ee Eye ape ha os 487 [Roo lle ohne NWesle ve se= at Se oe oe Oi ee ee xvu, 34, 44 biopnamliynotes tes sci cice ey ee cre re sete cee ome Se 18-20, 92 CGAL O ete = a ee me ere ee Ree ct erie Reem ome 3, 47 nineteenth annual’report on Bureauof Ethnolozy~.-- 95 IETentiss Ona), ab SmlthsoniameNaples: Table sie22-2 9. — o2- 8. se ose eee 8 Eesencratie: CO PaniAnON a ee Neen cere men ke Ae PE Ge Oe eo ee eae 115-138 Pmesiesy:, Joseph, researches OW Mipht. -— 60.502. ols c cs See cle eee acse 346 Parmiine mmm oers, by icGeer. 202. <2o5 Se 2 kee ee ee se ae wee cash ewan 96 PMO SM eMMeMe CALI OLOLSeCHIC MEALS oa Mines eens eee ee Se ees 89 Problems arising from variations in the development of skull and brains... 647-660 sm 1903 56 872 INDEX. Page. Psychical faculties of ants and some other insects_-...-.........---------- 587-599 Psychological hie. of. animals... - 2a. -ce0us- cee sso Sen es ee ee 5d4 PRublieations. AmericanskistoreslAscociationes == a= =e === ene 96 Astrophysical Observatory. a2 = - ssc e- See ee 95 Bureau ofibthnology.: e222 sae eee ee ee eee 44, 95 FIdltOr S-TeportOns. S255 ssc et ee aoe ee ee ee 89-97 National Museum. -2 421s oeeae Sash aoe ee ene 32, 92 Secretary S'irepoOrtion 2.6.2 eee ee eee eee ae ee 11-15 Simi hsommiam® wees ais txO Lees seers ee ee 90 Pygmies of Great/Congo: Forest 2-2-6 5a see ees oe 91 Pyrheliometer, researches “withiss 222 se vaces- os assoc eee 80 Q. Quarterly issue of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections ....-.--..----.-- 14 R. ‘ Racovitza, Emile G., observations on spouting and’movements of whales... 627-645 Radiation; pressure.due ‘to 2-2 22 sae ae eee ee ne ee eee 115-138 SOlan se eA Be ae See eo ee eee ne eee ee eee ae eee 78-84 1 Revehemnvoyats) Gyeapeelibuno —— 2 2 ee ee Se es Dae ke ae a er 188 Radio-active:emisslons: a226 =< 54 -2oe ee ee a en ee ee 263, 265 QNETPY: - a5 een so Sees at sos Se ee ae ee eee 267 Radio-activity, experiments by Ramsey and Soddy-....---...--.---------- 203-206 of matter. Beequenell Of= =< 5.345262 S58 eee eee 91 Radium, disenveryotts s< Se se eee ae a eee 197 iH; Curie Oniimicteos eae eee eens Boat See eS oe eee 187-198 heatiemitted/iromn 2 2. Soe So saa ee eee eee 193 J. J's7Bhomsomson2 222 se Stes a2 2 oy Se eee ee ee eee 199-201 source of energy: of: ~ ste gas fe eae ee ee ee eee eee 199 Rairden,. B.'S:, specimens frome s+: == seen eee eee eee 27 Ramsay, Sir William, argon discovered by ----.---------- aSirene SSapeeraeetse 89 experiments in radio-activity by..----.:=----------> 203-206 RathbunsMary-J- 2.202 csee Sas oe es soe ae ee ee ee eee ee eee 94 Rathbun; Richard, assistantisecretanyeses= => =e ee XIII reporijonsNationallVitnse nme ee 25-33 Rayleigh; Word;-argon: discovered) py-——-- 2] a2 eee ee ee ee §9 Reclamation(of the, Westas2-== 24 ae 55 (ee ee ee a eee 827-841 Reed), E:C;, collectionstrom.5 .22 2s 5s oe aoe eee z8 Regents, additional: meetingsiol 222-2452 ae ee ee XVUI; 3 organizationrol BoardampliQ032ee—=——eeee eee ee 4 proceedings of meetimg Oh. yse = a ae eee Xv—xiIx, 2, 90 Rehin§, Ji Ave Gis. 2 sc sk RI pe ea ee oe 31 Reich) Emil on Lheodore Momimcen=ss=se eee eee 851-858 Reid; AddisonT., ibequestioficej32c6 eee eee ee ee ee KV Reindeer in Alaska,- by Grosvenob- 4. sessesaa 2 oe ee 92 Relations:of geology, Lapworth on. 5-455), s6 55 oe ee 363-390 Renard and Krebs’s balloon. 