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PSPC RISE ROMER DOOR PELOCUEEECEOR ARAL PUTTY LInTR EDIRC ISU STEER CEAES PSR POUR INNER RIAR SER Vine ERAS CRR RD TE LINE RELY IARRAEER EERE ER RL PeeIUD LRP ERRER LOSES aE ODOR ea daal Sreerhi ye VRS E Een Pine Cnn eeceDOTLATE Ede a eeR aaa CHAT PVTIRS FERN XURER A EAR ISS Len WEPEUETINT TIRES COURIER ROS EP RES Sete LETT AT eLERREETIOLAEL EDD OODLE Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson a ie 5 4 ] 7 E THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. AN TELUSTRA TED: MONTHLY EDITOR; JOHN HYDE ASSOCIATE EDITORS A. W.. GREELY W J McGEE HENRY GANNETT C. HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE VOD VI Y RAR 199% WASHINGTON THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1897 “Bt ASOW Ay Nov 9 1981 LIBRARIES CONTENTS The Gold Coast, Ashanti, and Kumassi; by Grorce K. Frexcu.... 1 All around the Bay of Passamaquoddy ; by Atperr S. Garscner.... 16 Return of the Hourst Niger Expedition; by Ernest pe SAsseviLie.. 24 adermpuie seninis® (EIENRY GANNETT]. .......0...00cecccceees es Be, RORTA DOIG NOLES oo... iocie pc ebls uc aloe ees MFR ota RIG a PM eine 26 DOTS RSTO Do ete oS a ee aed a 27 Proceedings of the National Geographic Society.................4-- 28 The National Geographic Society : Synopsis of a course of lectures on the effects of geographic environment in developing the civiliza- Honrominer world) GARDINER G. HUBBARD ..3.. «01sec e.+e see 29 enw Kes OTCCOD GMD ds Os IGRI Gar. s)ecsie cet oe traces e sete @ 33 The Utilization of the vacant Public Lands; by Emory F. Besr.... 49 me Mazainas > 0. S. DIcueR, ..... 6. .0... PN amie ie td nae 58 Geographic Literature (Elementary Geology, Tarr; The inet of Erosion Due to Forest Destruction ; Preliminary Report on the Income Account of Railways in the United States ; Virginia Car- ROME ema S rae i yeti ete kieran le ycisiels aerate cieiecle. le tre.a aie 59 Geographic Serials; [Henry GANNeTT]............. RNs Bal ON racy : ono Proceedings of the National Geographic Society... .... oe a Ura nee 63 eae IE EE ee I 8 LAT hale Casta Ss B10 Weak Nitin e veue hs 64 Storms and Weather Forecasts ; by Witiis L. Moore... ..... ..... 65 Rubber Forests of Nicaragua and Sierra Leone; by A. W. Greety.. 83 Recent Explorations in Equatorial Africa ; ERNEST DE SASSEVILLE. 88 Geographic Literature (Laboratory Pri dence for Beginners in Botan Setchell; An Introduction to Geology, Scott)............. ..... 91 Geographic Serials ; [Henry GANNeETr]..........- GERRI Stee Ae 92 Proceedings of the National Geographic Society.................045 94 Geographic Notes...... PUREE caw ve tots ae caesteeke MIR Pa Cetra tr mg oe islsy nace 95 A Summer Voyage to the miei by G. R. Purnam. . 97 Area and Drainage Basin of Lake Peas by Man W. Hs ARRING- TONS as. Gratuite fe Lo eed AO Vp ER ELE EP EDICT A PR Re Cane Aer: li The Siberian ia epoiakitien tal Ratlroardiss Aveo GREEDY: . <4 «srs oes 121 Geographic Literature (Glaciers of North America, Russell; A Treatise on Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, Merrill)................ 124 Geographic Serials; [Henry GANNETT]..............66. Gees kVabs 127 Proceedings of the National Geographic Society ...... ..........--- 128 A Winter Voyage throughrthe Straits of Magellan ; by R. W. Mrapr. 129 Mamiire ise. Meade; b. Ss. N.; [JOHN ELYDE). . 050.05. 2 seen seen 142 Wosis tries: Ny RIGkRDO VINLAFRANCAL.. «6 esc e ce kes ev ane wees 143 Applied Physiography in South Carolina; by L. C. GLENN..... Coswloe Sheik Sad ssURNESDEDE) SASSEVILLE, s) ciclo Rye else ths aie chennai eae 230 Modification of the Great Lakes by Earth Movement; by G. K. GIDBER TS 555 ci scisiac sis bse Riciera es 7 oid oie dare ehaten ce aU ea 233 The Toronto Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement Of Science ;. [JOHN ELYDE]e.-'s > S458 ha ccerctateei eee 247 The Great Unmapped Areas on the Earth’s Surface Awaiting the Ex- plorer and Geographer; by J. Scorr Keitin.............-...<- 251 The Compass in Modern Navigation; by G. W. Lurruenabes.. ..... 266 ihe jnochanted Mesa: by k.. W. HODGE... 5 ta.icar ser eee 273 lectrie Street Railways; [Jorn Elyprl) . 22 c)s cr st cei eeenaeneee 284 Geographical Research in the United States; by GARDINER G. ae BARD ANG WEARCUS BAKER)... 4s )p.ce:seeield shale Minis te ee nea ae eae 285 A Brief Account of the Geographic Work of the U. 8. Coast and Geo- detic Survey ; by T. C. Menpennani and Orro H. Trrrmann.... 294 United States Daily Atmospheric Survey ; by Wiiiis L. Moorr..... 299 Geographic NOTES). f.1 25) Uk ak banter: ee ee eee . 3804 Pateonias by J). Bs ELATOMER: {i3u do2 3d. etalk ae ee 305 Hatcher's: Workin! Patagoma:: [|W od McGrm|i ..025.- se eee 319 (he Sushitna River Alaska? by Wi. A... Dickey... 2c ce eee eee $22 A Winter Weather Record from the Klondike Region ; by E. W. Net- SON.. Cr aiechateatesien falar fab stale Karbh «eal diya" Gis amas 22. atti ca a ae eee 327 The ignesiin Census of 1897; [A. W. GREEDY) ijn dik ae ee ee 335 The Washington Aqueduct and Cabin John Bridge; by D. D. Gatt- TANI}. 5: Ansara Yay sveroread eeu Tanttverate tlscopac ash atoe | Seay ecg yee ae ty Ste eee ae 308 Gardiner Greene Hubbard; [JoHn iy pe les; 2. snes cee eee 345 Pollution of the Potomac River; by F. H. Newer. ............-- . 346 The Delta of the Mississippi River; by E. L. Corrmen............- aol ihe-Annexation Mever; Henry GaNNert ... sera. seer eee B04 Sir John Evans and Prof. W J McGee; [Jonn Hypr].. ..........- 308 Some Recent Geographic Events; [Joun Hype]...... Jevele 3 Se eS Geacraphie Waiteratures 2s) oiicis oo cle eeaeeeee Ieee kere Ma oe aloe Proceedings of the National Geographic Society ..............-..-.- 365 Generac: Notes i. ie tis ei, cc 5 act coer oiseay cs nee ean a ee 367 At ovoVe>: suc thacask nace bd eoviees srw al wlavcha’m Srocck Slaw rhe 33 Map showing routes to Crater lake.............. doom tanreyere re ile raan's iite 35 MMRNN CONN MMR aE ee Se Se I~ cae! eigiatNG ade Pea Viate, Ste Sale ate oa a Bawa viotent 36 me MAGE CTE INORG ie Roe) si as, cals eh Gp Ss dnd tng eek cig hua wimg 38 EAC MATING OO GAUGE DICE os! au s'onids tdie's wiis'eloe Seis c's» a aaare oe 39 POMUMERNISMONE Ol OLALET LAKE, 2. ciluls sate S/olsaieie leit is oie oes «ssa tes 3 nection of Crater lake and Mount Mazama.................000000. 45 OMIM OM VIAETO ISIATIO: osc. vik cad oye wcisis e.g cuales baw eed awuce are oe 47 OUR gie SSDI 9 Si CoS 7) ha 05 AR a 72 Nae aE Did eee AA ILL PO Noe cl wn. aie 2 MASS «ao 0.08 Mcblb’a « vi blaree ave oheiaats 73 MEIN IRIG MAM (OI fie. gsc ata e ned b ve cowed ae eaeus vice Gua 74 EAE SERS SACS nya Uo fol Gol OR) ag ee Ra 74 SPN SR PE Wes PEAR EHC iar sic Box S's «ras em don Gt w4 rdw oe als la aed 6 Biase sal abe tae 74 NIN UIE) tree, Gir k Neila Sib op walbe se oars e atten 76 na aM eT UREA EE ook fea oki ciao clate ss wins @ ftIAs ere eas Hee eRe S gees ewe 77 hog HUES. TIS) 40] Bi) OS a ALE 77 MePMMME ELUM TNC AL Ory F's) L- 2 oa 'e tre. sie's Wiel alecgle oxy a/dle aa vig neptos onal em 77 Mold wave, 1660 (pl. UL) ee ce ce se Hee TON, astare nen eM tere Ne 77 PR WAV GH UBOON GOL U2 Nes. cate wei dae Pen Sale Re teres’ Kivi «Ea Syas e S ami oh ae DROME OUUO I ag ioe ce nid ect ee ots «2 ais ghet Pd bos clogs Ainley nies 77 Ol Waver LEGO (OU TAY Soca) sess kes eae ete pL kl tah a na Per 77 Tornadovwat Louisville, (pl. 1d)... 35... . 60. UT rettates eaceanawe eu tat Nich eee 78 SO iea eet es ECU ates MURAL POLO NG Jats a. 2 oh ialele a. Gu ie Ser ncse aldo ors aces wi\iigye ie cle 78 Dares Pet Nana ROMER OUTLG NGI L gi) 'c%= ore > 5 cep-mpn Oe GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS patie hostile tribes of wild Tuaregs were visited and friendly intercourse established (this was due mainly to Father Hacquard) ; not a man, white or black, has been killed; in fact, not a shot was fired (this is character- istic of French explorations anyhow), and the five men returned safe and sound. The maps which they bring will soon be published. The party, in three boats, descended the Niger from Timbuktu to its mouth, in spite of the rapids of Bussa, always declared impassable by the English Royal Niger Company. One of the boats was of aluminum and the other two were dug-outs. An interesting and amusing incident of the trip is told as follows: When the celebrated Barth visited that part of the Sudan he was ac- companied by a Tuareg interpreter called Backhay, who saved Barth’s life. When the great traveler left, Backhay prophesied that a son of Barth would some day visit the Sudan. Accordingly when Hourst ap- peared he was asked whether he was not Barth’s son, and the lieutenant, not knowing just what that meant, said that he was Barth’s nephew. When the history of the western Sudan is written up the Hourst expe- dition will certainly receive more than a passing notice. Ernest DE SASSEVILLE. GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS The Geographical Journal for November contains a valuable paper by Major Leonard Darwin on Railways in Africa, in which the author sug- gests the railway system necessary to supplement the facilities afforded by the rivers for commerce. It contains also the narrative of a Journey around Siam, by J. S. Black, of a Journey in the Valley of the Upper Euphrates, by Vincent W. Yorke, and from Teheran towards the Caspian, by Lieut. Col. Henry L. Wells. There is also a review of De Morgan's Mission Scientifique to Persia, by Major General Sir Frederick J. Gold- smid. The December number isa notable one. It begins with the presi- dential address of Sir Clements Markham. Arthur Montefiore Brice con- tributes a long and extremely interesting article summarizing the work done by the Jackson-Harmsworth Polar Expedition during the last year. It is accompanied by a map summarizing the discoveries made by this expedition. Prince Henri d’Orleans gives the narrative of his journey from Tonkin to Assam. Commander H. E. Purey-Cust describes the Eruption of Ambrym Island in the New Hebrides in 1894. This article is accompanied by maps and illustrations. Other articles are ‘‘An At- tempt to Reconstruct the Maps Used by Herodotus” and “‘ The Surface of the Sea and the Weather.” The Scottish Geographical Magazine for November contains notes on the Yukon country, and particularly that part of it which adjoins the bound- ary between Canada and Alaska, including the Forty Mile district, and the region about Juneau, by Alexander Begg. The subject of geograph- ical education is continued by Prof. A. J. Herbertson. Much prominence has been given to this subject by the Scottish Magazine in its recent ; 26 GEOGRAPHIC NOTES issues. The December number contains an article by W. Eagle Clarke on Bird Migration in the British Isles. The most important article is one summarizing the work of M. V. L. Seroshevski on the Country of the Yakuts—i. e., northern Siberia. It is an admirably condensed descrip- tion of a little-known region. The quarterly Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for October opens with an article by Prof. I. C. Russell, of the University of Michi- gan, entitled ‘‘ Mountaineering in Alaska,” which is in substance an ac- count of the author’s last trip to the St Elias region. The bulletin also contains an article by Franz Boas on the Indians of British Columbia and on a Graphic History of the United States by Henry Gannett. Appalachia, the journal of the Appalachian Mountain Club, devotes a large part of its November number to Philip 8. Abbot, one of its mem- bers, whose lamented death in the Canadian Rockies was noticed in THE NaTionAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for the same month. Other articles are entitled ‘“‘Ascents near Saas, Switzerland,” ‘‘ Grand ,Cafion of the Tuo- lumne,” ‘‘ Exploration of the Air,” and ‘‘ Notes on a recent Visit to Katahdin.” He Ge GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 3 ; NORTH AMERICA Canapa. Of the 21,341 immigrants who arrived in Canada last year, 14,197 declared their intention to settle in the Dominion. Mexico. The coffee crop of 1895 amounted to 24,100 tons, of which Oaxaca furnished 9,610, Veracruz 8,817, Chiapas 1,962, and Puebla 1,256 tons. These four states have doubled their production since 1892, and they contribute 90 per cent of the entire crop. The best Mexican coffee is a variety of mocha, and the second best, known as myrtle, is similar to java. Trees in full bearing yield on an average about 24 ounces of coffee per annum, but some run as high as 60 to 80 ounces. The methods of curing and the quality of the product are steadily improving. SOUTH AMERICA The ascent of Aconcagua, the highest summit of the Andes, is being attempted by a scientific expedition under the direction of Mr E. A. Fitz- gerald, who recently returned from his explorations in the New Zealand alps. The exploring party are well equipped, the sum of £5,000 having been made available for the expedition. ARGENTINA. A recent report of the Argentine Census Bureau shows the de facto population of the republic on May 10, 1895, to have been 4,042,990, to which number an addition of 50,000 is made for persons temporarily absent from the country. This shows an average annual increase of 4.6 per cent since 1869. The vity of Buenos Ayres contains 663,854 inhabi- tants, of whom 345,393 are foreigners. MISCELLANEA 27 EUROPE Enaianp. Dr Nansen’s lectures are attracting large audiences, not- withstanding the very high prices charged for admission. Although the traffic receipts of the Manchester ship canal for 1896 show a large increase over those for 1895, the diversion of trade has made no appreciable impression upon the revenues of the port of Liverpool. France. The Paris Academy of Sciences has awarded one of the two Arago medals to M. D. Abadie, the Abyssinian explorer, and a prize to Prince Henry of Orleans for his explorations. GERMANY. 7,931 steamships and 9,023 sailing vessels passed through the North Sea and Baltic canal during its first year. The receipts from tolls fell far short of the official estimates. ASIA Japan. The German consul at Yokohama reports that a general rise in the cost of living as well as in the scale of wages is already decreasing the danger of Japanese industrial competition with European nations. Inpra. The production of coal has increased 55 per cent in a single year and has almost quadrupled in tenyears. The imports are also in- creasing rapidly, and as coal is not used for domestic purposes, its increas- ing consumption points to that expansion of manufacturing industries of which there are so many other indications. An illustration of the maxim that the trade follows the flag is found in the fact that 86 per cent of the tonnage that entered the ports of India last year was British. AFRICA TRANSVAAL. It is believed that of the public revenue for the current year, estimated at £4,462,193, the Uitlanders will pay £3,500,000. Wrst Arnica. Telegraphic dispatches announce that ex-King Prempeh and his relatives and attendants have been removed to Sierra Leone. — A British officer has just returned from an important mission, occupy- ing five months, to the north and northwest of Kumassi, having traversed the entire distance of 900 miles on foot. He reports the country as ex- ceedingly rich in mineral and vegetable products, gold, rubber, kola-nuts, and mahogany being abundant. MISCELLANEA In a paper read last month before the Royal Geographical Society, Col. J. K. Trotter, R. A., who was the principal British officer of the Anglo- French Delimitation Commission appointed in 1895, stated that the com- mission were disappointed at finding the sources of the Niger at so low an elevation, the highest recorded being 3,379 feet. The adjacent coun- try was mountainous, but none of the summits exceeded 5,000 feet. The Proceedings and Transactions of the Queensland Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia contain, among other articles, 28 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY a Résumé of Capt. Cook’s First Voyage Around the World, by Gen. Sir Henry W. Norman; a summary history of Arctic exploration, by Major A. J. Boyd, and the narrative of Capt. G. A. Tennefather ; Aly Explora- tion of the Coen, Archer, and Batavia Rivers and of the islands of the » western coast of Karpantaria, by the same author. } The Weather Bureau has recently issued Part 3 of the Report of the International Meteorological Congress held at Chicago in 1893, in connection with the World’s Columbian Exposition. It contains Brice papers upon the climates of yarious parts of the world, commencing with that of the United States, by Prof. H. A. Hazen. Under the title of ‘ Instruments and Methods of Investigation” are described many of the latest adapta- tions of instruments for special work, including ‘‘ Observations of Solar Radiation” and ‘‘ The Study of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Bal- loons, from Mountain Stations, and from Cloud Observations.” PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. SOCIETY,*SESSION 1896-97 Special Meeting, December 4, 1896.—President Hubbard in the chair. Admiral R. W. Meade, U.S. N., delivered an address, with lantern-slide illustrations, descriptive of a TVG Voyage through the Straits of Ma- gellan, with Visits to Rio Janeiro and Valparaiso. Regular Meeting, December 11, 1896.—President Hubbard in the chair. President David Starr Jordan, Ph. D., of the Leland Stanford Junior University, read a narrative entitled “Matka: a Story of the Mist Islands.”’ This story, the life history of a fur-seal family (the members half personi- fied), was followed by a series of lantern-slide illustrations of scenes in the Pribilof islands. Special Meeting, December 18, 1896.—Secretary. Hayden in the chair. Geo. M. Sternberg, M. D., LL. D., Surgeon-General. of the Army, read a paper on the Etiology and Geographic Distribution of Infectious Diseases, afterwards exhibiting a series of lantern-slides illustrative of the subject. Exections.—New members have been elected as follows: November 25.—G. W. Bacon, F.R.G.S., Gen. Samuel Breck, U.S. A., Col. Chas. Chaillé-Long, A. W. Cowles, Prof. Thomas Davidson, Walter R. Dayies, J. P. Earnest, Col. M. J. Foote, Henry 8. Graves, Lieut. T. D. Griffen, U.S.N., Mrs Bella Kilbourn-Bourgeat, Miss Elizabeth A. Riley, F. P. Schumann, C. F., Mrs Emma Triepel, Miss Alice Twight, M. Gregory de Vollant (Russian Legation), Geo. H. Warner, John H. White. December 11.—Dr Aaron Baldwin, John S. Blair, Prof. Frank M. Com- stock, Dr Ira W. Dennison, Rey. Geos A. Dougherty, Dr L. W. Eugster, Fred. L. Fishback, Senor Don Domingo Gana (Chilean Minister), Prof. Wm. H. Goodyear, Lee R. Grabill, C. E., Miss Edith S. Hancock, Hon. M. A. Hanna, Henry L. Haven, John J. Heron, Hon. 8. G. Hilborn, GEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION 29 M. C., R. H. Hood, David Huteheson, Henry Clay Johnson, William D. Kelly, Miss Mary A. Law, Capt. S: C. Lemly, U.-S. N., J. E. Luckett, Col. Geo. G. Martin, Wm. W. Neifert, Lieut. H. C. Poundstone, U.S. N., L. M. Prindle, Hon. Redfield Proctor, U. 8. S., Mr von Reichenau (Ger- man Embassy), Bushrod Robinson, Sefor Don J. D. Rodriguez (Minister, Greater Republic of Central America), Geo. Otis Smith, Prof. A. W. Span- hoofd, T. W. Stanton, John J. Stephens, Capt. C. A. Stevens, Dr Chas. Swisher, Lt. Comdr. E. D. Taussig, U. 8. N., Hon. E. O. Wolcott, U.S. S. December 30.—Geo. H. Baker, Jas. A. Barwick, Marcus W. Bates, John D. Blagden, W. L. Blunt, H. B. Boyer, A. von Breuning, Prof. J. P. Byrne, Henry Calver, Prof. R. A. Dobie, Dr Geo. A. Dorsey, Prof. J. Fairbanks, Count A. Goetzen (German Embassy), Prof. R. R. N. Gould, Arpad Gross- mann, Hon. F. M. Hatch (Hawaiian Minister), Edwin B. Hay, Med. Director A. A., Hoehling, U. S. N., Corliss W. Lay, Prof. E. H. Mark, Frank E. Pyne, Prof. A. W. Riggs, James A. Scott, Dr Z. X. Snyder, Joseph Stewart. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY _ SYNOPSIS OF A COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING THE CIVILIZATION OF THE WORLD The National Geographic Society has for several seasons given three courses of lectures, a technical course and two popular courses; the former by officers of the Army and Navy and distinguishéd scientists in different departments of the Government, the latter by leading exponents of origi- nal investigation of subjects pertaining to geographic research. It is the intention that each speaker in the popular course shall be a recognized authority on the subject treated by him, and that each lecture shall be illustrated by stereopticon views, which have been found to add not only to the interest but also to the value of the lectures. The average attendance at the popular lectures has increased steadily from 500 in 1893-94 to 800 in 1894-95, and to 1,000 in 1895-96. The audience is composed of members of the Society and their friends, com- prising many of the most cultured residents of Washington, senators and representatives, scientists and students. The second course of lectures has been held on Monday afternoons. Two years ago the subject was a trip over the Northern Pacific Railroad to the Pacific ocean, returning via San Francisco, the cafions of the Colorado, and the Rocky mountains, Last year it was a trip through Canada and the inland passage to Alaska. Kor the popular course of 1896-97 the subject selected is the effects of geographic envirenment in developing the civilization of the world, The course opens with prehistoric man and the beginnings of history, and passes on to the period of our earliest definite knowledge in those countries where the history of our race begins. At this epoch geographic 30 GEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION environment exercised a controlling influence on life, character, insti- tutions, and religion; it was the primary if not the sole cause of de- velopment in the transition of man from savagery through barbarism to civilization. The same cause continued to influence the successive stages of civilization, though as man advanced in knowledge and intelligence he became more and more independent of his surroundings. Even now .they influence him in various ways. The first lecture will be of a general character, showing prehistoric man, the beginnings of industries (such as agriculture and the domestica- tion of animals), of institutions and religion, and of the acquisition of real and personal property, and will be delivered by the President of the Society. ; We look for the earliest civilization where the environment was most favorable, as in Babylonia and Egypt, and possibly in China. The tran- sition of man from barbarism to partial civilization in these countries probably originated at about the same time, and therefore the second lecture will be on Babylonia, where the environment is in some respects more marked than in Egypt or China. In the rich valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates men were first gathered into great cities under the rule of a despot who was above all humanity, the representative only of him- selfandof God. Here the family seems to have become obsolete, all rights undefined, personal and civil liberty unknown, for there were only two classes, the master and slave. Yet here we find the first great library, hanging gardens, and magnificent architecture. This lecture will tell us of the development of the city, library, and architecture, and of the rule of the despot, and will be delivered by Mr Talcott Williams, of the Philadelphia Press, a gentleman born in Mesopo- tamia and well acquainted with the country and its inhabitants. The third lecture will be on Syria. In Syria we have an entirely dif- ferent geographic environment, developing different institutions and religious beliefs, with a nationality and history of a different type. The Semites, probably Bedouins, came from the desert of Arabia, a country as unlike the valley of the Euphrates as the people of the two countries are unlike each other. In these deserts originated the ideas of humanity and charity, and a religion tending to monotheism. The chiefs or rulers of the nomad clans were patriarchs, like Abraham and Jacob, wandering over the desert. Although their civilization was in some respects and for a long time inferior to that of the Babylonians, yet they had a love of freedom and manly character unknown in the despotisms of the Eu- phrates and Nile. While they estimated the value of the life of the indi- vidual higher than did the Assyrian, yet even here personal liberty, as we understand it, did not exist, as every man belonged to a family group and was subject to its head, and every family to its clan. This lecture will trace the development of the family, monotheism, and the Jewish nation, and will be delivered by Prof. Thomas J. Shahan, LL. D., of the Catholic University of America. The fourth lecture will be on Tyre and Sidon, cities which derived their civilization from Assyria. Here we find a third condition of environ- ment—mountains behind, the sea in front—evolving a higher civilization. GEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION 51 Life on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean led the inhabitants to find in commerce prosperity, wealth, and civilization. Their ships followed along the coast, then gradually sailed out into the Mediterranean, on through the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic, and north to England; the ships of Tarshish sailed south, through the Red sea, into the Indian ocean, south of Africa, and they may even have circumnavigated that continent. This lecture will show the development of commerce and shipping; the origin and growth of colonies, exemplified by Carthage, Sicily, and Spain, and will be delivered by Prof. Thomas Davidson, M. A., of Aber- deen University, Scotland. Fifth lecture—Greece. Tyre and Sidon gave to Greece all their knowl- edge. There it was developed by different geographic conditions. The two great races of the world—the Semitic and the Aryan—differed in their environment as in their institutions and habits. In Syria was monotheism, in Greece unlimited polytheism. The language and coun- try of the Grecian Aryan were more favorable than those of the Semite in Syria. Their mountains, inclosing numerous small valleys, the islands and seas of Greece, its beautiful climate and luxuriant soil, developed a people different in their institutions, their government, arts, and sciences from any that ever existed, either before or since, and gave the world the first idea of personal liberty of the individual man. As no other nation ever showed such rapid development, such early maturity, so no other people ever had such a rapid decline without renaissance. The lecture will show the causes for this wonderful development and early decay, and will be delivered by Prof. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, LL. D., of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, professor in the American School of Archeology at Athens, 1895-96. Sixth lecture—Rome. The Seven Hills, one densely wooded, the river Tiber, and the rich valley and plain around made the environment of Rome, and secured Romulus and his band of freebooters from attack, while they easily invaded the country of their neighbor. In Rome the civilizations of the old world met, and from this union a broader culture was developed, upon which modern civilization was founded. By the conquest of Italy, Greece, Egypt, Syria, and Assyria, Rome obtained from each what was best adapted to its needs—arts and letters from Greece, agri- culture from Egypt, commerce and colonization from Tyre; from Syria and Arabia, monotheism and science; from Assyria, imperial govern- ment. The lecture will show the conditions and causes that led to this expansion of Rome, slowly and steadily extending its dominion until it embraced in its empire the whole of the known world. From Rome came law, authority, and power, with a dominion so wide and powerful that in any part of the world a man could say with the Apostle Paul, “I am a Roman citizen,” and thus secure protection. Freeman truly says: ‘‘None but those who have grasped the place of Rome in history can ever fully understand the age in which we live.” By Rev. Alex. Mackay- Smith, D. D., of Washington, D. C. Seventh lecture—Constantinople. The culture and civilization of Rome were carried to Constantinople by Constantine. The geographic position 32 GEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION of this city is more commanding than that of any other city. Seated on two continents, the connecting link between the Orient and Europe, mistress of the seas, glorious in situation, the desired of many nations, we behold environments which caused its rise and continued existence. Weare not surprised that this city has been the seat of a government longer than any other that ever existed, and has enjoyed a continuity and concentration of imperial rule in an imperial city without parallel in the history of mankind. By Prof. Edwin A. Grosvenor, of Amherst College, Amherst, Massachusetts, formerly of Roberts College, Constantinople. Kighth lecture—Venice and Genoa. When the rule of Constantinople passed from the Christians to the Mohammedans, on the ruins of the old world rose these two cities, fitted by their geographic environment to take up the civilization of the old world and to develop that of modern Europe—two cities unlike any other cities of Europe, each supreme within its small territory, owing no feaity to any sovereign outside its own district, each deriving power and wealth from the control of the sea. In their conditions of environment on the Mediterranean, with colonies in the Crimea and in Asia Minor, with easy access to the interior of Europe, we find the causes which led to the increase of their population and wealth, to the expansion of their commerce and’ their territorial possessions. When these are known we understand the part they bore in the awakening of the world from the torpor of the Dark Ages, opening the way to the new world, and to the renaissance of commerce, literature, arts, and science. By Prof. Wiliara H. Sey, of the Brooklyn Insti- tute of Arts and Sciences. Ninth, lecture—A merica. From the Old World we pass to the New, ‘America, where the Puritans of Plymouth and Massachusetts bay, the nie al soumers of New Amsterdam, the Quakers of Pennsylvania, the _ Catholics of Baltimore, and the Blorakas of Virginia all unconsciously laid the foundation of a unique empire. Their descendants have spread over the whole land and mingled with the best class of emigrants from every country of Europe, and are the progenitors of a new race. All geographic environments have become subservient to’ the will of the people, from ocean to ocean, from the waters of the Hudson to the waters of the gulf of Mexico, one people and one language, an American race, an empire vaster than that of Rome, home of all the nations of the world, welded into one great and free syncs The lectures will be neither historical nor scholastic treatises, but general accounts of the several nations and cities in popular lonenees Sto) arranged as to show how largely their development depended on natural causes, including their geographic environment, until we come to the New World, where the envir onments become subservient to man and not man to his environments. With this exception, it suffices to indicate only the general scope of the lectures, leaving to each lecturer perfect freedom to treat his subject in his own manner, ever bearing in mind the effect of geographic environ- ment on the continuous development of civilization from one nation to another through the centuries. . ; GARDINER G. HuBBarp. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE IN DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WHIST, STRAIGHT WHIST AND EUCHRE, ‘Since Duplicate and Com- ass Whist have come into fashion there has been an | unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to Mi fact that mere /zck is to a large extent eliminated by acomparison of the scores made in the play of the same hands by different players. The one thing needed to ect the new method has i a convenient device by means of which the score made on the first round can be concealed until after the splay of the hands, as a knowlege of the first score en enables a good player tomake a decisive gain, and matches are lost aud won on just such little chances. Cosmos Duplicate Whist Score COMPaSS WHEHIST | DUPLICATE WHIST HAND WinNi- A:nih:wit A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). ©: o:n _ Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,” prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. a CI = wo = = “Ts a fa - id 5 3 Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch , and metal in either gold” or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at an | Stationer’s, or order direct frau the General Agents. E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. a. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Cr ©) ae en fread ~UHESAPEAKT: * = MNO ROUTE. ““The Rhine, the Alps and the Battlefield Line.” THE FAMOUS FRY/ LIMITED FAST FLYING VIRGINIAN IS THE ONLY SOLID Manatee ED ‘IRAIN, SANS Aen ee STEAM-HEHATED, TH THROUGH DINING C BETWEEN NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, BALTIMORE, WASHINGTON AND - CINCINNATI, LOUISVILLE, ST. LOUIS, CHICAGO, AND THE WEST, OBSERVATION CAR ATTACHED. H. W. FULLER, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D. C. i Mutual Life Insurance Company OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, IS % The Largest and Best Life Insurance Company in the World, x Assets over $220,000,000. The Mutual Life has Paid since Organization ‘ . Over: $388,440,897 to Policy- ‘Golder _ The New Instalment Policy issued by this Company is admirably adapted to the wants of the Insuring Public. EVERY DESIRABLE FORM OF POLICY IS ISSUED BY THE MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY OF NEW YORK. ~~, x NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST #¢+%+%+2 SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all te the commercial centers of the South and Southwest ae DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS .. BETWEEN... Washington and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlauta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and Galveston via Atlanta, Montgomery and New Orleans. Washington and Birmingham via Lyne hburg, | Charlotte and Atlanta. Norfolk ana Chattanooga Via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleepers—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers .... The direct line to the ( FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts of | - - + »« MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘‘ The Land of the Sky.”’ Write for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, General Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. C. WM. HENRY TAYLOE, District Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. THE SHORTEST, QUICKEST, MOST ATTRACTIVE ROUTE IS BY THE LINES OPERATED OVER THE Florida Central & Peninsular R. R. THE FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR RAILROAD begins on the north at Columbia, runs through Savannah, Jacksonville, Ocala, fampa, Fernandina, Gainesville, Orlando, and Tallahassee. It is the direct route to take for St. Augustine, Lake Worth, and all East Coast points; for Miami, Key West, and Nassau; also for points on the Gulf of Mexico and Havana and for all the principal interior points in Florida. Three trains daily from New York during the tourist season, passing through Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. One of the finest trains in the country is the NEW YORK AND FLORIDA LIMITED, with ._Compartment Cars, Pullman Sleepers, Observation Cars, Dining Cars, and Passenger Coaches. This ees? New York at 12.10 noon and arrives at Jacksonville at 3.30 p. m. next day, St. Augustine at The CINCINNATI AND FLORIDA LIMITED, another very elegant vestibuled train, makes oe run in about 24 hours between Cincinnati and Jacksonville, via Chattanooga, Atlanta, Macon, and verett. The ASHEVILLE ROUTE is the scenic route (over the Carolina mountains) between Cincin- nati and Jacksonville, via Knoxville, the Mountain Resorts, Columbia, and Savannah. ; The KANSAS CLTY through car route is by this road, via Fort Scott, Memphis, Holly Springs, Birmingham, Atlanta and*Everett. : The NEW ORLEANS through sleeper route runs from New Orleans by Pensacola on this route and via the beautiful Middle Florida Country. Remember that the LORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR does not only go to Jack- sonville, but distributes Bt i by close connections all over the State. : Get THE BEST INDEXED MAP OF FLORIDA from any of our agents or from the General Passenger Agent. J. L. ADAMS, Genl. Eastern Agt., W. B. PENNINGTON, Genl. Western Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. 417 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, O. WALTER G. COLEMAN, Genl. Trav. Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. N. S. PENNINGTON, Traffic Manager, A. O..MacDONELL, Genl. Pass. Agt., Jacksonville, Fla. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE “FROM FROST TO FLOWERS.”’ “Ge Ghariot... ... Of the Sun” SUNSET LIMITED is the Southern Pacific’s great train, running through solid from New Orleans to the Pacific Coast. SUNSET LIMITED leaves New Orleans every Monday and Thursday, at to o’clock in the morning. | SUNSET LIMITED covers the 2006 miles to Los Angeles in 58 hours, and the 2489 to San Francisco in 75 hours. SUNSET LIMITED is vestibuled throughout, steam heated and gas lighted. SUNSET LIMITED has a ladies’ parlor the full width and a third the length of a car, equipped with fine library, escritoire and writing materials, large easy chairs, etc. SUNSET LIMITED has an equally commodious smoking and reading room for gentlemen, supplied in a similar manner. SUNSET LIMITED has bath room, barber shop and _ buffet—luxuries the tourist will appreciate. SUNSET LIMITED has a car containing seven drawing rooms, which can be used separately or ex suzte, each having private lavatory and toilet facilities. Fe SUNSET LIMITED has a sumptuous diner, which goes through with it and in which meals are served @ Ja carte. SUNSET LIMITED is accompanied by a maid whose services are at the disposition of lady passengers. SUNSET LIMITED traverses a road where snow never falls and blockades and blizzards are unknown, and through a region of marvelous interest. SUNSET LIMITED is at your service, and any Southern Pacific Agent will be glad to tell you all about it, or if you want to know more, send 10 cents in stamps to the General Passenger Agent, and a beautiful book of 205 pages, that will tell you all about the route, will be sent you. S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger and Ticket Agent, NEW ORLEANS, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE National Geographic Monographs On the PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - -:) GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - ~J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATE Ss - BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prof. N.S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - . C. Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - py S/Diller . THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - = 2 : - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. ee 54 arden Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati . Chicago The Rates FOR ADVERTISING in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE will be furnished on Application to the Manacer, No. 1458 Eucir PLace, WasuHINcTon. Ripans Tabules assist digestion. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE eo eee SOOO OSOOo ss MINMOTH ORY GO0DS ESTIBUISHUGHT = CEs OF “Ze oy ® WOODWARD & LOTHROP © weqoeooosoocece GOO OSOSOSSSESS Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are always on Exhibition. The attention of those who anticipate purchasing ; BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. “These can be furnished in any number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally Selected in Paris and exclusive in atv is and 4( ‘ais design: Three or more pieces , CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. | MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS NeW. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE c=a/STPAUL cua an MW NEA OLI9 CHICAGO on ST. LOUIS The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . | The Overland Limited? ¥ UTAH and CALIFORNIA. FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS | SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing-Room Puliman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’’ E. L. LOMAX Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) ‘ OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pe ooo THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND SY. PAUL RAILWAY --RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. ; Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, ///. AAA VV A VITAL POINT —[====lE— *" IMPROVEMENT THE OIDER OF THE AG .* A I YF EWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. ‘cy Che Simith.. Premier’ Cypewriter's Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. Superior on this Font as 6 The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. * SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. > = = > = > K : ; : = > SE 2 = a 2 eS = KS 3 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE QS 8989099998 9808900099 90009 ie The Great Hotels . KEY WEST AND MIAMI @ © ee @ ~ ..,, STEAMSHIP CO, . ee) SSOe® SSSsoeee THE BEAUTIFUL ROUTE TO KEY wisT. © He Pat ® Fast Coast $= a Keys in daylight. BA CA ES gasses SeOOSOooe See local time card for sailing dates. AT @ ° ST. AUGUSTINE, eo) ORIMOND, €& MIAMI AND NASSAU Par BES _ STEAMSHIP SERVICE TMWATII. ieee & @ , eeoeeeooee” Miami and Nassau, N, P. (Bahama Islands), Will be inaugurated about JANUARY 15th for the WINTER TOURIST SEASON OF 1897. ceeaeeaedes® See advertisements for sailing dates. For map of Florida and book Florida East Coast, address ; ais RAHNER, J. R. PARROTT, fed 2 BE Asst cae al Pass + Ag. ent, Vice-President. Traffic Manager. Sz Aveudeae. Fila. neeeueeeceeeneeseesoqosess SO@ QOOOOGOSOSOOOSOS® ah wi goon oe © nl HE MAPLE LE ate DIRECT LINE BETWEEN CHICAGO, DUBUQUE, \p Vie ST. PAUL. MINNEAPOIIS. DES MOINES, Ls %* ST. JOSEPA ANPKANSAS CITY. es < ‘ ALIFORNIA AS USUAL But vary the monotony of travel by returning via the SHASTA ROUTE NN ees NORTHERN PACIFIC BR. By so doing you can see the ORIGINAL OF THIS SCENE. RAPIDS NEAR UPPER FALL. . am . Iti is in the YELLOWSTONE PARK, and can be reached on your - feturn from CALIFORNIA if you will see that your ticket reads as Ja above, In addition you will see MT. SHASTA, MT. HOOD, and MT. TACOMA, | the Giant Peaks of the Pacific Coast, and pass through Portland, - Tacoma, Seattle, Spokane, Helena or Butte, Missoula, Bismarck, Fargo, jinneapolis, and St. Paul. Send me 6 cents for | SkeTcHEs OF WONDERLAND. CHAS. S. FEE, Gen. Pass. Agent. forthern Pacific Railroad. St. Paul, Minnesota. THE NATIONAL ee WG 4 WILL BE THE see ea ~The Physical Fie af a sp By DR MARK W. HARRINGTON, Crater Lake, Oregon, By MR J. S. nee By JUDGE EMORY ie BEST, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE; Down the Volga, from Nijni Novgorod to aZi : ae BROF. Bese onic = Ne TAYLOR, te a ty f | iD i. : , taiet yt . ye / ae: yas i | | ty | a a oe nay A mia \ eh ; ILLUSTRATED MONTH LY Bee's Bad, . Cot \ ‘ Sat | | ( , Honorary Editor: JOHN HYDE Honorary Associate Editors GREELS | WIMcGEE “| ~ HENRY GANNETT . HART |MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE _ \conteNTs | | a pe . | mf, xe GE PAGE AKE, OREGON. ~~S. 59; R BEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, F NX a“ E MISCELLAN BA) p. 64. ay 7 Aes % Nx * * \ WASHINGTON SHED BY THE \NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY AGENTS In THE Untrep Stares)\anp CaNnapa vs CoMPANY)-39/ANp 41 Crimpers Serer, New York O8; 37 AVENUB DE L’OPERA $2.50 a Year Post-office in Washington, D. C,, as Second-class Mail Matter, : PRESIDENT é, : E ig i GARDINER-G- HUBBARD oe He tues > Sn “MARCUS BAKER Raed y eae . panes Lee WILLIAM H. DALL ey | 1G. EK. GILBERT an CHARLES J. BELL | RECORDING SECRETARY EVERETT HAYDEN HL F. BLOUNT G. W. DABNEY, Jr: DAVID T. DAY JOHN HYDE sh, ete ‘The sonal aaa ae pay ee an entrance fae of $2. 00 on aibctipn: tg Magazine i is sent regularly to all members, both active and corresponding MT. SHASTA, op 4 : 14,350 feet high, MT. HOOD, - - ‘ - 11,225 « ¢ MT. ST. HELENS, - v 9,750 « ? MT. RAINIER, - - u = ra,530 « st MT. ADAMS, - - ss 12,250 “ ‘6 BY TAKING THE NORTHERN _ PACIFIC CAN ALL BE SEEN A SHASTA | \ ROUTE. | Returning from CALI FO R N IA, See that your re- | turn tickets read | wa this route, | and visit Yellow- “Stone Park | SIX CENTS sent | to me will bring you TOURIST MATTER that will detail the scenic | features of this route. For rates, etc., write to CHAS. §, FEE, Gen. Pass, Agt., St. Paul, Minnesota ROWMMMMGVMCMV MMC VM VV MEBEETODAAT S WL Pl PE EE EE LE LEE EE i i és decd decdéde de déddddddddéddmadukiu@sigsgd in duadadsiumddtiike NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 2 SOUTHERN RAILWAY CREATEST #++%+4+2 SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and Galveston via Atlanta, Montgomery and New Orleans. Washington and Birmingham via Lynchburg, Charlotte and Atlanta. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleepers—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers ... . The direct line to the falas GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts of . . . ». MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.”’ Write for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, General Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. lL. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. C. WM. HENRY TAYLOHE, District Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. : Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. THE SHORTEST, QUICKEST, MOST ATTRACTIVE ROUTE IS BY THE LINES OPERATED OVER THE Florida Central & Peninsular R. R. THE FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR RAILROAD begins on the north at Columbia, runs through Savannah, Jacksonville, Ocala, Tampa, Fernandina, Gainesville, Orlando, and Tallahassee. It is the direct route to take for St. Augustine, Lake Worth, and all Kast Coast points; for Miami, Key West, and Nassau; also for points on the Gulf of Mexico and Havana and for all the principal interior points in Florida. Three trains daily from New York during the tourist season, passing through Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. One of the finest trains in the country is the NEW YORK AND FLORIDA LIMITED, with Compartment Cars, Pullman Sleepers, Observation Cars, Dining Cars, and Passenger Coaches, ‘This peeves New York at 12.10 noon and arrives at Jacksonville at 3.30 p. m. next day, St. Augustine at 4.30 p. m The CINCINNATI AND FLORIDA LIMITED, another very elegant vestibuled train, makes ee zon in about 24 hours between Cincinnati and Jacksonville, via Chattanooga, Atlanta, Macon, and verett. The ASHEVILLE ROUTE is the scenic route (over the Carolina mountains) between Cincin- nati and Jacksonville, via Knoxville, the Mountain Resorts, Columbia, and Savannah. _ The KANSAS CITY through car route is by this road, via Fort Scott, Memphis, Holly Springs, Birmingham, Atlanta. and Everett. The NEW ORLEANS [through sleeper route runs from New Orleans by Pensacola on this route and via the beautiful Middle Florida Country. Remember that the FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR does not only go to Jack- sonville, but distributes passengers by close connections all over the State. Get THE BEST INDEXED MAP OF FLORIDA from any of our agents or from the General Passenger Agent. J. L. ADAMS, Genl. Eastern Agt., W. B. PENNINGTON, Genl. Western Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. 417 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, O. WALTER G. COLEMAN, Genl. Trav. Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. N. 8S. PENNINGTON, Traffic Manager, A. O. MacDONELL, Genl. Pass. Agt., Jacksonville, Fla. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE $690000000000000900009900000 . The Great Hotels |) KEY WEST AND MIAN oF. on wemee, 7 STEAMSHIP CO, > Py ahaa Oo ven THE BEAUTIFUL ROUTE TO LL © REY Ww esT. 4 ast Coast © Ten Hours from Miami along the Florida Keys in daylight. 4 O CODSHISRENS See local time card for sailing dates © ©@ st. AUGUSTINE, Sana @ R @ ORTIOND, © MIAMI AND NASSAU 4 ic ft eal STEAMSHIP SERVICE MAS til. BETWEEN @ yf @ @ 1 seeseeeore 9 OO" Te ee) e il . Will be inaugurated about JANUARY 15th ® D Al Way. © @ for the WINTER Sabon SEASON OF 1897. ® COSSSSSeeseees See advertisements for sailing dates. A @ For map of Florida and book Florida East Coast, address— & J. R. PARROTT, J. P. BECKWITH, Ass't Ge Diora Panes ont, & Vice-President. Traffic Manager. St. Augustine, Fla. OSOOO SO SS OS SS SOO O0OOOSCSSO609 Lt E MAPLE L vi DIRECT LINE BETWEEN CHICAGO, DUBUQ YI fe ST. PAUL.MINNEAPOLIS. DES MOINES, _————— oe JOSEPH ie yas CITY. | ‘Gueaco NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. © One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green Known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. ; These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Kast and the West. H. 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The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,”’ prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus. ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, ‘maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct from the General Agents. Wind COMPASS WHHEHIST DUPLBICATE WHIST score [| cain | trump | cain | score y-7, 1896- , patented Ju Rey oS oe = = P= va - eS cy e 12) An: P Wind E, MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. , 1897, PL. 1 > a ie) > NAT. GEOG. MAG. CRATER LAKE, OREGON DEVILS BACKBONE AND LLAO ROCK IN THE DISTANCE J WIZARD ISLAND eltine from a photograph by M. M. Ha National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII FEBRUARY, 1897 No. 2 CRATER LAKE, OREGON * By J. 5. Ditter, Inited States Geological Survey Of lakes in the United States there are many and in great va- riety, but of crater lakes there is but one. Crater lakes are lakes which occupy the craters of volcanoes or pits of voleanic origin. They are most abundant in Italy and Central America, regions in which volcanoes are still active ; and they occur also in France, Germany, India, Hawaii, and other parts of the world where volcanism has played an important réle in its geological history. The one in the United States belongs to the great volcanic field of the northwest, but it occurs in so secluded a spot among high mountains that it is almost unknown to tourists and men of science, who are especially interested in such natural wonders. Crater lake of southern Oregon lies in the very heart of the Cas- cade range, and, while it is especially attractive to the geologist on account of its remarkable geological history, it is equally in- viting to the tourist and others in search of health and pleasure by communion with the beautiful and sublime in nature. According to W. G. Steel,t the lake was first seen by white men in 1855. It had long previously been known to the In- dians, whose legends, as related by Steel, have contributed a name, Llao rock, to one of the prominences of its rim. They regarded the lake with awe as an abode of the Great Spirit. The first travelers of note who visited the lake were Lord Maxwell * Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. + The Mountains of Oregon, by W. G. Steel, 1890, p. 13. tIbid 3 34 CRATER LAKE, OREGON and Mr Bentley, who, in 1872, with Captain O. C. Applegate, of Modoc war fame, and three others, made a boat trip along its borders and named several of the prominences on the rim after members of the party.