25222 4555-2 esse ee ee ee eee eee 174 Reptiles, collections received. bys Vimsetum aise: =s5ee sete s =e ee 28 of the Huachuca MounitainsssAniz ona eee ae ee 93 Rhees, William Jones, list of Smithsonian publications by......----.------ 90 Rhynchota, maternal solicitude imi: 3.5250 = 55 Sere 577 Rice gatherers of the Upper Lakes: 25222255 92-255 22 sat eee 96 —_— ee INDEX. . 873 Page. Richardson. Harriet, on mewaspecies lol isopodiaes =5-sse2e- sae ce eee ae ae 93 Acar Ta 1 Cl ed (6) PY Te SSN pene See ta Ss 2 a aS eo es aoe eee 93, 94 TIGL, SIERO Ss cle sere earls ke acy cd eee aren ey eae eRe lige 32, 33, 95 LETS, GS U1E Di spine eet nee = ste agen a a ya ge 97 es 30 ie tevan Grn WE spHOLoeraphs Ob moons DYyae=s=eese se ceeee ee oe eee eee 13 acer eden Vene GIScOVery OLUltra-WiOle@bmays) a= ase se ee ecco see 393 ea MINOT CAT nC Ollechl ONet@ miley ee mye a iy Se Sees eae Sac Sh cece 29 Roosevelt, Theodore; animals presented by =-2- 3222-2. =52--2---=-----2----- 69 member of Smithsonian establishment......-..----- aoe dL Root, Elihu, member of Smithsonian establishment.............-.-.------- Say INOS) dig INC Soa Saes sa ee ee a ee ean en eee eee Bi}, BH// Ose weer tvannaLanw yall OOM sane meee Ss sce beta S22 Saceies Sass sec ec ase ees 75 owe weOuIsenatinall hn stonyaomeoralle ee sees se sees aoa. see eae eee 92 Rousseau, P., experimental studies on the mental life of animals --..-.---- 545-566 Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, collection from ~-------------+2+--------- 29 Royal Natural History Museum of Stockholm, exchange with -.......-.---- 28 TRTERSSUIL,. VERO he Be end eee eS ae ee ere Sey ee eee 26, 39, 42, 43 Russell, Israel C., on voleanic eruptions on Martinique and St. Vincent ---- Syl HMGMeTOrdssraAGiIMeexsperiMmMents —-----so.c=ssoccees oasne ee oesc ees ses 195, 196 S. Ha tOrdnm i etre ONaG AMANO TtsepeOPlees s=acee- acne = =o bse eie esac ee 91 Pandan, Lenry. painting donated by =. 22-- Lie. 2224 sass tee sot se 3S. 16 SD Opa@ ry, Cana eS AG AS ee A ca a eo eee as A ae ee ee ae 45 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, researches on air and fire.................--..--.- 347 Slave dN oa Sp, VELEN ae A oe a a ee eee ee 45 Semildaebswcollectron@inan wes eee ae ns ae nes See cetaers Ser oe ae Aenean A 28 Sela, dil, Wm THUS Oxia VGN on Gaooe paseo menese Sess secenococ 601-609 Se lnere tenting © ale CSeee ye aps es eine SD eres pe ino A tare ete ic Sc eee ee 30, 94 Schumann, Victor, on absorption and emission of air-..--.--.