* Mrs F. F. Victor saw the lake in 1873 and briefly describes it in “Atlantis Arisen.” f The first Geological Survey party visited the lake in 1883, when Everett Hayden and the writer, after spending several days in examining the rim, tumbled logs over the cliffs to the water’s edge, lashed them together with ropes to make a raft, and paddled over to the island. In 1886, under the direction of Captain (now Major) C. E. Dutton, many soundings of the lake were made by W. G. Steel, and a topographic map of the vicinity was prepared by Mark B. Kerr and Eugene Ricksecker. Dut- ton was the first to discover the more novel and salient features in the geological history of the lake, of which he has given, for his entertaining pen, an all too brief account. Under the inspiration of the “ Mazamas,”’ a society of moun- tain climbers at Portland, Oregon, of whose work an account is eiven in this magazine (page 58),a more extended study of the lake has just been made by government parties from the Depart- ment of Agriculture, the Fish Commission, and the Geological Survey. Crater lake is deeply set in the summit of the Cascade range, about 65 miles north of the California line. As yet it may be reached only by private conveyance over about 80 miles of mountain roads from Ashland, Medford, or Gold Hill, on the Southern Pacific railroad, in the Rogue River valley of southern Oregon. This valley marks the line between the Klamath moun- tains of the Coast range on the west and the Cascade range on the east. The journey from the railroad to Crater lake affords a good opportunity to observe some of the most important features of this great pile of lavas. The Cascade range in south- ern Oregon is a broad irregular platform, terminating rather abruptly in places upon its borders, especially to the westward, where the underlying Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments come to the surface. It is surmounted by volcanic cones and coulees, which are generally smooth, but sometimes rough and rugged. ~* The names Watchman, Glacier, Llao, and Vidae, which appear on the map of the lake, have recently been adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names. 7 ‘Atlantis Arisen,”’ by Mrs Frances Fuller Victor, p. 179. t Science, vol. 7, 1886, pp. 179-182, and Eighth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 156-159. Seeds i. 36 CRATER LAKE, OREGON The cones vary greatly in size and are distributed without regu- larity. Hach has been an active voleano. The fragments blown out by violent eruption have fallen about the volcanic orifice from which they issued and built up cinder cones. From their bases have spread streams of lava (coulees), raising the general level of the country between the cones. From some vents by many eruptions, both explosive and effusive, large cones, like Pitt, Shasta, and Hood, have been built up. Were we to exam- ine their internal structure, exposed in the walls of the canyons carved in their slopes, we should find them composed of over- lapping layers of lava and volcanic conglomerate, a structure which is well illustrated in the rim of Crater lake. The journey from Ashland by the Dead Indian road crosses the range where the average altitude is less than 5,000 feet. The road passes within a few miles of Mount Pitt and skirts Pelican bay of Klamath lake, famous for its fishing. After following northward for some twenty miles along the eastern foot of the range, it ascends the eastern slope, along the castled canyon of Anna creek to the rim of Crater lake. From Medford or Gold Hill, the trip is a trifle shorter by the Rogue River road. It affords some fine views of the canyons RIM OF CRATER LAKE IN THE DISTANCE, AS SEEN FROM THE SOUTH, ACROSS THE CANYON OF ANNA CREEK From a photograph by J. S. Diller as CRATER LAKE, OREGON 37 and rapids of that turbulent stream and of the high falls, where it receives its affluents. Striking features along both roads, within 20 miles of the lake, are the plains developed upon a great mass of detritus filling the valleys. Across these plains Anna creek and Rogue river have carved deep, narrow canyons with finely sculptured walls, which the roads follow for some distance. Approaching the lake from any side, the observer sees a broad cluster of gentle peaks rising about a thousand feet above the general crest of the range on which they stand, but not until after he has left the main road, three miles from the lake, does he begin to feel the steepness of the ascent. The way winds overa large moraine littered with lava boulders and well studded with firs. Arriving at the crest, the lake in all its majestic beauty comes suddenly upon the scene, and is profoundly impressive. _ Descending the wooded slope a short distance within the rim to Victor rock,an excellent general view of the lake isobtained. The eye beholds 20 miles of unbroken cliffs ranging from over 500 to nearly 2,000 feet in height, encircling a deep blue sheet of placid water, in which the mirrored walls vie with the originals in bril- lianey and greatly enhance the depth of the prospect. The first point to fix our fascinated gaze is Wizard island, lying nearly two miles away, near the western margin of the lake. Its rugged western edge and the steep but symmetrical truncated cone in the eastern portion are very suggestive of volcanic origin. We cannot, however, indulge our first impulse to go to the island, for the various features of the rim are of greater importance in unraveling the earlier stages of its geological history. The outer and inner slopes of the rim are in strong contrast ; while the one is gentle, ranging in general from 10° to 15°. the other is abrupt and full of cliffs. The outer slope at all points is away from the lake, and as the rim rises at least 1,000 feet above the general summit of the range, it is evidently the basal portion of a great hollow cone in which the lake is contained. The map of Crater lake, prepared from the U.S. Geological Survey special sheet, fully illustrates this feature, and also in part another feature, namely, the occurrence of a number ofsmall cones upon the outer slope of the great cone. These,adnate cones are of peculiar significance when we come to consider the volcanic rocks of which the region is composed. The rim is ribbed by ridges and spurs radiating from the lake, and the head of each spur is marked by a prominence on the crest of the rim. The variation in the altitute of the rim crest is 1,469 feet from 6,759 to 8,225) 38 CRATER LAKE, OREGON Wizard Id. SECTION FROM AtoB MAP OF CRATER LAKE, OREGON Reduced from U.S. Geological Survey Special Sheet with seven points rising above 8,000 feet. The crest generally is passable, so that a pedestrian may follow it continuously around the lake, with the exception of short intervals about the notches in the southern side. At many points the best going is on the inner side of the crest, where the open slope, generally well marked with deer trails over beds of pumice, affords an unob- structed view of the lake. CRATER LAKE, OREGON 39 ‘ Reference has already been made to the glacial phenomena of the outer slope of the rim. There are boulders not only upon the surface, but also in piles of glacial gravel and sand spread far and wide over the southerf and western portion of the rim, extending down the watercourses in some cases for miles to broad plains through which the present streams have carved the . deep and picturesque canyons already observed on the ascent. At many points the lavas are well rounded, smooth, and striated by glacial action. This is true of the ridges as well as of the valleys, and the distribution of these marks is coextensive with that of the detritus. A feature that is particularly impressive to the geologist mak- ing a trip around the lake on the rim crest is the general occur- rence of polished and striated rocks, in place, on the very brow of the cliff overlooking the lake. The best displays are along the crest for three miles northwest of Victor rock, but they occur GLACIATED CREST OF RIM OF CRATER LAKE From a photograph by M. M. Hazeltine 40 CRATER LAKE, OREGON also on the slopes of Llao rock, Round Top, Kerr Notch, and Eagle crags, thus completing the circuit of the lake. On the adjacent slope toward the lake the same rocks present rough fractured surfaces, showing no strive. The glaciation of the rim is a feature of its outer slope only, but it reaches up to its very crown. The glaciers armed with stones in their lower parts, that striated the crown of the rim, must have come down from above, and it is evident that the topographic conditions of today afford no such source of supply. The formation of glaciers requires an elevation extending above the snow line to afford a gathering ground for the snow that it may accumulate, and under the in- fluence of gravity descend to develop glaciers lower down on the mountain slopes. It is evident that during the glacial period Crater lake did not exist, but that its site must then have been occupied by a mountain to furnish the conditions necessary for the extensive glaciation of the rim, and the magnitude of the glacial phenomena indicates that the peak was a large one, rival- ing, apparently, the highest peaks of the range. The Mazamas held a meeting last summer at Crater lake in connection with the Crater Lake clubs of Medford, Ashland, and Klamath Falls, of the same state. Recognizing that the high mountain which once occupied the place of the lake was name- less, they christened it, with appropriate ceremonies, Mount Mazama. The rim of the lake is a remnant of Mount Mazama, but when the name is used in this paper reference is intended more especially to that part which has disappeared. The inner slope of the rim, so well in view from Victor rock, although precipitous, is not a continuous cliff. It is made up of many cliffs whose horizontal extent is generally much greater than the vertical. The cliffs are in ledges, and sometimes the whole slope from crest to shore is one great cliff, not absolutely vertical, it is true, but yet at so high an angle as to make it far beyond the possibility of climbing. Dutton cliff, on the south- ern, and Llao rock, on the northern, borders of the lake are the greatest cliffs of the rim. Besides cliffs, the other elements of the inner slope are forests and talus, and these make it possible at a few points to approach the lake, not with great ease, but yet, care being taken, with little danger. Southwest of the lake the inner slope, clearly seen from Victor rock, is pretty well wooded, and from“near the end of the road. just east of Victor rock, a steep trail descends to the water. Where talus slopes prevail, there are no trees, and the loose material maintains the CRATER LAKE, OREGON 41 steepest slope possible without sliding. Such slopes are well displayed along the western shore opposite the island and near the northeast corner of the lake under the palisades. At the latter point the rim is only 520 feet high, and a long slide, called from its shape the Wineglass, reaches from crest to shore. The best views of the rim are obtained from a boat on the lake, which affords an opportunity to examine in detail the position and structure of the ‘cliffs. They are composed wholly of vol- canic conglomerate and streams of lava arranged in layers that dip into the rim and away from the lake on all sides. Both forms of voleanic material are well exposed on the trail descend- ing the inner slope, and although most of the cliffs are of lava many are of conglomerate. On arriving at the water’s edge, the observer is struck with the fact that there is no beach. The steep slopes above the surface of the lake continue beneath its waters to great depths. Here and there upon the shore, where a rill descends from a melting snowbank near the crest, a small delta deposit makes a little shallow, turning the deep-blue water to pale green. As the boat skirts the western shore and passes toward Llao rock, the layered structure of the rim is evident. On the whole the lava streams predominate, although there is much conglom- erate. Of all the flows exposed upon the inner slope, that of Llao rock is most prominent and interesting. In the middle it is over 1,200 feet thick, and fills an ancient valley down the outer slope of the rim. Upon either side it tapers to a thin edge against the upper slope of the valley, as shown in Plate 1, and to the lake it presents a sheer cliff—that is, itis abruptly cut off— and one wonders how much farther it may have extended in that direction. Beneath the rock the outline of the valley in cross-section is evident, and it rests upon many layers of older lavas forming the rim down to the water’s edge. The direction of flow in this great lava stream forces us to believe that it was erupted from a large voleano which once stood upon the site of the lake. Every layer of lava in the rim is a coulee, dipping away fromthelake. This is especially well shown in the canyon of Sun creek, cut in its outer slope. The sections of these radi- ating flows exposed upon the inner slope of the rim all tell the same story as to their source. By projecting the lavas in their course toward a common center we can reconstruct in fancy the great voleanic mountain that once occupied the place of the latter—that is, Mount Mazama—and, like Shasta or Rainier, 42 CRATER LAKE, OREGON % formed a great landmark of the region. Proceeding eastward from Llao rock, the rim loses somewhat in height, and at the head of Cleetwood cove one sees the remarkable spectacle of a lava stream descending the inner slope of the rim. It is the only one that has behaved in this way, and its action throws much light upon the disappearance of Mount Mazama. _ The Palisades are less than 600 feet in elevation above the lake, and are composed almost wholly of one great flow. The streams of lava extending northeast from this portion of the rim are broad and much younger in appearance than those forming the great cliffs south of the lake, where the flows are thinner and more numerous. Round Top is a dome-shaped hill over the eastern end of the Palisades, and is made up chiefly of the lava stream that formed the Palisades, overlain by two sheets of pumice separated by a layer of rhyolite. The upper surface of the Palisade flow, where best exposed upon the lakeward slope of Round Top, bears glacial strize that extend beneath the layers of pumice and rhyo- lite of later eruption from Mount Mazama. It is evident. from this relation that Mount Mazama was an active voleano during the glacial period. The occurrence of eruptions from a snow- capped volcano must necessarily produce great floods, and these conditions may account in some measure at least for the detritus- filled valleys of the streams rising on the rim of Crater lake. Returning from this glacial digression to the boat trip on the: lake, it is observed upon the eastern side of the lake that Red Cloud cliff is rendered beautiful by the pinnacles of reddish tuff near the summit, where it is capped by a great, dark flow of rhyolite filling a valley in the older rim and extending far to the northeast. Here the springs begin to gush from the inner slope and cascade their foaming rills to the lake. They recur at Sen- tinel rock, Dutton cliff, and especially under Eagle crag, as well as further westward. Their sources in many cases can be seen in the banks of snow above, but in others they gush forth as real Springs whose water must find its way in from the snow upon the outer slope. The boldest portion of the rim, excepting perhaps Llao rock, is Dutton cliff, which is made more impressive by the deep U-shape notches on either side and the Phantom Ship at its foot. The notches mark points where the canyons of Sun and Sand creeks pass through the rim to the cliff overlooking the lake. ‘These canyons, due to erosion on lines of drainage, belong fl CRATER LAKE, OREGON 43 SOUTHERN SHORE OF CRATER LAKE, AS SEEN FROM KERR NOTCH. DUTTON CLIFF ON THE LEFT: EAGLE CRAGS AND CASTLE CREST BEYOND THE PHANTOM SHIP From a photograph by J. S. Diller to the period when the topographic conditions in that region were quite unlike those of today. They were carved out by streams of ice and water descending from a point over the lake, and their presence, ending as they do in the air thousands of feet above the present water level, affords strong evidence in favor of the former reality of Mount Mazama. The Phantom Ship is a craggy little islet near the border of the lake under Dutton cliff. Its rugged hull, with rocks tower- ing like the masts of a ship, suggests the name, and, phantom- like, it disappears when viewed in certain lights from the western rim. Standing in line with an aréte that descends from an angle of the cliff, it possibly marks a continuation of the sharp spur beneath the water, or perhaps, but much less likely, it is a block slid down from the cliff. Whatever its history, it attracts every- one by its beauty and winsomeness. At times of volcanic eruption the lava rises within the volcano until it either overflows the crater at the top or, by the great pressure of the column, bursts open the sides of the voleano and escapes through the fissure to the surface. In the latter case, as 44 CRATER LAKE, OREGON the molten material cools, the fissure becomes filled with solid lava and forms a dike. The best example of this sort about Crater lake appears along the inner slope directly north of Wizard island, and is locally known as the Devil’s Backbone. This dike rock standing on edge varies from 5 to 25 feet in thick- ness and cuts the rim from water to crest. Dikes are most numerous in the older portion of the rim under Llao rock. They do not cut up through Llao rock and are clearly older than the lava of which that rock is formed. Dikes occur at intervals all around the lake, and radiate from it, suggesting that the central volcanic vent from which they issued must have been Mount Mazama. There is another important feature concerning the kinds of volcanic rocks and their order of eruption and distribution about the rim of Crater lake that is of much interest to the geologist. All the older lavas comprising the inner slope of the rim, espe- cially toward the water’s edge, are andesites. The newer ones forming the top of the rim in Llao rock, Round Top, and the Rugged Crest about the head of Cleetwood cove, as well as at Cloud Cap, are rhyolites. Other later flows, all of which escaped from the smaller adnate cones upon the outer slope of the rim, are basalts. The eruptions began with lavas of medium acidity (andesites), and after long-continued activity lavas both rich (rhyolites) and poor (basalts) in silica follow, giving a com- pleteness to the products of this great volcanic center that make it an interesting field of study. Furthermore, the remarkable opportunity afforded by the dissected volcano for the examina- tion of its structure and succession of lavas is unsurpassed. It’ should be stated, before dismissing the kinds of lava, that there are some rhyolites in the Sun Creek canyon south of the lake that appear to be older than those upon the north side, and that the final lava of the region on Wizard island is andesitic. The glaciation and structure of the rim clearly establish the former existence of Mount Mazama, but there may well be doubt as to its exact form and size. Judging from the fact that Mount Shasta and the rim of Crater lake have the same diameter at an altitude of 8,000 feet, and that their lavas are similar, it may with some reason be inferred that Mount Mazama and Mount Shasta were nearly of equal height. The slopes of Mount Shasta may be somewhat steeper than those of the rim of Crater lake at an equal altitude, but the glaciation of the rim is such as to re- quire a large peak for its source. CRATER LAKE, OREGON 45 SECTION OF CRATER LAKE AND ITS RIM, WITH THE PROBABLE OUTLINE OF MOUNT MAZAMA . Vertical and Horizontal Scales the same In the accompanying figure is given a section of Crater lake and its rim, with the probable outline of Mount Mazama. Won- derful as the lake, encircled by cliffs, may be, it serves but to conceal in part the greatest wonder—that is, the enormous pit which is half filled by thelake. The pit or caldera, as it is called by some geologists, is 4,000 feet deep. It extends from the top of the rim half-way down to the sea-level, and nearly a square’ mile of its bottom is below the level of Upper Klamath lake at the eastern foot of the range. The volume of the pit is nearly a dozen cubic miles, and if we add the volume of the lost Mount Mazama, that amount would be increased by at least one-half, How was it possible to remove so large a mass and in the process develop so great a pit? The pit is completely inclosed, so that it cannot be regarded as an effect of erosion. The volcanic origin of everything about the lake would suggest in a general way that this great revolu- tion must have been wrought by volcanism, either blown out by a great volcanic explosion or swallowed up by an equally great engulfment. It is well known that pits have been produced by volcanic explosions, and some of them are occupied by lakes of the kind usually called crater lakes. Pits produced in this way, however, are, with rare exceptions, surrounded by rims composed of the fragmental material blown from the pit. At first sight the rim about Crater lake suggests that the pit was produced by an explosion, and the occurrence of much pumice in that region lends support to this preliminary view ; but on careful examination we find, as already stated, that the rim is not made up of fragments blown from the pit, but of layers of solid lava interbedded with those of volcanic conglomerate erupted from Mount Mazama before the pit originated. The 46 CRATER LAKE, OREGON moraines deposited by glaciers descending from the mountain formed the surface around a large part of the rim, and as there is no fragmental deposit on these moraines it is evident that there is nothing whatever to indicate any explosive action in connection with the development of the pit. We may be aided in understanding the possible origin of the pit by picturing the conditions that must have obtained during an effusive eruption of Mount Mazama. At such a time the col- umn of molten material rose in the interior of the mountain until it overflowed at the summit or burst open the sides of the moun- tain and escaped through fissures. Fissures formed in this way usually occur high on the slopes of the mountain. If instead, however, an opening were effected on the mountain side at a much lower level—say some thousands of feet below the sum- mit—and the molten material escaped, the mountain would be left hollow, and the summit, having so much of its support re- moved, might cave in and disappear in the molten reservoir. Something of this sort is described by Professor Dana as occur- ring at Kilauea, in Hawaii. The lake in that case is not water, but molten lava, for Kilauea is yet an active voleano. In 1840 there was an eruption from the slopes of Kilauea, 27 miles dis- tant from the lake and over 4,000 feet below its level. The col- umn of lava represented by the lake of molten material in Kilauea sank away in connection with this eruption to a depth of 385 feet, and the floor of the region immediately surrounding the lake, left without support, tumbled into the depression. In the intervals between eruptions the molten column rises again to- ward the surface, only to be lowered by subsequent eruptions, and the subsidence is not always accompanied by an outflow of lava upon the surface. Sometimes, however, it gushes forth as a great fountain a hundred feet or more in height. The elevated position of the great pit occupied by Crater lake makes its origin by subsidence seem the more probable. The level of the lowest bed of the lake reaches the surface within 15 miles to the westward. That Mount Mazama was engulfed is plainly suggested by the behavior of its final lava stream. The greater portion of this last flow descended and spread over the outer slope of the rim, but from the thickest part of the flow where it fills an old valley at the head of Cleetwood cove some of the same lava, as already noted, poured down the inner slope. The only plausible explanation of this phenomena seems to be that soon after the final eruption of Mount Mazama, and before CRATER LAKE, OREGON 47 the thickest part of the lava effused at that time had solidified, the mountain collapsed and sank away and the yet viscous por- tion of the stream followed toward the pit. It has been suggested, but perhaps not in serious thought, that the cone on Wizard island may represent the summit of the sunken Mount Mazama, projecting above the water. To deter- mine the truth of the matter we must cross over to the island. Wizard island has two portions—an extremely rough lava field and a cinder cone. The lava is dark and has a much more SNOWDRIFT IN THE CRATER OF THE CINDER CONE ON WIZARD ISLAND From a photograph by H. B. Patton basaltic look than any seen in ‘the main body of the rim. It has evidently been erupted from the base of the cinder cone in its present position. The cinder cone, too, is a perfect little volcano with steep symmetrical slopes, 845 feet in height, and surmounted by a crater 80 feet deep. It is so new and fresh that it is scarcely forested, and shows no trace of weathering. Instead of being a part of the sunken Mount Mazama, it is an entirely new volcano built up since the subsidence by voleanic action upon.the bottom of the pit. Were it not for the lake the whole bottom of the pit could be examined, and it is pos- 48 CRATER LAKE, OREGON sible that other small volcanic cones might be found. This sug- gestion is borne out by the soundings of the lake, which appear to reveal two other cases, but they do not rise to within 400 feet of the surface of the water. It is evident that the volcanic eruptions upon the bottom of the pit have partially filled it up. Originally it may have been much more than 4,000 feet deep. Given the pit with water-tight walls, there is no difficulty in forming Crater lake, for in that region precipitation is greater than evaporation. The lake does not fill up and overflow. The surplus water must have a subterranean outlet, probably toward the southeast, where the region is traversed by extensive breaks in the rocks, and abounds in excellent springs. The color of the lake is deep blue excepting along the borders, where it merges into various shades and tints of green. It is so transparent that even on a hazy day a white dinner plate 10 inches in diameter may be seen at a depth of nearly 100 feet. It contains no fish, but a small crustacean flourishes in its waters, and salamanders occur in abundance locally along the shore. The level of the lake oscillates with the seasons. During the rainy winter it rises, and in the summer it falls. In August last observations were made for twenty-two days, and the lake sank at the rate of one inch for every five or six days, depending somewhat on the conditions of the weather. The Mazamas have established a water gauge, and it is hoped that an extended series of observations may be obtained in the future. Mr B. W. Evermann, of the U. 8. Fish Commission, who vis- ited the lake last summer, made some interesting observations of its temperature. At 1p. m., August 22— The temperature of the surface water was. .............---:----.- 60° At a depth of 555 feet the temperature was.............-.......-+: 39° At adepth of 1,048 feet the temperature was..................-.... 41° At a depth of 1,623 feet (on the bottom) the temperature Was. ..... 46° The increase of temperature with the depth suggests that the bottom may yet be warm from volcanic heat, but more observa- tions are needed to fully establish such an abnormal relation of temperatures in a body of water. Aside from its attractive scenic features, Crater lake affords one of the most interesting and instructive fields for the study of volcanic geology to be found anywhere inthe world. Consid- ered in all its aspects, it ranks with the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, the Yosemite valley, and the Falls of Niagara, and should be set aside as a National Park for the pleasure and in- struction of the people. es THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS By Emory F. Best, Assistant Commissioner of the General Land Office ~ No question of public policy has demanded more earnest con- sideration than the disposal of the public domain. It involved not only the creation of a fund for the redemption of the public debt, but the fundamental principles of government upon which the republic was founded. It has been asserted by some that mismanagement and an inefficient policy have characterized the disposal of the public land from the foundation of the govern- ment. On the other hand, it is claimed that a wise and benefi- cent system has peopled the country with thrifty and energetic settlers, and this is pointed to as one of our greatest achievements. When the Treaty of Peace was concluded between Great Britain and the United States the unsettled territory west of the Appa- lachians belonged to certain of the colonies. This fact was one of many obstacles to the ratification of the Articles of Confedera- tion.. It was removed by the cession of these lands to the United States. By such cession the United States became the proprietor of a territory greater in extent than France or Spain. This formed the nucleus of the public domain, and the laws enacted for the disposal of the public lands in that region have been ex- tended over all the territory thereafter acquired by the national government except Alaska. The first step in the disposal of the public lands was the pas- sage by Congress of the ordinance of 1787 for the organization and government of the territory northwest of the Ohio. It pro- vided for the organization of the territories into states, with all the rights of the original states, but declared that the new states should never interfere with the disposal of the soil by the United States, nor with any regulations Congress might find necessary for securing the title in such soil to the purchaser. Upon the admission of new states into the Union, the absolute proprietary power and primary right of disposition of the soil has been uni- formly reserved by solemn compact in conformity therewith. - The cessions of territory made to the United States by the several states were upon the condition that the land should be 4 49 50 THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS held in trust, to be disposed of for the common benefit of all the states, and this condition applied as well to all land thereafter acquired by the United States. At first the controlling purpose in the disposal of the lands was to create a fund for the redemp- tion of the public debt. Settlement upon the public domain was not only discouraged, but was actually forbidden. In pur- suance of the policy to convert the public domain into cash as rapidly as possible for the extinguishment of the public debt, large tracts of land in the Northwest Territory were sold to mee viduals and companies under authority granted by special act of Congress prior to the adoption of the Constitution. In 1790 Mr Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, sub- mitted to Congress a plan for the disposal of the public domain, which has formed the basis of the public-land system. All legis- lation upon this subject, until the Homestead Act of 1862, em- bodied the fundamental principle of Mr Hamilton’s plan, which contemplated the raising of revenue from the sale of the land- His plan presented two leading features: one, the facility of ad- vantageous sales, which, as a financial operation, claimed pri- mary attention; the other, the accommodation of individuals then inhabiting the Northwest Territory, or who might afterward settle therein, who were permitted to purchase small tracts for homes. Upon this plan our public land system was laid. It provided for the disposal of the public domain at public offer- ing, by private cash sales, and by the allowance of the preference right of purchase to actual settlers under the several preémption laws. The preémption laws were at first temporary, being limited in their operation, until the general law of 1841, which continued in force until its repeal by the act of March 3, 1891. While the preémption right was generally considered as a special favor or benefit conferred upon those who inhabit, culti- vate, and improve a tract of public land, with the intention of making a permanent home, it was practically only the extension of a credit for twelve months to the settler, but with no actual security that he would finally get the land. Up to 1848 there was no land subject to preémption that could not at any time be bought upon application at the local office, at private cash entry, at the same price the preémptor was required to pay, and it was not until 1860 that preémption rights could be initiated by set- tlement upon unsurveyed lands. Even in the bestowal of the munificent grants of alternate sections to aid in the construc- tion of railroads and other works of public improvement, the a j ; SS 4 when THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS 51 controlling feature in the disposition of the public lands was not abandoned, because the sections of land remaining to the gov- ernment within the limits of the grant were doubled in price for the purpose of reimbursing the government for the land granted. It was not until the agitation of the question of free homes for the people, which resulted in the act of May 2, 1862, that the general policy of sales for revenue was changed. ’ The homestead law provided that any citizen who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of 21 years, may ac- quire title to 160 acres of land by residing upon, cultivating, and improving the tract for five years immediately preceding his final proof, free from all cost except the land office fees. Since the year 1862, when this law went into effect, up to the close of the last fiscal year, 508,936 homestead entries have been allowed, embracing an area of 67,618,451 acres. How far this beneficent act has demonstrated the wisdom of the measure and fulfilled the expectations of its advocates must be judged by the growth and prosperity of the country since the period of its enactment. It is true that it went into operation at practically the same period that witnessed the extensive grants in aid of the construction of the Pacific railroads and other im- portant works of internal improvement; but this important factor, with the aid of the railroads, was mainly instrumental in converting the boundless domain of wild, unsettled Indian coun- try into thriving communities and states, adding immensely to the material wealth and prosperity of the nation. Thus the goy- ernment has indirectly derived larger revenues from its bounties than it could have acquired from the cash sales of its lands. It is unnecessary to give a detailed statement of the extent to which the public lands have been entered under the several laws by which such disposition has been governed. Suffice it to say that about 247,000,000 acres of land have been sold for cash, in- cluding commuted homestead entries, for which the government has received about $280,000,000, and that this item, with the grants to aid in the construction of railroads and the donations to states for educational purposes and internal improvements, constitute the largest portion of the public domain that has been disposed of by the government. It is estimated that there now remain, exclusive of Alaska, over which the general land laws have not been extended, about 600,000,000 acres of vacant public land, of which about 500,000,000 are within a region where the rainfall is not sufli- 52 THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS cient to insure the cultivation of crops without irrigation. ‘The title to the soil is in the United States, and it is subject to dis- posal under the general land laws; but the control of the water, which is the important element in the utilization of these lands for agricultural purposes, rests with the state. Unless these two elements are combined, the land is valueless, and until the land can be brought to an agricultural condition, permanent settle- ment, that will advance the prosperity of the state and nation, cannot be expected. Hence the question is forced upon us, Are the laws which have operated so favorably in the disposal of the well watered and fertile lands of the Mississippi valley adequate to the conditions that confront us in the arid west? The act of March 3, 1877, authorizing the entry of 640 acres of desert land, conditioned upon the payment of $1.25 per acre and the reclamation of the land by conducting water thereon, was designed to meet these conditions; but whether from the imperfection of the system or from the injudicious administra- tion of the law, it has certainly failed to yield the results most to be desired, even if it has accompHshed the purposes of its enactment. : It is generally conceded that the lands lying along the borders of the small streams and rivulets, which can be irrigated by the individual efforts of the settlers, have practically been appro- priated by settlers under the homestead and other general land laws, and that the desirable vacant public lands unreclaimed are so situated that they cannot be reclaimed by means at the com- mand of the individual settler. The combined efforts of labor and capital must be employed to insure a reclamation that is economical and practical. Hence the homestead law is no longer of practical application in the arid region, as its operation is rather to retard than to promote the reclamation of these lands. But a more serious problem is, how to secure the reclamation of the largest possible portion of the 500,000,000 acres of vacant public lands within the arid region. It is estimated that only 20 per cent can, under the most favorable conditions, be reclaimed and brought to an agricultural condition, not because of the lack of irrigable land, but because of the limited supply of water, and the irrigation of this quantity can be accomplished only by the most economical and conservative use of the water and the most judicious selection of the tracts of land to be irrigated. It is therefore evident that as the solution of the problem lies in the economical and practical utilization of the water, the control and ee ee THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS 53 use of this element must be of paramount importance to secur- ing title to the land. If the waters of the perennial streams which are wasted during the winter months could be stored and reservoirs could be con- structed to impound the storm waters, the area of territory sus- ceptible of irrigation could be largely increased. As the irrigable land is far in excess of the available water supply, the land to be irrigated should also be selected with a view to the most eco- nomical use of the water, so that the available lands should be irrigated and disposed of as agricultural lands, and the remain- ing lands be held for disposition for other uses. The importance of observing the strictest economy in the dis- tribution of water and the selection of lands is forcibly stated in the minority report of the Special Committee appointed by the United States Senate in 1889 to consider the subject of the irriga- tion and reclamation of the arid lands. It says: “The irrigable lands are limited inextent. Thearea of the arid region which can be irrigated is a small fraction of the entire region. This arises from the fact that all the waters that can be used are insufficient to serve all the possible irrigable lands. It therefore becomes necessary to select the lands to be redeemed. On the wisdom of this selection vast interests depend. It is possible to irrigate lands on the mountains and on the high plateaus, but if the water is used there it cannot be used below, and these elevated lands will not make the best homes for the people. The climate there is rigorous, and the variety of agricultural products that can be raised is limited, being chiefly hay and vegetables. To use the water on such lands is largely to waste it, and to drive agriculture into the moun- tains is to doom the people engaged therein to a dreary life in a subarctie climate. It is therefore manifestly to the interest of the greatest number of people that the agriculture of the arid lands should not be established in the mountain regions. The valleys and plains below are warm, salu- brious, and rich, the variety of agricultural products is great, and if the waters are used on these lands they will give support to a prosperous people.”’ If this is the condition with which we are confronted with re- gard to the vacant public lands in the arid region, then it must follow that these lands should not be disposed of until they have been brought to an agricultural condition, if due regard be had to the practical and economical disposition of them, and with a view to deriving the greatest benefit for the state and nation. This may be accomplished in three ways: (1) by the construc- tion of reservoirs and irrigating works and the adoption of an irrigation system under the direction of the general government; 54 THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS (2) through the agency of irrigation companies; and (8) by the states controlling the waters within their respective borders. On March 20, 1888, Congress passed a joint resolution direct- ing the Secretary of the Interior, through the direction of the Geological Survey, to make an examination of that portion of the arid region where agriculture is carried on by means of irri- gation, as to the natural advantage of the storage of water, and the practicability and cost of construction and capacity of reser- voirs, and such other facts as bear on the question of the storage of water for irrigation purposes. This resolution was followed by legislation making appropriations to enable the Director of the Geological Survey to make the necessary examination, and he was authorized to select sites suitable for the storage reservoirs contemplated by the resolution, which were to remain segregated and reserved from entry, occupation, and settlement until other- wise provided by law. Under this authority 120 suitable sites have been selected, and the lands covered by such selections have been reserved from entry, occupation, and settlement, but to this day no provision has been made for their utilization. The plan of reclamation through the agency of land and irri- gation companies would not, in my judgment, be commended by the people, and although it might be effective in putting under irrigation all the territory possibly susceptible of irriga- tion by the water that could be stored, yet it would hardly be possible to make such limitations and restrictions upon a grant of such power as would absolutely protect the settler against ex- tortion and oppression. The third appears to be the most feasible plan for the utiliza- tion of the arid lands. he right to the use of the water being under the absolute control of the state, it would, if it controlled the land also, be enabled so to direct and govern the appropria- tion of it as to secure, by a judicious selection of the lands to be irrigated, the most economical and practical use. It would en- able the state to check the waste growing out of faulty construc- tion of dams and imperfect systems of applying water. The settler on a tract of desert land who has acquired a right to the use of water is interested solely in the application of it to his particular tract, with no responsibility for its economical use. The land is abundant, but the water is scarce, and if we expect to reap advantages by utilizing the water to the greatest extent, it must be accomplished by reclaiming the lands before they are disposed of. This can be accomplished more effectively by the states than through the general government or other agencies. THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS 55 The state of California has adopted a policy, based upon the principle of state or common ownership in natural waters, which provides for the ownership by communities of works for the stor- age and distribution of waters for irrigation purposes. This law, known as the Wright law, which has recently been declared con- stitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States, has been adopted, I believe, by nearly all the arid land states. It pro- vides for the organization of irrigation districts wherever fifty or a majority of the owners of lands susceptible of one mode of irrigation from a common source and by the same system of works desire to provide for the irrigation of their holdings. It also provides for the creation of a board of directors, who have power to purchase lands, water and water-rights, and to construct the necessary reservoirs and irrigation works. It also authorizes the issuance of bonds to raise money for the construc- tion of such works, which bonds are to be paid out of revenues derived from annual assessments upon the real property of the district, and all such property subject to taxation by the state is liable to such assessment. I do not attempt to give details, but simply the general features of the law, to show how unjustly it would operate in a district where there was a tract of vacant pub- licland. This land would be susceptible of irrigation by the same system and from the same common source, and would therefore be materially enhanced in value by the construction of irriga- tion works at the expense of the inhabitants of the district, al- though the government would not be liable to contribute to it, for the reason that the government lands are not subject to tax- ation by the state, and are therefore not liable to the assessment. This inequitable feature could be removed if the title to the lands were in the state. In the arid region an average of about 76 per cent of the land isin the hands of the government. In Nevada about 95 per cent of the area is vacant. These lands contribute nothing to the revenues of the state. With its taxable resources so dimin- ished it is impossible for the state to undertake a system of irri- gation. They should be so disposed of as to make them avail- able as resources from which the state may increase its revenue. The states in the arid region have established laws for the acquisition and protection of riparian rights, based upon the doctrine of priority of appropriation. This has been rendered necessary by the failure of the general government to formulate a uniform system for the protection of the rights of parties and 56 THE UTILIZATION OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS to secure the economical distribution of the water. Under these laws, which differ in many material respects, rights have been acquired, so that a uniform system could not now be established without involving irrigation interests in serious conflicts. It can be remedied only by giving to each state control of its arid lands, to be reclaimed and disposed of under their separate sys- tems. The advantages that would accrue to the state through the control of the land and water are, in a measure, attained by the act of August 19, 1894, known as the Carey Act. This law au- thorizes the Secretary of the Interior to contract with any of the desert land states to donate to the states, free of cost, such lands, not exceeding 1,000,000 acres in each state, as the state may cause to be irrigated, reclaimed, occupied, and cultivated by actual settlers. It also authorizes the state to make all neces- sary contracts for causing the lands to be reclaimed and for in- ducing settlement and cultivation, but the state is not authorized to lease or dispose of the lands except to secure their reclama- tion, cultivation, and settlement. ; It is in the nature of a grant, limited in quantity, and condi- tioned upon reclamation and cultivation. It contemplates that the reclamation shall be accomplished by private capital, but as the land selected cannot be disposed of until it has been patented to the state, it fails to give the state sufficient control over the lands to enable it to pledge them as security for their reclama- tion, and hence it cannot contract for the construction of works on the most favorable terms. If this law were amended so as to provide for the granting of the lands to the state upon applica- tion, leaving the state free to contract for their reclamation and to pledge the lands as security therefor, it would be of practical benefit, and under its provisions the state might be enabled to secure the reclamation of all the lands within its limits that could be utilized. As it is, but two states have applied for its benefits, and the feasibility of the scheme for the reclamation and disposal of the arid lands is yet to be ascertained. With this condition confronting us, can there be any valid reason urged against the cession of these lands to the states, and may we not go farther and inquire if there is any reason why the trust imposed upon the general government for the disposal of all the public lands may not safely be delegated to them? The cession of the Northwest Territory was made upon the express condition that the ceded lands should be considered as a com- —" B & | *» THE UTILIZATION. OF THE VACANT PUBLIC LANDS 57 mon fund for the use and benefit of all the states and should be disposed of for that purpose and for no other purpose whatever. During the existence of the Confederation and in the earlier dec- ades of the Republic, it was clearly contemplated that the lands so acquired, as well as those acquired by purchase and treaties, could only be disposed of for the purpose of revenue for the re- demption of the public debt, and that any other disposition of them would be a violation of the trust. But the policy has gradually changed from a system of sales for revenue only to that of free homes for the people. For the past twenty years the tendency of legislation has been to repeal all laws authorizing the purchase of the public lands by cash entry and to subject them to homestead entry only.” In 1889 a law was passed withdrawing from private cash entry all the public lands, except in the state of Missouri, which was followed by the act of March 3, 1891, repealing the preémption law and declaring that no public lands of the United States, except aban- doned military or other reservations or isolated and disconnected tracts and mineral and other lands of a special nature having ~ local application, shall be sold at public sale. Since the passage of this law isolated tracts are not subject to public sale until they have been subject to homestead entry for three years after the surrounding land has been disposed of and abandoned. Mili- tary reservations containing more than 5,000 acres are now sub- ject to homestead entry only. The public lands are therefore no longer to be disposed of with a view to the revenue to be derived therefrom. Besides, less than thirty years ago a great part of the vast ter- ritory west of the Mississippi river was Indian country, to which the Indian title had not been extinguished, and was practically unorganized territory. Since then all of what was commonly known as the Indian country has been ceded to the United States and become a part of the public domain. The Indian title has been extinguished as to all the territory formerly occupied as hunting grounds, in consideration of which diminished reserva- tions of a permanent character have been established. From time to time states have been admitted into the Union, until the entire country is now divided into separate sovereignties, with all the rights, powers, duties, and privileges of the original states, except the organized territories of Arizona and New Mexico, which are. knocking at the door for admission to the sisterhood. THE MAZAMAS There was organized on the summit of Mount Hood, on July 19, 1894, a society of mountain-climbers called the Mazamas, whose qualification for membership is the ascent of an acceptable snow-capped peak. Re- markable as it may seem, so much enthusiasm was aroused at that time that 193 people ascended 11,225 feet to attend the meeting. W. G. Steel, one of the leading spirits of the occasion, was made the first president of the organization. The objects of the society are mountain exploration, the protection of forests and scenery, and the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge concerning them. In the summer of 1895, with Mr Steel again as presi- dent and T. Brook White as secretary, parties were organized to ascend Mounts Baker, Rainier, Adams, Hood, and Jefferson and establish inter- communication by heliotroping, but, owing to the smokiness of the at- mosphere, the latter part of the program could not be carried out. With Mr C. H. Sholes as president and Rev. Earl M. Wilbur as secre- tary, the society continued its enthusiastic work in the spring of 1896 by publishing the first number of a magazine called Mazama, a record of mountaineering in the Pacific northwest. This publication contains, be- ‘sides the presidential addresses, the reports of the historian for 1894 and 1895, and other matters relating to the society, the following papers: The Flora of Mount Hood, by Thomas Howell, who mentions 272 species growing above 2,000 feet ; The Elevation of Mount Adams, by Prof. Edgar McClure, who states the height of the mountain, as determined by aver- aging three hourly readings of a mercurial barometer compared with three synchronous readings at Seattle, Portland, and Eugene, to be *12,401.9 feet; The Heliotrope in Mountaineering, by T. Brook White, describes the instruments used and the Morse code; The Flora of Mount Adams, by W. N. Suksdorf and Thomas Howell, enumerates 480 species (excluding mosses and lichens) above 2,000 feet; in The Glaciers of Mount Adams Prof. W. D. Lyman estimates that at the timber line there are 8 or 10 glaciers, but only 3 are described as larger than those of Mount Hood. The veteran geologist of Oregon, Prof. Thomas Condon, describes the ice-caves of Mount Adams, which years ago furnished the ice for the city of Portland. He ascribes the cold-storage feature of the caves to currents of cold air descending from the mountain along the tunnels once filled with molten lava from the same source. Under the title of The Klamath Mountains the present writer calls attention to the geologic and topographic relation between the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade and Coast ranges. The Mazama excursion of August, 1896, was to Crater lake, in connec- tion with the Crater Lake clubs of Medford, Ashland, and Klamath Falls in southern Oregon. In all, nearly 500 people attended the meeting, a number of them also ascending Mount Pitt. By previous arrangement *See Nar. Geog. Maa., Vol. vii, No. 4, pp. 151-153. 