------------- 89 researches withyspectograph: =2-2<22--.-22252-22--seeeee 210 resultsiof spectrum researches: .. 22.2: 222-28 s225225255- 7 SCH CUn Zam ae ACN een oe eee See Se ey ts oe eee 33, 87 presents library on American coleoptera....-....-----+------ 15 Schwarz and Barber, jist of spiders collected in Arizona by -.------------- 93 SEMUALZ Me alll G Glib seyetn Stee aS tao ope sie lo seals abit 2d Seine Sees isie sieiSie, are 174 Scripture, E. W., phonetic researches under Hodgkins grant -.......-.----.- 8 Stalkers, LECH AIRE SS Fs Se ee tn ee en eee ees 45 Nenepiers ean researches onlight<¢ 5: .2s2.2 222 coos osc 2s sees seb = ese 348 SevCLOMpAOOMM mera men ete ae wes os sccke socceemass cscs s eae cose ee 176 Shaler, N. S., on comparison of features of earth and moon....-.-.-------- 13, 89 reneral description olbhemmoon)-= = -2.---2-22-=-seseeeen se -= 103-113 Shaw, Leslie M., member of Smithsonian establishment--..--..----.-.----- Xin, 28 Shenmanandsbrimley-collectionMrom=-=- sos. -ss2-. 25-66 -=42 22525 eee 28 SHEL MOOG CANOE W set aera so aHe Sek ae as sod Sas bos eae eee sk eee ee ee 29 Siena hozebamamm Obie eases tools aes cu ctae St ge have See eee es 611-625 Sidebottom sd collectionsirouns sss. 5s aseee ss ocleee ssc ese sese= lees 29 Siemens, Sir William, experiments on electric are furnace..-.-...--------- 296-298 Simmson,-Charles) f2.2 <5. 22 555.25 ssh ssscccnsns sos en sesesceas Hse 26 Sjostedt: wneve-B:; on Naples’Table advisory committee 4_-22-=222-----25-ee5-6= 10 Wilson, James, member of Smithsonian establishment -.....-....-..----- Uy Wareless' telegraphiys “Maveron?..c 3-222 o- oaa seine oes Dae ees ae eee 91 Wolcott ekobertacollection irom pseees see eee eer eee eee eee eee eee eee 28 Woliert}s-balloonasio-2< 3.26 2 ee eee ot Sees te eee Cee ee eae 174 Wollaston, J. H., investigation of ultra-violet rays .-....-.--------------- 356 WOO STE Sirsa Se epee ee a ae See SP Sa oe 45 Woodburn; James Albert S425 255500 oes ee ooo ree Oe eee eee eee 96 Woodworth: nAs collectionttiromesssss]seeetee see eee eee eee eee 28 Woolsey; Theodore'S 255-2 atone cote e sence eee een Soci eee eee ee 96 Wirlehtvdeonltherelectrictunmeances seme sean se ae eter ete eee 295-310 Wright, Wilbur, acronautical-experimentsby 2..5..222- =. 22-5 22-- eee 90, 179, 180 Wi oun pscb ss Ge sass ee ss oe Ss Se ae ie ee waa eS eae tee 96 Young, John hss. cect. jseeas 5S ais so aoe nes a ee ae ee eee ee eee 69 Z. Zeppelin air ship -.---.----- Jo eee an Ee ee oer 174 Ziegler, collection from. 2 355 322285 26 255 Ga oee se See ee 31 Zoolovicalcollectionsimeceivedsby Museu ==s=ese==eese ees ee eee eee eaee 27 Zoology, Howes'on recent progress:in_2-- 2-22 =e ees eee e nese 92 Zuni Indians; researches among... s-see- eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee 36 planitss.c sacs 22de cog ee Se eee Saat eee eee ee eee 37 —~eT ; 1 . = M *. A f whys > \ : r . : i ; ee | e a 5 f “ q = : oe om os