58 eee eo *S Ep GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 59 four government parties met the excursionists at Crater lake and en- deavored in various ways to promote the success of the occasion. B. W. Evermann, of the Fish Commission, studied the fish food and spawning grounds of the lake and made some interesting observations on the lake temperature. Dr C. Hart Merriam, chief of the Biological Survey of the Agricultural Department, assisted by Vernon Bailey and Edward A. Preble, collected a large number of animals about the rim of the lake and upon the island, and Mr F. V. Coville, the Department Botanist, assisted by Mr Lieburg, made a large collection of plants. A geological party under the charge of the writer prepared a geological map of the region. The heads of all the government parties, as well as many others, were called upon for camp-fire talks, addresses, or recitations concerning matters of scientific and popular interest, especially relating to Crater lake. The proceedings were opened August 18 by the Klamath Falls club before the Mazamas arrived, but thereafter the great camp-fire of the Mazamas was the rendezvous after the excursions of the day. Among the excursionists, aside from the government parties, were a number of botanists and zoologists, as well as geologists and professors of various departments. Many were armed with cameras to carry away permanent impressions of the lake. Asa whole the excursion was a great success, and its fruits are to be found, not only in the widespread interest aroused in such proceed- ings, but also in the forthcoming number of the Mazama, which is to contain full accounts of the lake, both popular and scientific, from various contributors. : J. S. Disver. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE Elementary Geology. By Ralph 8S. Tarr, Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell University. Pp. xxx + 499, with 25 plates and 268 other illustrations. New York: The Macmillan Company. 1897. $1.40. This is a refreshing book. In the first place the type is large and wel] leaded, and the printers have realized the true function of punctuation and largely omitted brain-wearying dots in useless places; so the eye is attracted by the clean-cut pages. In the second place illustrations are freely used to supplement the succinct text, and nearly all the pictures are photo-mechanical reproductions from nature; even the minerals and fossils are represented mainly by half-tone engravings; thus the facts of nature are represented with a vividness and brought home to the under- standing with a vigor not to be attained in any other way. Again the author has realized, at least in some measure, that the progress of knowl- edge is ever from the remote toward the near, and he has had the courage to directly assail the last fortress of the unknown by depicting the every- day and commonplace features of the earth which every child may see, and by explaining the principles of earth-science in terms of common things; no geologic book ever written is less affected by mysticism, scholas- ticism, metaphysics, dialectics, and other pernicious vestiges of intel- lectual barbarism. Then the work must appeal to the teacher, because 60 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE it is adapted to youth and because it fills a need not quite met by any previously issued text-book.. After an introductory chapter the work is divided into three parts, viz., (1) Structural geology, (2) Dynamic geology, and (3) Stratigraphic geol- ogy. Professor Tarr half apologizes in his preface for the space given to the second of these divisions; but he might well have spared the expla- nation and even doubled this eminently practical and useful part of the treatise. The third ‘‘ part’? might better have been divided in name, as it is in fact, into paleontology, or the history of life on the globe, and the geographic development of the continents; for the treatment is essen- tially historical and not at all stratigraphic. Then it would have been in accord with the general method of the book, which is the emphasis of the actual and the near, to give relatively more space to the life of the later ages; also, and more especially, to explain the earlier stages in geographic development of North America in terms of the later stages. Unfortunately these later stages, which are in themselves of great inter- est and are now well understood, receive but little attention. The chief imperfections in the work lie in incompleteness of the treatment from the point of view of the geographer, and are due to the fact that it is a complement to the same author’s ‘‘ Elementary Physical Geography.” In the main, the facts and principles of geology are well generalized and happily expressed. W JM. The Lessons of Erosion Due to Forest Destruction. Chart. The U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Washington, 1896. A part of the exhibit made by the United States Department of Agri- culture at the International and Cotton States Exposition held in Atlanta during the autumn of 1895 was a series of three models representing (1) the soil destruction consequent on the removal of forests, (2) the processes required for reclamation in the same tract, and (3) the same tract as re- claimed and restored to pristine fertility and productiveness. These models were carefully executed by Howell, under the direction of Bern- hard E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry division, with the co-operation of several geologists, particularly W J McGee. These models attracted much attention, and their exhibition in the region in which old-field erosion is particularly active was undoubtedly productive of much good. Recently the features of the models have been reproduced by chromo- lithography in the form of a large wall-chart, for distribution among agriculturists and others. The reproduction, unhappily, is not equal to the models in accuracy of representation, and will hardly be serviceable for educational purposes save in a single direction, viz., in attracting at- tention to a subject of, great economic importance in many parts of the country. WwW JM. Preliminary Report on the Income Account of Railways in the United States for the Year ending June 30, 1896. Interstate Commerce Commission. Pp. 68. Washington, 1896. Prepared by the Statistician to the Com- mission. During the fiscal year 1895-96 the railways of the United States, having an operated mileage of 172,369 miles of line, earned in gross $1, 123,646,562. GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS 61 The operating expenses were $754,971,515, leaving an income from opera- tion of $368,675,047. Two-thirds of the gross earnings were absorbed in operating expenses, leaving one-third as income from operation. High- water mark in railway earnings, as represented by gross earnings and income from operation per mile of line, was reached in 1891-92. In that year gross earnings per mile of line were $7,213, and the income from operation was $2,404. From. that time until 1894-95 the gross earnings diminished, and in that year reached their lowest point, which was $6,050 per mile. The income from operation reached its lowest point in 1893-94, when it was $1,946. In 1895-96 the gross earnings had increased to $6,519 and the income from operation to $2,139 per mile. It is evident from these figures that the lowest point in the business of transportation has been passed, and that this branch of business is on the upgrade. This gain is not confined to any one part of the country, but is shown to extend to all parts, with the exception of the states of Louisiana and Texas. The dividends declared by the roads during the year aggregated $54,983,732, an amount almost identical with that of the preceding year. EL, G. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 1089. Virginia Cartography. A Bibliographical Description by P. Lee Phillips. Washington, 1896. This is an exhaustive account of the early maps of Virginia. Special attention is given to John Wyth’s map of 1585, Capt. John Smith’s map of 1608, and that of Augustine Herman of 1670. Of the multitude of maps published in recent years only a few are listed, and it is difficult to see upon what basis selection was made, unless it be the fact that they happen to be represented in the Library of Congress. A singular omission is that of the sheets of the U. S. Geological Survey, which constitute the modern mother map. HerG: GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS The Bulletin of the Geographical Club of Philadelphia for December com- prises ‘‘A Trip to Manika Land,”’ by J. Edward Farnum. This is a little known region in southeastern Africa, just south of Zambesi river. The article is accompanied by a sketch map. The Journal of Geology for November-December, 1896, is of special in- terest from a geographic point of view. It opens with an article on ‘‘ The Age of the Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada,’’ by W. Lindgren, of the Geological Survey. These gravels were carefully studied by Prof. J. D. Whitney, who assigned them to the Plioceneiage. Mr Lind- gren assigns a somewhat greater age to these beds, placing them in the Miocene or even Eocene, the evidence upon which his conclusions rest being mainly derived from -plant remains. Mr Harry Fielding Reid contributes an exceedingly interesting article upon the ‘‘ Mechanics of Glaciers,’ and Prof. R. D. Salisbury a paperupon ‘‘ The Loess in the Wis- consin Drift Formation.” Mr Carlos Sapper contributes an article on the ‘Geology of Chiapas, Tabasco, and the Peninsula of Yucatan,” accom- OZ); . GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS panied by a small sketch map of this little known region. Another con- tribution by Prof. R. D. Salisbury, entitled ‘Studies for Students,” treats in outline of glacial phenomena. The Scottish Geographical Magazine for January, 1897, contains as its leading article a paper by Dr John Murray on the “ Temperature of the Water of the Scotch Lakes.’’ The observations, which are tabulated in extenso, show as a rule a slight increase of temperature from the surface down to three or four fathoms, and a gradual reduction in temperature down to the greatest depths obtained, viz., 80 fathoms. The article is illustrated by diagrams, which admirably summarize the results. The Geographical Journal for January, 1897, contains a number of articles of interest, among them being accounts of journeys and explorations in Malay, Africa, Australia, and South America. These are, “A Journey Through the Malay States of Trengganu and Kelantan,” by Hugh Clifford; “Researches in Karia,’’ by W. R. Paton and J. L. Myres; ‘‘ Journeys in Gosha and Beyond the Deshek Wama,”’ by Clifford H. Craufurd ; ‘‘Take Mweru and the Luapula Delta,’”’ by A. Blair Watson; ‘‘ Journey from Western Australia to Warina, in South Australia,’ by W. Carr Boyd. Mr W. L. Sclater continues his series of articles on ‘‘ The Geog- raphy of Mammals,”’ the present article being devoted to the Nearctic region. Mr George G. Chisholm has an article on the ‘‘ Distribution of Towns and Villages in England,” especially with reference to their geologic location, an aspect which is beginning to receive attention. The Bulletin of the Sierra Club of California opens with an ascent of Mount Lefroy, in the Canadian Rockies, which resulted in the death of Mr Philip Stanley Abbot. Mr Bolton Coit Brown contributes a pleasant sketch entitled ‘‘ Wanderings in the High Sierra between Mount King and Mount Williamson.’’ The mountain-climber is advised by Mr How- ard Longley “ What to Take and How to Take It.’’ Mr J. M. Stillman writes of a ‘Trip to Tehipite Valley from the Kings River and Grand Cafion,’’ and Theodore S. Solomons upon ‘‘An Early Summer Excursion to the Tuolumne Cafion and to Mount Lyell.” The Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Number 4 of the year 1896, opens with a brief summary of the ‘‘ Topographic Work of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1895.” Signor Romero, the Mexican Minister to the United States, furnishes a most admirable descriptive article on the topography, climate, people, government, and resources of his country. It is well that we should have a better knowledge than we have hitherto possessed of our next-door neighbor on the south. Mr J. V. Brower has an article entitled ‘‘ The Utmost Waters of the Missouri River.” The region described, the headwaters of Red Rock creek, Montana, was ex- plored twenty-five years ago, and has since been subdivided by the Gen- eral Land Office, which by running a line at every mile—east, west, north, and south—surely leaves little room for geographical discovery. The Geographical Society of Lima, Peru, publishes a report, accom- panied by a map, on the ‘‘ Navigability of the Eastern Rivers of Peru.” The map summiarizes the information contained in the report, showing, by means of symbols, the head of navigation of the rivers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 63 The Journal of the Tyneside Geographical Society gives considerable space to Arctic exploration, the first article being on the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, by Mr A. Montefiore Brice, and the second upon Nansen’s expedition, by Professor Mohn. ‘‘ The Resources of Canada”’ are treated by Sir Donald A. Smith. It seems strange that with such wonderful resources of soil, climate, and minerals as Canada is said to possess, its development has been so slow. The exceedingly interesting lecture on Venezuela, delivered before the National Geographic Society by Prof. Wm. E. Curtis, is republished in this magazine. Sir Frederic Goldsmid continues in this number his papers upon ‘ Persia and Her Neighbors.” H. G: PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, SESSION 1806-’97 Regular Meeting, January 8, 1897.—Vice-President Merriam in the chair. Mr J. 8. Diller addressed the Society on the subject of Crater Lake, Ore- gon, with lantern-slide illustrations. Special Meeting, January 15, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Mr Sidney Dickinson, M. A., F. R. G. S., lectured on Picturesque New Zealand, with lantern-slide illustrations. Regular Meeting, January 22, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair, Mr T.S. O’Leary read a paper entitled ‘‘ Winds and Their Uses, with some Types of Ocean Weather,” illustrating his subject with lantern slides. Special Meeting, January 29, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Major Henry E. Alvord, C. K., read an address, illustrated by lantern slides, on the Geography of a Battle, with special reference to the battle of Cedar Creek, October 19, 1864. Regular Meeting, February 5, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Joint meeting with the American Forestry Association. Dr B. E. Fernow read a paper entitled ‘‘ The Gardens, Forests, and Deserts of Arizona,” with lantern-slide illustrations. Special Meeting, February 12, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Hon. Wm. L. Wilson, Postmaster General, read a paper, with incidental anecdotes and recollections, on the Development of the United States Postal Service. Exvecrions.—New members have been elected as follows: January 12.—Henry Black, Jos. R. Buckalew, J. Ross Colhoun, Arthur J. Collie, Geo. E. Corson, Arthur B. Crane, Miss Ida R. Hamaker, Alvin M. Lothrop, Miss Leontine Mackay, Hon. R. E. Preston, W. C. Ralston, Miss Isabella Read, Miss Alice B. Sanger, W. A. Shaw, Dr Max West. January 22.—Francis B. Austin, Jas. O. Broadhead, Ellwood P. Cub- berly, Mrs A. M. Davis, Chief-Eng. Jas. A. Doyle, U. S. R. M., C. C. Duncanson, G. 8. Hobbs, Capt. D. H. Kelton, U. 8S. A., Dr Fridtjof Nan- sen (honorary), Hon. Edward Lee Plumb, T. C. Powell, Col. Wm. H. 64 MISCELLANEA Powell, U.S. A., Albertus McCreary, H. D. Mirick, E. J. Shives, Ed- ward A. Wright. February 11.—Col. 'C. J. Allen, U. S. A., M. W. Baldwin, Miss M. S$. Booz, Hon. Chas. A. Boutelle, M. C., Oscar Fitz Clifford, James Fraser, E. B. Grandin, Edward Graves, Gen. John P. Hawkins, U.S. A., Leander L. Hawkins, Mrs Mary A. Hepburn, Dr David J. Hill, J. Q. Kern, Frank M. Kurie, C. E., F. A. Lester, Miss Julia C. Lindsley, Miss Harriet A. Luddington, Edgar A. Lynham, Mrs Mary K. Matthews, Mrs B. 8S. Mc- Donald, F. W. Pettigrew, C. E., Warren W. Phelan, J.Q. Redway, F. R.G.S., P. C. Riley, James Edgar Smith, Herbert G. Squiers, George B. Stark- weather, Frank B. Taylor, Matthew Trimble, Thos. P. Woodward. MISCELLANEA The North American Review for February contains a valuable article by John Hays Hammond, from which the following items of interest are abstracted: From 1887 to 1895 the Transvaal produced gold to the value of $158,750,000, $144,000,000 of which came from the Witwatersrand dis- trict. The central part of this district, 27 miles of reef, is expected to produce $3,000,000,000 of gold, of which two-thirds is in the central sec- tion of 11.5 miles; its output for 1896 was $37,000,000, or about 16 per cent of that of the entire world. California produced up to January, 1897, $1,282,000,000 in gold, three-fourths being from placers. Kimberley has produced upwards of twelve tons of diamonds, representing a value of $400,000,000; the present annual production is about 2,500,000 carats, of the value of $20,000,000. ; A. W. G. The Rajputs and Brahmans of India are breaking down the barriers of caste and displaying in competition with the Anglo-Saxon race that bril- liance and subtlety of intellect for which they are distinguished. Prof. Jagadis Chunder Bose, of the University of Calcutta, has excited the aston- ishment and admiration of all Europe by his recent papers on the Deter- mination of the Indices of Electric Refraction and of the Wave-lengths of Electric Radiation. The highest honors of the India Civil Service ex- aminations for 1896 also fell to a Hindoo, who vanquished in a keen intel- lectual encounter many candidates with distinguished academic careers. In England Prince Ranjitsinhji has taken high university honors, besides securing by the brilliancy of his play the very foremost place in the great national game of cricket. Several Indian barristers have won their way into the higher ranks of the legal profession in London, an Indian physi- cian was recently elected to the staff of one of the London hospitals, and . two highly educated Indian surveyors are working in British Central Africa. In November the University of Oxford conferred the degree of Doctor of Music upon Raja Svi Sourindro Mohun Tajore, of Caleutta, the principal exponent of the theory of Indian music, who has for 31 years devoted his wealth and talents to the development of music among his countrymen. In this case, however, the recipient of the distinction was unwilling to lose caste, even temporarily, by crossing the ocean, and the degree was conferred in absentia. 5 ie 5's THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY THE FortHCOMING CourRSE OF LECTURES ON THE EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING THE CIVILIZATION OF THE WoriLp As supplementary to the general synopsis of this Course, pub- lished in the January number of THe NatrionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGaZInk, the following special synopses have been furnished by the different lecturers : March l. The Effect of Geographic Environment in the Development of Civilization in Prehistoric Man, by Hon. Garpiner G. Husparp. The civilization of man did not originate from within, but has ever been the effect of geographic environment, pressing from without. While civilization has been on the whole beneficial, yet every advance has been accompanied by suffering and death. Man was originally sub- ject to nature and depended on nature for his food and habitation, and was even less provided than many other animals. ; The joy and suffering of the savage were less than those of civilized man, for care and responsibility come with civilization. Civilization has never advanced steadily in any country or any age. After remaining stationary for ages and often retrograding, beginning in the Orient it has gradually traveled westward, save in its early progress to China in the east and to Egypt in the south. Nearly three-fourths of the earth have always been and are now occu- pied by savages or barbarians and nomad races. Three-fourths of the population are civilized and occupy the remaining quarter of the globe. The earliest remains of man are found in banks of rivers and in caves in England and France, and are accompanied by bones of animals, either long since extinct or now living in the arctic or torrid zones, showing the great antiquity of man, and his manner of life and implements of offense and defense. Savage and barbarous nations obtain all their food from nature, and, like many animals, have no care or thought for the morrow; this un- certainty of life leads to recklessness and idleness. The first step in advance seems to have been made by the inhabitants of central Asia, where the geographical environment furnished induce- ment for the life of the nomad, for here was the home of the sheep, goat, and horse. They were obliged to care for their flocks morning and night, and in summer provide for winter. Thus they were trained in ways un- known to the savage, and took the first step toward civilization. These THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ‘ nomads have never made further progress; they live the same life today in Arabia and central Asia that they have lived for thousands and per- haps tens of thousands of years. The next step in civilization, and the first progressive step, was in coun- tries like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China, where rivers overflow their banks and irrigate the desert, and where the people were taught of neces- sity to dig irrigating ditches. The land yielded luxuriantly and with little labor, so alarge population was soon gathered, and men were thus brought in close contact—for there can be no progressive civilization without the intimate contact of man with man. This contact is impossible where men live by hunting, or by pasturing cattle, for then one man requires for his support the same territory that will sustain many civilized men. The civilization of Egypt and Mesopotamia was of a low order, for there could be neither liberty of thought nor of action where there were only two classes, master and servant. Under the Patriarchal system the father was the head of the family, the children were subject to him and the property belonged to him. As the families increased, the successor of the father, the oldest or most powerful son, became in like manner the patriarch. We see these feat- ures exemplified in the life of Abraham, who had absolute control over the life of Isaac. The continuance of this despotism and slavery in Babylon led to luxury, decay, and the extinction of civilized life. It was not until civilization reached Greece that personal freedom, with liberty of mind and body, was obtained, and only then was the com- mencement of arts, science, and true civilization. March 8. Babylonia, by Witt1am Hayes Warp, D.D., LL. D., of The Independent. It is still uncertain whether civilization began in the Nile or the _ Euphrates valley. Babylonian history must now be pushed back a thousand years or more beyond Sargon of Agane, who lived 3800 B. C. It is generally asserted that civilization must begin in a river bottom which affords abundant food for a dense population and compels division of labor. Record of civilization begins with writing: all progress before it is prehistoric. Writing was independently invented in these two val- leys. The Nile and Euphrates valleys had important differences, though alike in climate and fertility. The Nile valley is accessible only at its lower end, protected on the sides by desert and at the upper end by cataracts. The Euphrates valley is easily attacked from the north to- wards Syria and Armenia, and from the east towards Elam, and was liable to be overrun by barbarous hordes. The composite Euphrates and Tigris valley differs from the Nile valley in the nature of its floods. The Tigris flood comes first, and the flood is not so much welcomed as guarded against. Irrigation by canals is of first importance. Babylonia is a land of natural swamps, where the mounds of old cities and the banks of great canals are the chief feature of the landscape. As soon as irrigation ceases all returns to desolation. The valley has advanced more than a hundred miles into the Persian gulf since its first cities were built. 2 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY In the Nile valley the date palm was first cultivated, while wheat and barley came probably from the Euphrates region. Very ancient monu- ments show gods adorned with grain and honored with the plow. The native fauna included the buffalo, the wild ox, the ass, the sheep, and the goat, all domesticated in the earliest times and providing an un- equaled basis for incipient civilization. These natural advantages allowed a dense population, but the danger of invasion, especially from Elam, compelled the population, which from the beginning had had to fight lions, leopards, and wild oxen, also to fight their neighbors. This developed a more warlike race than inhabited Egypt. Barbaric invasions also gave a more composite population, and necessitated civil wars. From the beginning of history we find Baby- lonia attacking Elam on the east and reaching, to the north and west, as far as the Mediterranean. Before the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty Egyptian influence had hardly entered Asia, while Babylonia ruled as far as Cyprus, and it was Babylonian culture which controlled Asia Minor and all the coast, created the Assyrian and Hittite people, and through these and the Pheenician trade gave the chief impulse to Greek civiliza- tion. March 15. Syria, by Rev. Dr. THomas J. SHAMAN, of the Catholic University of America. Syria: Its human interest; from time immemorial a battlefield; the scene of West Asiatic conquest and defeat. The empires of Egypt and Africa. The Lombardy of the Orient. The forum of eastern and west- ern civilizations. The converging point of far Eastern trade. Emporium for other Mediterranean nations and the far West. The Phcenician era. Tyre and Sidon. Colonies. The place of ancient Syria in letters, art, and politics. Orographical formation: Rivers; Table-lands ; The Great Steppe. Vege- tation. Geological formation: Cretaceous limestone of the plateaux. Basaltic peaks. Alluvial lands. Clay soils of the Steppe. Political geography: Pre-Egyptian inhabitants. Egyptian conquest. A subject state of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia. The inheritance of the Greek generals of Alexander. Armenian and Parthian masters. Be- comes part of the world-empire of Rome. Chief bazaar and art-museum of the empire. The causes of its decline and early conquest by Arab invaders. Islam and Syria. March 22. Tyre and Sidon, by Professor Tuomas Davripson, M. A., of Brooklyn, N. Y. The Pheenicians a branch of the Semites. The Semitic character and form of social union. Religion. Devotion to industry and trade. The extent of Semitic civilization. Homeric Greece and the civilization of Agamemnon Semitic. The Semitic character as affected by surroundings; by the desert (Arabs) ; by the fertile land (Babylonians, etc.); by mountains and sea (Phoenicians). Pheenicians unwarlike but enterprising. Nature-of their civilization, industry, and trade. 3 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Two phases of Phcenician civilization, represented by Sidon and Tyre. In the west, we can trace the former by the deities Poseidon (7. e., Baal- Sidon) and Amphitrite (¢. e., Aphrodite); the latter Heraklés (Melcarth) and Pallas (i. e., Baalat) Athena’. The quarrel between Poseidon and Pallas: the Parthenon group. The Olympia metopes. The extent of the Phcenician trade, and its effect upon the countries visited. They double the Cape of Good. Hope. The Pheenician colo- nies, Carthage, etc., and their civilization: its strength and weakness. Want of idealism and political sense. The dangers of a merely industrial civilization. Why Carthage succumbed to Rome. The world’s debt to Phoenicia, as an example of industrial enterprise, unrelieved by art, literature, or science. March 29. Greece, by Professor BrensAmin Ipr WHeeEteEr, LL. D., of Cornell University. Greece: how its geography explains its history. Its position. The outpost of Europe; though removed from it by its peninsular form, not severed from connection with it. Greek ideas are representative occidental ideas. The contrast of occidentalism and orien- talism. Joined to Asia by a bridge of islands and by the navigable ‘Zgean. Hence open to the reception of eastern ideas and motives, but secured in its capability of assimilating them. The extent and nature of eastern influence. Surrounded by the Mediterranean, hence a distribut- ing medium. Its primacy in Mediterranean civilization. Relations of this civilization to modern European civilization. Its geography. The irregularity of its coastline. Proximity of all its parts to the sea. Abundance of sheltered beach-harbors. Absence of great. rivers. Contrast with the great river civilization of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Partition into districts by mountains. Features of moun- tain chains: not impassable barriers. Plains of limited size: these en- courage particularism and a consciousness of the .power of individual initiative. Plains mostly accessible to the sea. Communication by sea rather than by land encouraged. Opened outward rather than inward, motive to union lessened. Variety in relative location of the plains pro- ductive of variety in conditions of life, and hence of social and political ideas.. Greece a mosaic. The islands so numerous as to set a standard of political and material existence. Extension of the analogy to the Athens of Themistocles and Pericles. Citadels treated as islands. Its size and the distances between its ports. Superficial area. Distance between important points. Routes and methods of communication: Effect of dimensions upon the Greek sense of proportion and upon the stimulation of individual energy. Climate and products. Temperature and contrast of seasons. Outdoor life. Sociability. Democracy. Interest in athletics. Winds. Effect on commerce. Rainfall and fertility. Products of soil. Bent toward com- merce rather than agriculture. Urban life and attitude toward farmers. Important sites. Cities: Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Athens, and their geographical characteristics. Battlefields : Marathon, Mantinea, Cheero- nea, Salamis. Festal places: Olympia, Delphi. ; impressions of Greek scenery. 4 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY April 5. Rome, by Rey. Dr Atex: Mackay-Smirn, of Washington, D.C, The name: its significance in history. Differentiation from other world- forces. Its position. The people who founded it. Environment. Mix- ture of races. The resultant in terms of character. The opportunity of Rome. Clearing the way. The enlargement of power. What the sea did for Rome. What Rome did for man. Evolution and involution. Its growth in certain virtues. The vice of those virtues. The virtue of those vices. The wings and claws of the eagle. The culmination of glory. The sphere of influence. Why the Republic became an Empire, and the Em- pire waned. Roots and fungi.” The Imperial City: its splendor; what it stood for. The upheaval of new forces. Readjustment. The turning oversof Europe. Fresh foci. The barbarian at the gates. Medisyal Rome. Its influence. Its rationale. Its weakness and power. The re- naissance. Old foes with new faces. Its meaning in Art and Religion. Reverence and contempt. The dust-heap and ant-hill. The city of today. The “hiding of its power.’’ What it means to the scholar, to the artist, tothe traveler. Characteristics. The strength of ruins. The palimpsest of history. April 12. Constantinople, by Prof. Epwin A. Grosvenor, of Amherst College. Rome, though able to build up a universal empire, could no longer re- tain her place as the world’s capital under conditions existent at the end of the third century. A change of site was absolutely necessary. A new world-capital must be planted on some spot possessed of four requisites : the positional, the strategic, the material, and the sentimental. Former emperors had perceived this fact, but the undertaking was beyond their power. The name of Constantine is immortalized and his statesmanship demonstrated in that he took definite and decisive action. Only after years of disappointed examination did he recognize the one preéminent site. ‘*‘ No city chosen by the art of man has been so well chosen and so permanent.’’ The history and influence, the whole being of none other, has been so determined by physical causes, by environment. The spot once selected, the city was the creation of nature rather than the result of imperial decree. In the hands of its environment it was a passive and by means of its environment an active factor. It gave strength to the empire rather than derived strength from the empire. From 330 to 1204 it was the queen-city of the world. During those tumultuous nine cen- turies, while every other continental city was captured more than once, Constantinople did not once succumb to foreign attack. The crowned heir of Rome and Italy, it was inevitably the heir of Athens and Greece. Hellenismos, deserting the Ilyssos and Kephissos, found its focal center on the banks of the Bosphorus, and under the name Byzantine was distinctly Greek. When the world’s front changed, Constantinople lost for a time its un- disputed preéminence, but has never descended to a lower rank than that of capital of anemfpire. During the last centuries its political importance, because of its political possibilities, has constantly increased. Today the 0 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY most stupendous problem of statecraft is the ultimate fate of Constanti- nople in case of modifications in the east. Its transference from the hands of the Ottomans involves a reorganization and readjustment of European interests no less momentous than resulted from the wars of the Reformation or of the French Revolution. There are but three possible solutions of the problem, none of them satisfactory to all and each dis- tasteful to some one or more of the powers most directly concerned. Between these three time is to choose. The lecture will treat as fully as possible of the many-sided city, but the central thought will be its political pr: ominence and destiny. April 19. Venice and Genoa, by Prof. Wituias H. Goopykar, os the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The German precision and the Byzantine culture in western Suen The position of Italy in medizeval history as mediator for Byzantine influ- ence in Europe. The Italian towns which were active in this influence. Predecessors of Venice and Genoa. The monuments of Genoa. The monuments of Venice. The painters of Venice.’ April 26. America. Arrangements not completed. (These lectures will be delivered inthe Columbia theater, Washington, D. C., on nine successive Monday afternoons, commencing March 1. Hach lecture will be accompanied by lantern-slide illustrations. ) . ie CRariot oy ... Of the Sun” S T LIMITED j is the Southern Pacific’s great train, running through - solid from New Orleans to the Pacific Coast. ¢ | T LIMITED leaves New Orleans every Monday and Thursday, at ro o’clock in the morning. se ET LIMITED covers the 2006 miles to Los Angeles in 58 hours, and the 2489 to San Francisco in 75 hours. By SET LIMITED is vestibuled throughout, steam heated and gas lighted, SUNSE T LIMITED has a ladies’ parlor the full width and a third the i. _ length of a car, equipped with fine library, escritoire and writing +f yarn) naterials, large easy chairs, etc. LIMITED has an equally commodious smoking and reading room for gentlemen, supplied in a similar manner. ET LIMITED has bath room, barber shop and _ buffet—luxuries the tourist will appreciate. SET LIMITED has a car containing seven drawing rooms, which can . be used separately or en suzte, each having private lavatory and _ toilet facilities. ‘ aay in A hich meals are served @ /a carte. | LIMITED is accompanied by a maid whose services are at the Linrep is at your service, and any Southern Pacific Agent Il be glad to tell you all about it, or if you want to know more send ‘Io cents in stamps to the General Passenger Agent, and a beautiful book of 205 pages, that will tell you all about the route, ll be sent you. Ss. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger and Ticket Agent, NEW ORLEANS. a Among the | ee BE THE FOLLOWING; A Winter Voyage through the Straits of | By ADMIRAL R. W. MEADE, U. S. N. Weather Forecasts and Storm Wari By PROF. WILLIS is MOORE, — CHIEF | OF THE Wearier BUREAU 5 A ‘Summer Voyage to the Arctic, p BY Ge RE PUTNAM ; BY GENERAL A. W.. GREELY, CHIEF SIGNAL. Ornicer, U. SF Aun, se BY PROF. FREDERIC W. TAYLOR. ‘ JUDD & DETWHILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. >? fh J + x f AN ILLUSTRATED. MONTHLY Pi ss j 0 Sor i Honorary Editor: JOHN HYDE ad er Honorary: Associate I Editors 3 . GREELY WJMcGEE “~ HENRY GANNETT C. HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE f D : hy she ~i x CONTENTS | j ~~ , 4 — a eee e PAGE ‘ 1D Ww x ‘HER RECASTS. by Wirns.t, MOORE. 65 | 7 arts, ; y ‘ ‘ FORESTS oF NICAE AGUA AND SIERRA LEONE, | ‘ \ ‘GEN. A. W. GREELY: 33 | ' ONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA. ‘Ss \ ‘) |B. DB’SASSEVILLE. 88 | ; Saag arth p. 91; GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS, p. 92; " BEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, ; GnOqRart NOTES, p95. ~ Pas . . WASHINGTON ae AI PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONALC~GEOGRAPHIG, SOCIETY AGENTS- IN THE Wrrvev STATES AND CANADA Tue Arenicar Niws-Goawasi 3Waxp- 41 Cuywerrs Srreer, New York a Paris: Brenranos, 37 AVENUE DE VOreRA $2.50 a Year st fice in Washington, D.C:, as Second-class Mail Matter. 4 Me -. be ; A -Presmexr GARDINER. @. HOBBARD : as “View Prnsipesns “MARCUS B BAKER rt Pre NS PATEL, DATO jc he a GX GIDBERT “ iW hae Henny Pawasue CHARLES: a BELL i z Y Rusconping Snorenany : EVERETT HAYDEN: ro ie A F BLOUNT | _W. DABNEY, Jr. _ DAVID T. DAY JOHN HYDE | mbers pay also an entrance fee of $2.00 on election. Tre N ATO A MaGazine is sent regularly to all members, both active and corresponding, FL Donations for the foanoine of Prize. ‘Medals ee respectfully pie NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE + + + dpe etenn ete rete eter ote mete rete wetinw etn matin ine Teme twat nate gthe a ate ate ate ate te ste wate ate ote.) MAP OF THE KOOTENAI ¢+/~ HE most complete map of the rich mining region of the Kootenai and adjacent territory in Washington and British Columbia SX has just been published by the NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY. It is just what is needed by those going to that country or who desire to study and know about it. The map is made in relief, is 25 by 18 inches in size between borders, and has in connection with it—on the same page—two smaller maps that show the relation of the region to the world at large. The principal drainage of the country is laid down in blue, the trails and roads are shown, the rail- ways plainly indi- cated, the names of important towns printed in large black letters, and the topography is represented in brown. As far as the ore deposits are known, they are indicated in a a Be At i general way by red SMELTER, TRAIL, B. C. lettering. The country shown upon the map includes particularly the Slocan, Kootenai Lake, Cariboo Creek, Deer Park,, Nelson, Salmon River, Trail or Rossland, and the Boundary Creek regions. It also shows the Arrow Lakes and Lardeau country and some portion of the Okanogan region. The map is compiled from reliable and official data and shows the Mining District Subdivisions and the elevations of the mountains and lakes. The opposite side of the sheet contains an accurate statement and description of the country, showing its discovery and development to the present time. The folder will be sent to any address, together with f a copy of WONDERLAND, ’97, Sc ames ania Die Sn DEERE DERI SNE DNL DR A DS aaa Da DREN DERN DUNK DANN DRS DK Dn Det a ee ee a a Da a a a i a eae our new tourist book, upon receipt of six cents in stamps. CHAS. S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. sa nk Denil Denk Deine Deine Deine aia Dai 2 Oe a oc aie Din Denk Danek Deak Deal a Deak Deen Dein Dei ty NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE eGR SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST s¢+%++e SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest.. - DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. ite Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mabile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... . .. - The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, | Winter Resorts of . . . ». MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, ——AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.” Write for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, General Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, 1). C. J. H. WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. Ss. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. THE SHORTEST, QUICKEST, _ MOST ATTRACTIVE ROUTE IS BY THE LINES OPERATED OVER THE orida Central & Peninsular R. R. THE FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR RAILROAD begins on the north at Columbia, runs through Savannah, Jacksonville, Ocala, ‘'ampa, Fernandina, Gainesville, Orlando, and Tallahassee. It is the direct route to take for St. Augustine, Lake Worth, and all East Coast points; for Miami, Key West, and Nassau; also for points on the Gulf of Mexico and Havana and for all the principal interior points in Florida. Three trains daily from New York during the tourist season, passing through Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. One of the finest trains in the country is the NEW YORK AND FLORIDA LIMITED, with Compartment Cars, Pullman Sleepers, Observation Cars, Dining Cars, and Passenger Coaches. This Wain leaves New York at 12.10 noon and arrives at Jacksonville at 3.30 p. m. next day, St. Augustine at 4. p. m. : The CINCINNATI AND FLORIDA LIMITED, another very elegant vestibuled train, makes as run in about 24 hours between Cincinnati and Jacksonville, via Chattanooga, Atlanta, Macon, and verett. The ASHEVILLE ROUTE is the scenic route (over the Carolina mountains) between Cincin- nati and Jacksonville, via Knoxville, the Mountain Resorts, Columbia, and Savannah. The KANSAS CITY through car route is by this road, via Fort Scott, Memphis, Holly Springs, Birmingham, Atlanta and Everett. The NEW ORLEANS !through sleeper route runs from New Orleans by Pensacola on this route and via the beautiful Middle Florida Country. Remember that the FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR does not only go to Jack- sonville, but distributes passengers by close connections all over the State. Get THE BEST INDEXED MAP OF FLORIDA from any of our agents or from the General Passenger Agent. ; J. L. ADAMS, Genl. Eastern Agt., Ww. B. PENNINGTON, Genl. Western Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. 417 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, O. WALTER G. COLEMAN, Genl. Trav. Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. N. S. PENNINGTON, Traffic Manager, A. O. MacDONELL, Genl. Pass. Agt., Jacksonville, Fla. _ OOOSOO0O089 GOSS OSSS90500 NATIONAL ao GRAPHIC MAGAZINE exegosenennnsegeng0g980000° o The Great Hotels KEY WEST AND MIAMI ore mm) 1 STEAMSHIP CO. _ 68000090 Oe Qe THE BEAUTIFUL ROUTE TO O pz Ey wWwESsSsT. Li’ East Coast © Ten Hours from Miaimi along the Florida peenores Keys in daylight. ) ppcuamgs | See local time card for sailing dates. oe eae eae Seon. € MIAMI AND NASSAU ae @ STEAMSHIP SERVICE : Sp © Miami he N ssau, N. P. _SSOSCOGCE Oe (Bahama ssa ), Ee Railway. Will be inaugurated about JANUARY 15th for the WINTER ‘TOURIST SEASON @ . ayy OF 1897 =, GCSSeSSSSssees See advertisements for sailing dates. FSI & For map of Florida and book Florida East Coast, address— J. D. RAHNER, & J. R. PARROTT, J. P. BECKWITH, Asst General Pass'y Agent, i Vice-President. Traffic Manager. St. Augustine, Fla, @GOLeQeeeonogonogsonceooen Sobogeongasscess \ SSS — = HE MAPLE L yo THE DIRECT LINE ETWEEN CHICAGO, DUBUQUE, is ST. PAUL.MINNEAPOLIS, DES MOINES. Woo ST. JOSEPH ANDKANSAS CITY. a NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New Vork, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Hast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. ™ Mutual Life Insurance Company OF NEW YORK, ( RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, IS # The Largest and Best Life Insurance Company in the World, x Assets over $220,000,000. The Mutual Life has Paid since Organization . .. . 2 + « « « + « . Over $388,440,897 to Policy-holders. ’ The New Instalment Policy issued by this Company is admirably adapted to the wants of the Insuring Public. EVERY DESIRABLE FORM OF POLICY IS ISSUED BY THE MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY OF NEW YORK. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PoaSTPAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . PACIFIC. The Overland Limited yeep UTAH and CALIFORNIA. , \V %s pictor™ FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING frat OVERLAND ROUTE. Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' Ee... LOMAX. Folders and other Advertising Matter. Genera! Passenger and Ticket Agent, i OMAHA, NEB. (Mention this publication.) NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE National Geographic Monographs On the PHySICcAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - V GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - j BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - C. Willard Hayes MrT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets toone address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati Z Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. WHENEVER YOU. VISH) WASHINGTON. YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE on _eeceeeeee ee ee + MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + OE OF Ave WOODWARD & LOTHROP OOOO SOO OO SOS GOS O80 SOS00S080 Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are eres on eee The attention of those who anticipate purchasing BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in aay nuniber of pieces desired. : HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in pelos and 4C he oY: design: Three or more pieces : CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. OSCOE ~We@@eCoue ws NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY -- RUNS... Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. __ Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. RAV AV AVAVAVAV AVA VA VA AVA AV AVA AVA A VITAL POINT —-====aa A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM IMPROVEMENT THE ORDER OF THE AG .** PREMES RARER BS MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- a STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. - e u sti Cypewriter's Superior on This FPcint as Well as on All Others. . The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., a Wives Cuscivse: SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. > RRERADRDRDRDRRDRRARDRARARARAARAARAS Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 1416 F Street. RARER BABAA NAL AAA UAL AVAUVAUVAVAVAVAULUAVAVAUAVAVAUALUAUALAVALU AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE IN DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WHIST, STRAIGHT WhIST AND EUCHRE, Since Duplicate and Com- r r pass ed tae come into Cosmos Duplicate Whist Score fashion there has been au Se unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to the fact that mere duck is to a large extent eliminated by a comparison of the scores made in the play of the same hands by different players. COMPASS WHIST DUPLICATE WHIST The one thing needed to perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score made on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost aud won on just such little chances. Win y-7, 1896. W :N ip A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty aud useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,” and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). ounter, patented Jul :Ois: oa Oo: = a = oa 3 | Oo = Boy EI a mn 3 Hei mn i=} 1S) o c= - = = Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the sanie or another ‘table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. The ‘Cosmos Score Card,’’ prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. Copyright, 1895, by Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct trom the General Agents. E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII MARCH, 1897 No. 3 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS By Proressor WILuis L. Moorr, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau While the practical application of meteorological science to the making of weather forecasts will never reach the degree of accu- racy attained by theoretical astronomy in predicting the date of an eclipse or the return of a comet, meteorology has made dur- ing the last century such substantial progress as to seriously engage the attention of thoughtful man and cause him to make special effort to apply the knowledge gained to the commerce and industry of the world. Comparing meteorology with astronomy, we may say that it passed through the Chaldean and Ptolemaic periods with the invention of the barometer and thermometer early in the 17th century ; that it reached the Copernican stage with the discovery of the rotary and progressive motion of storms, and that it now awaits the genius of a Kepler or the magic intuition of a Newton to unravel the mysteries that still baffle the student. But it is doubtful whether any other branch of science, unless it be electricity, has shown more wonderful progress during the past quarter-century. Where man but a few years ago, on ac- count of his limited range of vision, thought that chaos reigned supreme, we are now able, by the aid of daily meteorological observations and the wonderful telegraph joining our cities by an electrical touch, to trace out the harmonious operations of many physical laws that previously were unknown. Practical meteorology is to some extent a tentative work. It may be placed upon a plane with the theory and practice of 5 66 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS medicine and surgery. The forecaster is in a degree guided in his calculations by symptoms, and he is able to diagnose the atmospheric conditions with about the same degree of accuracy that the physician is able to determine the bodily condition of the patient. He is able to forecast changes in the weather with rather more certainty than the skilled physician can predict the course of a well-defined disease. As to the genesis of weather forecasting, it must be said that to the immortal Franklin belongs the credit of divining that storms have a rotary motion and that they progress in an easterly direction. To be sure, without the aid of the telegraph and of simultaneous observations his discovery was little more than a speculation; nevertheless it was one of those sagacious anticipa- tions of coming knowledge which mark the true scientific genius. Grand as a patriot, able as a statesman and diplomat, he was no less great as a student in the broad domain of science; he was one of the isolated figures that stand so far in advance of the knowledge of their day as often to be imperfectly understood. His idea of drawing the lightning from the clouds and identify- ing it with the electric currents of the earth was capable of physical demonstration, but his contemporaries did not appre- ciate his philosophy of storms, written in a fragmentary man- ner before 1750, and so it remained for Redfield, Espy, Henry, Loomis, Maury, and other Americans, 100 years later, to gather the data and completely establish that which the great Franklin so accurately had outlined. American meteorologists can justly take pride in the achievements of these their countrymen. In 1855 Professor Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, collected, by telegraph, observations from a number of stations and displayed a large map showing the meteorological conditions at these points, but the breaking out of the civil war caused him to suspend his reports. He made oral forecasts and used his charts for the purpose of demonstrating the utility of a government meteorological service and the feasibility of making forecasts from daily, telegraphic, synchronous observations. If there were no other achievements to the credit of this great insti- tution, the work of Professor Henry in connection with practical meteorology would alone be sufficient to command the admira- tion of all who love knowledge because of the benefits it confers uponman. As we glance into the past and hastily note the mile- posts along the highways of science, the lives and actions of those who gave new thoughts, or who by their discoveries opened up te a STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 67 useful and diverging paths, stand like lofty beacon towers, mark- ing the rugged pathway pursued by advancing civilization. Professor Buys-Ballot, of Utrecht, induced Holland to estab- lish a weather service, with telegraphic reports and forecasts, in 1860; England followed with a similar service in 1861, and France in 1863. The United States was the fourth government to establish a permanent weather service, although its scientists were the pioneers in discovering the progressive character of storms and in demonstrating the practicability of weather sery- ices. In 1869 Professor Cleveland Abbe published a weather bulletin and forecast at Cincinnati, based upon simultaneous observations ‘secured by telegraph from about 30 stations. From the introduction of the electro-magnetic telegraph in 1844 down to 1869 intermittent and desultory advocations for a government weather service were made by many in this country. Finally Dr Increase A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, student, scientist, and philanthropist, so aroused the property and industrial in- terests of the country by the facts that he presented relative to the destruction of life and property by storms on Lake Michigan that Congress, under the provisions of a bill introduced by Gen- eral Halbert E. Paine, was induced to appropriate money to initiate such a service. To General Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army, was intrusted the duty of in- augurating a tentative weather service by deploying over the country as observers the military signalmen of his command. The system by which the United States Weather Bureau col- lects meteorological observations and makes weather forecasts may be briefly described as follows. This morning at 8 o’clock, Washington time—which, by the way, is about 7 o’clock at Chicago, 6 o’clock at Denver, and 5 o'clock at San Francisco— the observers at about 150 stations scattered throughout the United States were taking their observations, and, from carefully tested and standardized instruments, noting all the elementary conditions of the air at the bottom of the great aerial ocean in which we live, and which, by its variations of heat and cold, sun- shine, cloud, and tempest, affects not only the health and happi- ness of man, but his commercial and industrial welfare. By 8.25 a. m. the necessary mathematical corrections have been made, the observations have been reduced to cipher, and each has been filed at the local telegraph office. During the next 30 or 40 minutes these observations, with the right of way 68 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS - over all lines, are speeding to their destinations, each station contributing its own observations and receiving in return, by an ingenious system of telegraph circuits, such observations from other stations as it may require. ‘The observations from all stations are received at such centers as Washington, Chicago, New York, and other large cities, and nearly. all cities having a Weather Bureau station receive a sufficient number of reports from other cities to justify the issuing of a daily weather map- Before examining the accompanying charts, it may be well to glance at the Central Office in Washington, while the observa- tions are coming in, so as to get an idea of how the charts are made for the study of the forecast official. From these he gets a panoramic view, not only of the exact conditions of the air over the whole country at the moment of taking the observa- tions one hour before, but of the changes which have occurred in those conditions during the preceding 24 hours. As fast as the reports come from the wires they are passed to the Forecast Division, where a reader stands in the middle of the room and translates the cipher into figures and words of intelligible sequence. A force of clerks is engaged in making graphic rep- resentations of the geographical distribution of the different meteorological elements. On blank charts of the United States each clerk copies from the translator that part of each station’s report needed in the construction of his particular chart. One clerk constructs a chart showing the change in temperature during the preceding 24 hours. Broad, red lines separate the colder from the warmer regions, and narrow red lines inclose areas showing changes in temperature of more than 10 degrees. The narrow lines generally run in oval or circular form, indi- cating (as will be shown subsequently) that atmospheric dis- turbances move and operate in the form of great progressive eddies; that there are central points of intensity from which the force of the disturbance diminishes in all directions. A second clerk constructs a chart showing the change that has occurred in the barometer during the past 24 hours. Asin the construction of the temperature chart, broad, heavy lines of red separate the regions of rising barometer from those of falling barometer. Narrow lines inclose the areas over which the change in barometer has been greater than one-tenth, and so on. Here, for instance, throughout a great expanse of territory, all the barometers are rising—that is to say, the air cools, con- tracts, becomes denser, and presses with greater force upon the STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 69 surface of the mercury in the cisterns of the instruments, thereby sustaining the columns of liquid metal at a greater height in the vacuum tubes. Over another considerable area the barom- eters are falling, as increasing temperature rarefies and expands the volume of the air, causing it to press upon the instruments with less force. This chart is extremely useful to the forecaster, since, in connection with the general weather chart, it indicates whether or not the storm centers are increasing or decreasing in intensity, and, what is of more importance, it gives in a great measure the first warning of the formation of storms. A third clerk constructs two charts, one showing the humidity of the air and the other the cloud areas, with the kind, amount, and direction of the clouds at each station. It is often interest- ing to observe at a station on the cloud chart high cirrus clouds composed of minute ice spiculee moving from one direction. lower cumulo-stratus composed of condensed water vapor moving from another direction. and the wind at the surface of the earth blow- ing from a third point of the compass. Such erratic movements of the air strata are only observed immediately before or during rain or wind storms. A fourth clerk constructs a chart called the general weather chart, showing for each station the air temperature and pressure, the velocity and direction of the wind, the rain or snow fall since the last report, and the amount of cloudiness. The readings of the barometer on this chart are reduced to sea-level, so that the variations in pressure due to local altitudes may not mask and obscure those due to storm formation. ‘Then lines, called isobars, are drawn through places having the same pressure. By draw- ing isobars for each difference in pressure of one-tenth of an inch the high- and the low-pressure areas are soon inclosed in their proper circles. ‘The word “high” is written at the center of the region of greatest air pressure and the word “low” at the center of the area of least pressure. Under the influence of gravity the air presses downward and outward in all directions, thus caus- ing it to flow from a region of great pressure toward one of less. The velocity with which the wind moves from the high toward the low will depend largely on the difference in air pressure. To better illustrate: If the barometer read 29.5 at Chicago and 30.5 at Bismarck, North Dakota, the difference of one inch in pressure would cause the air to move from Bismarck toward Chicago so rapidly that after allowing for the resistance of the ground there would remain a wind at the surface of the earth of 70 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS about 50 miles per hour, and Lake Michigan would experience a_ severe ‘“northwester.” The forecaster knows that high-pressure and low-pressure areas drift across the country from the west toward the east at the rate of about 600 miles daily, or about 387 miles per hour in winter and 22 miles per hour in summer; that the highs are attended by dry, clear, and cooler weather, and that they are drawing down, by a vortical action of their centers, the cold air from great altitudes above the clouds and causing it to flow away laterally along the surface of the earth in all directions from the center, and that the high-pressure areas sometimes become so intense in their vortical motion as to draw down such vast volumes of cold air that we call them cold waves. In the downward movement of the air in cold waves we must concede that the loss of heat by radiation through a cloudless atmosphere is much greater than that dynamically gained by compression, or else we must assume that the air possesses such intense cold at the elevation from which it is drawn that not- withstanding the heat gained by compression in its descent it is still far below the normal temperature of the air near the surface of the earth. The forecaster knows that although these intense high-pressure areas first appear in the extreme northwest, they do not depend on the land of their birth for the cold they bring to us, and that cold waves are not simply immense rivers of air which have been chilled by flowing over the great snow and ice fields of the Arctic regions, as was once thought. He is also familiar with the fact that in the low-pressure areas the conditions of the air and its various movements are exactly the reverse of what they are in the high; that the air is much warmer and moister, and that it is drawn spirally inward from all directions instead of being forced outward, as in the high; that it ascends as it approaches the center of the depression, sometimes causing rain or snow as it cools by expansion during its ascent, or as it encounters and mixes with air strata of lower temperature than its-own. We know that while our atmosphere expands upward to an altitude probably of 50 miles, it is so elastic and its expansion is so rapid as it recedes from the earth that half of its mass lies below the 3-mile level, and that our storms and cold waves are simply great swirls or eddies in the lower stratum of probably not more than 5 milesin thickness; that the air above the 6-mile ee LL KS ——_-_-~=)6)6—l _- r - 4 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 71 level probably flows serenely eastward in these latitudes without being disturbed by our most severe storms. The forecaster is further aware of the fact that our high-press- ure and low-pressure areas alternately drift eastward in periods that average about 3 days each; that they are not in any sense the product of chance, but are part of that great divine economy that provides for seed-time and harvest, for by the action of the lows the warm, vapor-bearing currents are sucked inland from the Gulf and the ocean and carried far over the continent, so that their moisture is condensed and scattered over the plains, rendering them tillable and suitable for the habitation of man; that the highs, in drawing down the cool, pure air from above, scatter and diffuse the carbonic-acid gas exhaled by animal life and the fetid gases emanating from decaying organic matter ; that the cold waves created by these high-pressure areas are among the most beneficent gifts of nature, for their clear, dense air not only gives us more oxygen with each inspiration of the lungs, but the abnormally high electrification that always accom- panies such air invigorates man and all other animal life; that the cold, north wind, if it be dry, as it usually is, brings physical energy and mental buoyancy in its mighty breath; that four- sevenths of all our storms come from the north plateau region of the Rocky mountains and pass from this arid or subarid region easterly over the Lakes and New England, producing but scanty rainfall; that the greater part of the remaining three-sevenths have their inception in the arid region of our southwestern states, and that as they move northeastward they can nearly always be depended on to give bountiful rainfall, and that many of them cross the Atlantic and affect the continent of Europe; thata few, and by far the most severe, wind and rain storms that touch any portion of our country originate in the West Indies and travel in a northwesterly direction until they touch our Gulf or South Atlantic coast, when they recurve to the northeast and sweep along our Atlantic seaboard. During the prevalence of droughts in the great central valleys all the low-pressure or storm conditions form in the middle or north plateau region of the Rocky mountains. When such droughts are broken, it is usually accomplished by lows that form in Arizona, New Mexico, or Texas. From many years spent in daily watching the formation, pro- gression, and dissipation of storms, the forecaster well knows that at times, by an accretion of force not shown by observations 72 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS taken at the bottom of the ocean of air, storms suddenly de- velop dangerous and unexpected energy or pursue courses not anticipated in his forecast, or that the barometer at the center of the storm rises without any premonition and gradually dis- sipates the energy of the cyclonic whirl. These are a few of the generalizations of which the forecaster takes cognizance and which guide him in his deductions. In brief, he carefully notes the developments and movements in the air conditions during the preceding 24 hours, and from the knowledge thus gained he makes an empirical estimate of what the weather will be in the different sections of the country the following day. By preserving the weather charts each day and noting the movements of the highs and the lows, any intelligent person can make an accurate forecast for himself, always re- membering that the lows, as they drift toward him from the west, bring warm weather and sometimes rain or snow, and that as they pass his place of observation the highs following in the tracks of the lows will bring cooler and probably fair weather. We will now examine the accompanying charts and, after a brief review of the Weather Bureau river service, will endeavor to trace the inception and progression of the different classes of storms. The stations from which the Weather Bureau issues and rap- idly distributes forecasts and flood warnings are shown on Chart I. Small radial lines are drawn to each central station from up- river points in the various watersheds ; from these points daily teleoraphic measurements of rainfall and temperature are sent to their respective centers, in addition to observations from many of the full meteorological stations of the Bureau not shown on this chart. With our many thousands of miles of navigable rivers flow- ing through one of the most extensive and fruitful regions of the world, daily forecasts of the height of water in the various — sections of each river are of enormous benefit to navigation, and the warnings issued when the precipitation is so heavy as to indicate the gathering, during the next two or three days, of flood volumes in the main streams, are often worth many mil- lions to navigators and to those having movable property on low grounds contiguous to the streams. The feasibility of making accurate forecasts as to the height of water several days in advance at any station of the system is VOL, VIII, 1897, PL. 2. NAT. GEOG, MAG, j & nt SMV 31N() MAN OSvqg TIA_ ANITIAY 5 r ~ / | . Stay -- —..) y 4 “ ESivay | xIN3O4 \ VWPHY IM t ' d \ Ly 0 Pa i | ; eay vANYS 50135, n~ | s + { ¥807 / L -= cof anise) b-ae eo rs 2 it le ; eee! ° sana © 7 ' ) aan eno oat ov 7 ) ey f er / =f / , | \ 7 . r | ) hs 5 yp 0 3329N9,) . ey | $!104v3N ini | No het y yasetye, J UA, c a" i} Z ~ —_ — any { } > 3 gar andury ’ | re p> { ee a, <= nie art Le | - se ae giavy sts + 3 x hth dL. he Inv >? > 7 ovanwoow) Ag aa Ne “ i] _* Ms gue ft & ¥ : wa At . “ S j va it ‘_é a uli a Me - 4 balan ‘ Sit JO 199099 JO STU ONY UNIFIA WueIpenh yous | JO O1njvIsduie, UReUE MOS soandy esieT “g1noy | @ 4sed SULINp WoNeiIdioo1d Jo suo1sea MOGs —\s SVaIe POPVYS “GUIMOTG Si puLA Oy) UOT | -O9d[p OT} Ui 7Olod SMOd1y ‘seurT poqOp Aq SMAICYIOS! -souly [[uZAq TMoys OLB S1BGOST | a 5 4 | a | ii “) 48am aan® Ma\e FF se tae ea ee ae 4 \ | -q11048 - VOL, VIII, 1897, PL. 3. 5 \ PP! boleh PD B “ o?. yal ; 6 aK" eee N | (a e waanagy rc Seech Oa pene Pe e Sa aes eeee HEB o contcowecce 244 AuuW3 (aa Fs = y « , / eS a} r\ oe a NAT, GEOG. MAG, Tr Wweup ee ee ee ee eS eer ars STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 73 no longer questioned. The forecaster at each river center con- siders the rainfall, the temperature, the melting of snow, if there be any, the area and slope of the watershed, and the permea- bility of the soil. From a study of floods in former years, he knows the time necessary for the flow of the water from the tributaries to the main stream and the time required for the passage of the flood-crests from one city to another. ‘The fore- casts are, of course, empirically made, but still they are sufli- ciently accurate to possess great value to the people of the river districts. Some idea of the vast destruction of property due to floods may be gathered from the statement that the floods of 1881 and 1882 caused a loss of not less than $15,000,000 to the property interests of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. ‘There was aiso a loss of 138 hves. In 1884 the region about Cincinnati alone suffered a loss of over $10,0V0,000 in property. Chart No. II shows a winter storm central in Iowa at 8 a. m., December 15, 1893. The word “low” marks the storm center. It is the one place in all the United States where the barometer reading is the lowest. The heavy, black lines, oval and nearly concentric about the low, show the gradation of air-pressure as it increases quite uniformly in all directions from the storm center outward. The arrows fly with the wind, and, as will be seen, are almost without exception moving toward the low or storm center, clearly demonstrating the effect of gravity in causing the air to flow from the several regions marked high, where the air is ab- normally heavy, toward the low, where the air is lighter. As the velocity of water flowing down an inclined plane depends both on the slope of the plane and on the roughness of its sur- face, so the velocity of the wind as it blows along the surface of the earth toward the storm center depends on the amount of the depression of the barometer at the center and the resistance offered by surfaces of varying degrees of roughness. ‘The small figures placed at the end of the arrows indicate high wind velocities. At Chicago, where the wind is blowing at the rate of 40 miles per hour, the anemometer is 270 feet high, while at Minneapolis, where the instrument is so low as to be in the stratum whose velocity is restricted by the resistance encountered in flowing over forests to the northward, the rate is not great enough to be marked by a special figure. Now picture in your mind the fact that all the air inside the isobar (heavy black line) marked 30.2 as it moves inward is ro- 74 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS tating about the low in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch and you have a very fair conception of an immense atmospheric eddy. Have you ever watched the placid water of a deep running brook and observed that where it encountered a projecting crag little eddies formed and went spinning down the stream? Well, our storms are simply great eddies in the air which are carried along by the general easterly movement of the atmosphere in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. But they are not deep eddies, as was once supposed. The low marks the center of an atmospheric eddy of vast horizontal extent as compared with its thickness or extension in a vertical direction; thus a storm condition extends from Washington to Denver in a hori- zontal direction and yet extends upward but four or five miles. The whole disk of whirling air four or five miles thick and 1,500 miles in diameter is called a cyclone or cyclonic system. It is important that a proper conception of this fundamental idea be had, since the weather sequences experienced from day to day depend almost wholly on the movement of these traveling eddies, cyclones, or areas of low pressure. The large figures in the four quarters of the cyclone show the average temperature of each quadrant. The greatest difference is between the southeast, and northwest sections. This is due in part to the fact that in the southeast quadrant the air is drawn northward from warmer latitudes, and in the northwest quadrant the air is drawn southward from colder latitudes. The shaded area shows the region of rain or snow fall during the preceding 12 hours. Untortunately for the science of forecasting, precipi- tation does not show that relation to the configuration of the isobars that temperature, wind velocity, and wind direction do. Chart III, constructed from observations taken 12 hours later, shows that the storm or cyclonic center, as indicated by the word “low,” has moved from central Iowa since 8a. m.and is now, at 8 p. m., central over the southern point of Lake Michigan. The shaded areas show that precipitation has occurred during the past 12 hours in nearly the entire region covered by the cyclone. Chart LV, 12 hours later, shows that the precipitation has been general throughout the entire area swept by the cyclonic whirl. Chart V is quite dissimilar, in the information it conveys, to any other of the charts accompanying this paper. From July 28 to August 10, inclusive, 1896, there was a remarkable hot wave in the United States, extending from the Rocky mountains to the VOL. Vill, 1897, PL. 4. NAT. GEOG. MAG. we os on ue 7 153M Aan? i POE pf 0 37 1An05% H9O/H oon Zl oO 1. NOLS3A, 7. 9 ad > Py say ke se . a, > L ~fe--- . i —~Ay OINOLNAZ NYS f Ay OS ¥a A |" ae ee cor “om ou \ *m1.1048 JO 10}U99 JO SOTIUI 009 UIA juet enb ove jo oinyeredule} UBOM MOUS Sollee OS1BT *sino0y ei sed Zatinp woO7V}djoord Jo SUOTIOI MOTS ~ vc SB0Is PEpPEYG ‘“SULMOTA Sf PULA ol} UI} -Odl[p OW UI FUJOd SMOIIY ‘SOIT poz30P 4q SULIOY AOS} ‘soul] [[NZAq UAOYS OLB SLEqos] "at ‘d g ‘S68 ‘GT Jequiesed ‘mII0}g 10qULM. — —— — eye ee ant Saad VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. 5. NAT. GEOG. MAG. ou LS3MAIN* 1~ Se \g ysLidnt t norsaTu¥H # orm ca . *UL10}S JO 194199 JO SOT{Ul 009 TINA JuBIpENb yoRe JO 91n}Biedule} UBOU MOUS soindy oF1v'T *sIn0y BI 4sed Zurmp uoy2ydloo01d Jo suoySea Aoys SB01B pepeyg ‘“AUIAOTG Sf PULA O43 UOIZ -OOl[p 04} Ul 4ulod sMOIIY ‘soul, poqop Aq _ SULIT JOST ‘seuyy [[nJAq UAOYS lB SIBQOST eatewe, od . OG: vay ie VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. 6. NAT. GEOG. MAG, Coecrcece erg | | #SAUP PT 94} JO YORE AO ' 91ngviedure} [VulIOU OY} WLOIJ OunZIedeq ——__._____ Coe A _ “PAT BNOUT ‘OSST ‘OT InsSnyV 07 9s AML i i le sl le ‘OABM {OH u 6/240 FEA oo 2? ial 9 ¢ A savibap GU0 FY SIRCHL FA Of/G2f* ee ee Ear habs «p-tohdeah chabaeea ee mS forme ace sea Viney vet ¢ eae ee ee Pury Feat STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 75 Atlantic ocean. The mortality from this cause amounted to many thousands. The hottest region, as shown by the dark shading; was in the middle Mississippi and Ohio valleys and the Lake region, where the temperature averaged from six to nine degrees above the normal for each one of the 14 days. During this same period, strange as it may seem, the temperature over the vast Rocky Mountain plateau was markedly below the normal, and the cold was not due to altitude, for often we find these conditions geographically reversed. The weather charts show- ing the movements of highs and lows during the period of this abnormal heat are not shown in this paper. Chart V is simply intended to show grapnhically the area and degree of the heat. For some unexplained reason there come, in summer, periods of almost absolute stagnation in the drift of the highs and lows. At such times if a high rest over the southeastern part of the country and a low over the northern Rocky Mountain region, there will result what is popularly known as a warm wave, for the air, on account of its slightly greater specific gravity, will slowly and steadily flow from the southeast, where the pressure is greater, toward the northwest, where the pressure is less, and receiving constant accretions of heat from the hot, radiating sur- face of the earth, without any whirls or eddies to mix the upper and lower strata, will finally attain a temperature almost un- bearable to animallife. This superheated condition of the lower stratum in which we live continues until the low-pressure area in the northwest begins to actively gyrate as an eddy and move eastward, mixing in its course strata of unequal temperatures and precipitating the cool and welcome thunder-showers. It is a pertinent inquiry whether such adjacent areas of ab- normal heat and abnormal cold can possibly be due to cosmic influences. The only cosmic influences that meteorology is sure of are the radiation of heat from the sun to the earth and the reception, by space, of the heat that is radiated back by the earth and atmosphere. In the long run, these two balance each other. It is inconceivable that solar insolation, passing out- ward from the sun along true radial lines, could fall so un- equally upon the United States as to cause excessiye heat on one side and extreme cold on the other. It follows from the preceding that we must be slow to ascribe any of the local pecu- liarities that are observed in terrestrial weather to cosmic influ- ences. Weather variations, irregular, annual, and diurnal, all probably have their causes at the earth’s surface or in the earth’s 76 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS atmosphere, and depend wholly on the mechanics of the latter. The problem, however, is so complex that it would be hazardous to undertake to explain the great differences in temperature shown on this map of departures for July and August, 1896. Think of the atmosphere as a mass of air about 50 miles deep, whose upper surface maintains nearly the same configuration and temperature and is almost entirely without motion relative to the earth’s surface. The solar radiation and the terrestrial radiation penetrate this upper region without appreciable ab- sorption, and the ascending and descending currents of air rarely or never disturb this region, but cease before they reach it. Our weather and climate depend on the changes going on in the middle and lower atmospheres, and among these changes that which affects our surface temperature most is the motion of the atmosphere. The great contrast in temperature between two regions lying close together, as shown by Chart V, is therefore probably not due to any special cosmic influence, but, to the flow of air as determined by the distribution ofair pressure day by day. Chart VI shows the beginning of a cold wave in the north- west on the morning of January 7, 1886. Observe that the heavy, black isobar passing through Montana is marked 30.8, while the isobar curving through southern Texas is marked 29.8, a difference of one inch in the air-pressure between Mon- tana and Texas. The dotted isothermal line in Montana is marked 30 degrees below zero, while the isotherm on the Texas coast indicates a temperature of 50 degrees. Chart VII is auxiliary to Chart VI, and by varying degrees of shading shows the fall of temperature during the preceding 24 hours attendant on the high-pressure area of the northwest. A considerable area covered by the darkest shade indicates a fall of 40 degrees in temperature during the past 24 hours. The people of the Gulf states, with a morning temperature of 40 to 50 degrees, knew nothing of the great volume of extremely cold air to the northwest of them; but from the distribution of air pressure shown by Chart VI. the forecaster anticipated that the very cold air of the northwestern states would, on account of its great weight, be forced southward to the Gulf and eastward to the Atlantic ocean; or, more accurately speaking, that the conditions causing the cold in the northwest would drift south- ward and eastward. He therefore issued the proper warning to the threatened districts. VOL, VIII, 1897, PL. 7. NAT. GEOG. MAG. ; \ “simoy wD. OF gp ased Surmnp mo0yze41d1oo1d Jo suojFo0r Moys 2. 4 / SteIe POpByg “SULMO]G Si PUI oq} TOIZ ) oO en L -O01Ip OY} UT JUIOd SMOITY ‘soul, pozop Aq ph : f SWIIGYOS! seul] [[NJ Aq UMOYS 018 SIBqOS] vz er eoe rig . f eS. Pc | THI geoor” ee br Pad WevNy | » ° ‘ ° ~ wisnnoD \ iy ) it p ay 11Asino yx Fo a ——————— —— a LSamM Aa? a = = ff: a « QOL 4AN / 3 O - * , ” a yua1iane war ‘ “ OLY 4O€ #B : > r - Of -0oc BB ( = | NOLS3IAIV*) . 4 “ sf ” as : : y “ “ 5 t ; snvaiso MINS a O1NOANY NYS ae Ft OZ. O/ jisse3| | 8 = ANOSNIVEE ot a ae ; S121b29 Of 4 O B® : a la ot arte ; fen SOIPY (* JO a Vi @) ifs { _awano re ee ‘Ve Luoa zag OSvyi}5 : o1s2 BVH DS ae == Vee ie a 3NIIWAy 1 a : n * \ > 3; ; ’ wisnony, bao, ee ’ | ‘ae 4 e “IOW FILL rf . yi anno \ i . . ? = } Hol _ - — ee ~ - = 7 : ~ aoa “= £ = TEEN : — ORES | '9 VI AKNI0D . toh : snp sihodvnviy i Ta "UU Lutte pew omer reece z Ae SSS Se ! DY FT ——— f iH Tn onvoig oan S ff onisevt( (--—-—A, cop Aa Ree Pa / ea / / SSNN VLA by waatye, / _A__ stvavan " ——— eae yaranduvy 4 ——1 i ia f— rg LInVRR 2 > Ea) a \ Oe ae — 3 aa ey) Saeeeeee : Nar One ll aT : ‘ . iN S| p22 Pe 1 NAT. GEOG. MAG. lag7, PL. 9 vill you. . MAG. GEOG NAT or re I ss. \ ' sur1048 JO 109790 JO SOTIUI ONG) UNIA gueipenb yore JO 01NQV1eduIE, UveM MOYS soinsy osaey “sano 6 sed suLIMp NoMeydinesd Jo snore MOYS Is SVOIR POPRYS “sUMO;G SI PIM oY. TOT? “Nop 999 UL jUIOd BAOIIY ‘Salt, poajop Aq BULLOY JOSE ‘Sour, [TAZ Ay Ete SIBGOST NOLNY NVS NeoGey , bese ie nett ~"O ewes A * ! ssn? £O/ > aNAIIgYy [™ \ Os | 1 @ Be e ‘ WPHying '> i | ms i H "@ 2, ‘OSST ‘g Arex LuUeve ‘OACAA PIOO TILA 90840 10. NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. os g us ama a? / [ae s2a1b2p Of YO FZ ‘SHIOLY/ SITJO VOIP We ASN j maa EEE Z_\e OSYIID | [kan EN EEE | EE +0 | pn ee Sra vy | raf SEG ERE == DEN90bRno! p—F._ 7 ABO Ol~ | [To ‘SIMOL PG suipoeodolg ul esuvyyH oinyeireduey, ‘uns J, ‘Oger ‘g Arenuep ‘oAC AA PION ‘XI BuO + Satins VOL. Vilt, 1897, PL. i. NAT. GEOG. MAG. al S ster, yada ‘ 3. Aay? es Te : OL Pe we RR Ones CY _. 388 =. qT o \ Q : 0 1LS3, OTE Peis Vv SsnZ de ““oTthoiny nvS { ) <2 sos eae OSes viipay 140 Headey. Sor % ] Bi he eeageak oo e aN ‘ULIOYS | ° JO 109U90 JO SOTIU ONG TIQIIA JuvIpendb yore JO 91njv1edme, UvoU MOYS soins osivyT : “*SITLOT, | el ysed sulinp moyeyidiosid Jo smoigex AoYs |°2 Svele popeygs “SUIAO]q Sl PUIA OTF Ory -O0IIp 0} Ul {UIOd SMOIIY ‘souTT poqjop Aq SUIS JOS! SSouly Tus Aq pee OH See SIVQOST \ Ta “8 ), ‘ etered § ¢ 6 Arenuer =x Heo ieee ~~ ca ie i i a = pele ~ ‘ a ; cS) al | aie (e) > o so a hot : 1 6 \ = \ Pe \ feast \ ONG y | é aN |B < } YAPHY ING i } Ns { ite aas127 ~ S5 1S LINVR _- —~ ng a t c OK pnsses SL ‘SINOE PG Sulpooesg ul esueyH eanqersduiey, ‘me 2, ‘9881'S Arenue P ‘CAB PIOD TX Leg 1897, F VOL. VIIS AG. GM GEO AT. A N LS3 “sor JOKE ins | SSW a te cat a : eek Seas So eee ee ‘sin0y | [Re ; : Sou, aL qsed suri mopnid eid JO smolser MoS Se BCOLS PEPVYG “SUIAOTG BI PULA OU} OTD es { els : -OOTLp OY} Ut quod eee Gee ee ede a USER CTA . ‘ AMACY LOSI SSONl] TIN} £q WAOUS 9.1% & Sez yaLidof\ ea Ox. ae ; 5 \ ates oer ae x z a “ > a ook ee Ne ee a = ZOE . . PAPO 3 4 i ,) Wee ee 2 Oo. A ayosi ty —- 2 YN A iy ean ee Sr usceee a ove : : . e1g: : Pat DELP le: gat 1-1 ee re 6 Peel ze! ey. nanaye =k = [We erccoer™ +. ‘UE "2 J, ‘Ost ‘or Arenuer ‘oar PICO ‘TIX eUD » ‘ars. *.* >. 2s . - - = a — |» ae et % v4 - . . ° aa nw Py ‘ 1 “? . vw ~~” ] - : “ 4 ‘ J F re . . . 4" ¢ ea * * * : — iy ' 5 . - 7 i" , : « 4 & =e - - Pm " * ‘ | < A ) . hi . ’ _ . ‘ ‘ ’ a i on Be 5 ere is ; » ’ . _™. f , - : i. *< @e% 0 eu Poa - “ei np ‘ ‘ " : + , 4 , ie * ’ el | ‘ » " 4 — vine ae t . ’ ‘ ' Sa ‘ i tia Py es 0 Red DEY 6 TL herent sin b's * ‘ é ‘ © y i. 4 ~ Pt x. : wilt Pa cf ' ty) ~ f | ‘ f = ey ae ‘ " 1% ‘ : “i : . 2 ' 7 ° 7 - ie ar \ Fj md . al ‘3 ik 4 a | / © Wy aT ! f . ’ a Wen ° VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. 14: NAT. GEOG, MAG. o. oz" O/ ‘EEE 5221D2/2 Of 02 O eS SAPPY OYO B/220 en ele SNYIINO MANS —“Te “ { ae I as Ouse - 7 v | Spa elf } s — ZAR SVN ¢ } 5 r Se \ hero ‘SINOH 7G SuIpeoolg url SSueyoH ernyeredmey, ‘ms 2, ‘OSSt ‘OT Srenuve ‘oABM PION TITS LeIO STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 77 Now turn to Charts VIII and IX of the following morning and it will be seen from the latter that the cold wave has coy- ered the entire Mississippi valley. The low shown on the preced- ing chart as being central in southern ‘Texas has moved northeast- ward to Alabama, and on Chart VIII appears as a fully developed storm. The difference in pressure between the central isobar of the low and the central isobar of the high is now 1.4 inches. Precipitation has occurred, as shown by the dark shading. Special attention is called to the large figures placed in the four quarters of the low-pressure area, about 300 miles from the center. They indicate the average temperatures of their re- spective quadrants, and strikingly illustrate how great may be ‘the difference in temperature under cyclonic influence between regions separated by but short distances. It is certain that as the low or cyclonic whirl moves toward the northeast, along the track usually followed by storms in this locality, the cold of the northwest quadrant, by the action of the horizontally whirling disk of air, will be thrown southeastward toward Florida, lowering the temperature in the orange groves to below the freezing point. Chart X shows that the center of the cyclone or low-pressure system has moved during the preceding 24 hours northeast to the coast of New Jersey, with greatly increased energy, the barometer at the center showing the abnormally low reading of 28.7 inches. Cold, northwest winds. as shown by the arrows, are now blowing systematically from the high-pressure area of the northwestern states southeast to Florida and the South Atlantic coast. The dotted isotherm of 30 degrees passes through the northern part of Florida, where, on the day before, the temper- ature was over 50 degrees. The cyclonic gyration of this storm extends 1,000 miles inland and probably to an equal distance out to sea. Heavy snow or rain has fallen throughout the area under its influence, seriously impeding railroad travel, and a gale of hurricane force has prevailed on the coast. But when, on the day preceding, the storm was central in Alabama all these conditions were foreseen and the necessary warnings issued. - Chart XI shows the temperature changes caused by the rapid movement of the storm center. Charts XII and XIII show the conditions 24 hours later. The storm center has been three days in passing from southern Texas to the mouth of the St Lawrence. The temperature has fallen still lower on the Atlantic coast and in Florida as the result of uninterrupted northwest winds, and no material rise in tempera- 78 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS ture can occur until the high pressure of the northwest is replaced by a low pressure, and convectional currents are drawn toward the northwest instead of being forced southward from that region. To summarize in regard to cold wayes, it may be said that when the charts indicate the formation of a body of dense, cold air in the northwest, as shown by the barometer readings, the skilled forecaster is on the alert. He calls for special observa- tions every four hours from the stations within and directly in advance of the cold area, and as soon as he becomes conyinced that the cold wave will sweep across the country with its attend- ant damage to property, destruction to animal life, and discom- fort to humanity, the well-arranged system of disseminating warnings is brought into action, and by telegraph, telephone, flags, bulletins, maps, and other agencies the people in every city, town, and hamlet, and even in farming settlements, are usually notified of the advancing cold twelve, twenty-four, or perhaps even thirty-six hours before it reaches them. Charts XIV and XV show the cyclonic systems prevailing at 8 p.m. on the days of the Louisville and St Louis tornadoes. Several tornadoes occurred on each day; their tracks are shown by rows of crosses in the southeast quadrants of each cyclone. Especially do I wish to emphasize the distinction between the cyclonic storm and the tornado. The press and nine out of ten people who should know better use these terms as synonymous. The cyclone shown on Chart XIV, which is fairly typical of all cyclones, is a horizontally revolving disk of air, covering the whole United States from the Atlantic ocean westward to and including the Mississippi valley, with the air currents from all points flowing spirally inward toward the center, while the tor- nado is a revolving mass of air of only 500 to 1,000 yards in diameter, and is simply an incident of the cyclone, nearly always occurring in its southeast quadrant. The cyclone may cause moderate or high winds through a vast expanse of territory, while the tornado, with a rotary motion almost unmeasurable, always leaves a trail of death and destruction in an area infini- tesimal in comparison to the area covered by the cyclone. The tornado is the most violent of all storms, and is more fre- quent in the central valleys of the United States than elsewhere. It has characteristics which distinguish it from the thunder- storm, viz.,a pendent, funnel-shaped cloud and a violent, rotary motion in a direction contrary to the movements of the hands of a watch, together with a violent updraught in the center. J 1897, PL. t« VOL. VIII NAT. GEOG. MAG. LSaAMAIN* “‘SoOpuuloy, X XX KX xX x *ul161S | JO 19}U99 JO SOTIUI ONG UTYIA yUvipenb yoo \ JO 91njvIOdule} UVEOI AOYS soindy oF.1e'T : *smoy 66 ; ét sed Surinp woryeydroeid Jo suorfe1 AOYs G6 6 NOLSZAIVD \ SvoIB Popes “SUIMOTQ St PULA oy} Ory ‘ x omounyfnvs \ “OOTP Of} WL JULOd SMOIIY ‘seul] poqop 4q ae SUEY JOSE SOUL] [MJ Aq UAOYS 1B sieqosy cat JK. snvatugymMany a ye Ax DP eon ec ecscee Eom = b oO j \ “ Ta vwy | is e o7eP Jems JO "dE dew iouyweM “OGST ‘LS WIV “AH ‘oTIAsMOT ye opeuloL, “ATK 4780. os ee ea 16 *soopeuloy, X XX Xxx xX "m1.1048 JO 10}199 JO SO]IUI NNG UITIIA JuvIpendb Yqove Ay JO O1njUi9dule} MBaul MOYS seinsy eF1e'T ‘sin0oq-.. ; bh 06 er ysed Zunp woryeydrioead Jo suopse1 Moys “© ~ SB01B popeysg “SULAMOTG SI PULA 94} UO -d91[p 944 Ul guIOd sMOLITY ‘SOUT, peop Aq SULIOYJOS! ‘Soul] [[UJ Aq MAOYS 8.18 srvqosy 189) PL. yt dNt vin VOL, te astvéag _<* “~. - =. eae ee 5 f FTruyt<. o6 5 $0735, . 08” j Ysa ¢k : oe <3 oc s¢ oor cor om NAT, GEOG, MAG. md g dep remjeem ‘968 ‘26 LEI “OI ‘SMOT 4g 42 OpeUIOT, i > STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 79 The three conditions essential to the formation of tornadoes are clearly as follows: (1) A cyclone or area of low pressure, the center of which is to the north or northwest, with a barometric pressure not necessarily much below the normal; (2) a tempera- ture of about 70 degrees on the morning map; (3) a great hu- midity, and (4) that the time of year be March 15 to June 15, These conditions may and often do exist separately ; one or two of them may be found coexisting; but so long as the third is ab- sent, tornadic formation is not likely to occur. I am satisfied that the number of these storms is not increas- ing; that the breaking of the virgin soil, the planting or cutting away of forests, the drainage of land surfaces by tiles, the string- ing of thousands of miles of wire, or the laying of iron or steel ‘ails have not materially altered the climatic conditions or con- tributed to the frequency or intensity of tornadoes. As well might one by the casting of a pebble attempt to dam the mighty waters of the majestic Mississippi as attempt the modification or restriction by the feeble efforts of man of those tremendous forces of nature which surround our earth and control our storms and climate. To be sure, as towns become more numerous and population becomes more dense, greater destruction will ensue from the same number of storms. It is not possible with our present knowledge of the mechan- ism of storms to forewarn the exact cities and towns that will be visited by tornadoes without alarming some towns that will wholly escape injury; but we know that tornadoes are almost entirely confined to the southeastern quadrant of the cyclone, and that when the thermal, hygrometric, and other conditions are favorable, the spot 800 to 500 miles southeast from the cyclonic center is in the greatest danger. Chart XV shows the conditions on the evening of the St Louis tornado, two hours after its occurrence. The abnormal heat, humidity, and other conditions of the rather small and weak eyclonic system sh6wn by the morning chart were sufficient to justify the Weather Bureau in distributing at 10 a. m. danger warnings throughout the whole of Missouri and eastern Kansas. I am informed that the schools of St Louis were dismissed at once on the receipt of the warning forecast. What is urgently needed is a system by which weather signals may be sent simul- taneously from telephone headquarters to all subscribers by a stroke of a telegraph key ; then a whole city could be warned in a minute’s time. 80 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS The writer visited St Louis the day after the storm, and was especially impressed with the fact that hundreds of buildings were burst outward at their upper stories, indicating that they were at the time of their destruction near the center of the rotat- ing mass of air, where centrifugal force instantly had reduced the air pressure on the outside to such an extent that the expan- sion of the air in the upper stories of the houses whose windows - and doors were closed had produced an explosion of the build- ing. In one case all the four walls of the upper story of a house were thrown outward, leaving the lower story intact and the roof resting in proper position one story lower than in the original building. Again, great structures seemed to have been crushed over or taken up bodily and scattered in all directions. The fact that this tornado traveled with destructive force through several miles of brick buildings and yet left the city with greater force than it possessed on entering it illustrates the futility of planting forests to the southwest of a city for the pur- pose of protection, as some have advocated. It is probable that the strongest trees would offer but little more resistance to this terrific force than would so many blades of grass. Whenever the forecast contains the statement that conditions are favorable for severe local storms, it is well for the residents of a city receiving such forecast to observe carefully the forma- tion of portentous clouds and be ready to seek places of safety in the cellars of frame buildings. We have no record of any person having been killed in the cellar of a frame building. Chart XVI shows a West India hurricane just making its ad- vent on the Florida coast. A number of stations in the West Indies report to Washington by cable whenever hurricanes pass over their region. Sometimes a hurricane composed of a rap- idly revolving eddy of air of only two or three hundred miles in diameter passes between the observation stations on the islands of the West Indies without getting near enough to affect their instruments. Then, if it move rapidly nofthwest toward our Gulf coast, it may reach our seaboard unannounced. Fortu- nately such cases are rare, and in case the storm does reach any ports unexpectedly danger signals will be displayed in advance of its coming throughout the remainder of its course until it leaves our shores. At times hurricanes remain several days in the Gulf of Mexico, and the only indication we have of their proximity is a strong suction drawing the air briskly over some of our coast stations toward the center of the Gulf. Again, a ol Pe ae “NAT, GEOG. MAG. '7 1897, PL, VOL. Vill ‘ ° 10 A wiaHin 2 _—> f ce i uo yaasinoy a ' ; ‘ Sli "Td "8 8 ‘6ST ‘23 4 = eal — - ee a a a ee eee ee eee —« * OLSAA ee * eX a aNIOW Sag i i one % "sanol 20 ysed Buran p Toyezedisead Jo suorZe21 A ; SBVaIV POPVYS \"SULAVO]qG’ St PIA oyy -OO1Ip AT} UL FUOd SAOMIY "Se SUIIDYPOSI ‘soul [NJ fq usroys snsny ‘omreotmnyET PUT 489 AA, VOL, VIIt, 1897, PL. 18. 37 T1Anosn? OG>- eee oc~_) — worsaTBYh DS \ Y (\ er) ; ta} 4 ngs | ! \\ { <= Sv < A ' . h 1 | i \ =” _ rd od’ et } suo PY ae qaganto? = \ = / | 7 a . | ina130% Sasi Cat \ a f h Degen wwnnaN saat ~-7 eovN ES saxtbn Fa BEY =e 7Y gwisnv't ( rr os 5 as -—— 7 ws f 2 . { ) Q Noah i ae } \ . eee ee fana’G \ / BaHNY cae doth Ay ae, 7 { { sy, > te si10a\an A —_ i NPiszaivyj “~~ y ¥ ; 4 ° cn { OINOANY NVS - ¢ SNV374NO “3 iv . ) { * LHOd 3AIUNS ° = i antaoenee 2OY IL, ] ° ] rs ' . ° VN pHV Ing ~ auhasrrin Sse \ \ O11 NX — | \ e ay ' haha | Uva | — Pa a] e ' taf. ) fawNNtgaty yviunnio> giaxndurn\ s --— LL LG yMSny ‘SMH GT Suypecerg ut omsserg TTY to VINI, 1897, PL. VOL, NAT. GEOG. MAG. 7 *sinoq “E ZL ysed Supp aoyeydrooid yo suoise1 Awogqs bee ge SBvolv popeyy “SULAOTG sf PUPAL oyR TOR ton -O@1IP OY} UL gUIOd SaOlry ‘soul, pozOp Aq SUILEyOS] :seul, [[nJ Aq UMOYS 918 SsIBqoST Fisaarivyny : ae ""O9 OINOAiN 7 Vv ¥t a ‘ D>. . Pd - 2007? OL °sv, 55 URS ® be ee e ey oe . SuUNasns, ayeT Sar ‘ . VIAN NIC: ss op € rt mad g 3 ‘geet ‘Le qenany ‘ouwopmEL eIpUur 3 OM NOLSaAIVD “~~ poe : 4 ~ : ~~ —_ snva71u9 ng | OINOLNY NVS ; ; ( ) ~ RA ' ASINO} a . OOYIIFD santow sag f, ai! NOIMN Paina eae SSL BN sr0avan t > ' ’ yeLyoduvy ~ \ ie! ’ ] Pinos s is = avanyoon? \ Davnsha 21 6. e Py > kA o > anata oo : 2 ° OINOLNY NYS \ "sino eI 48nd Sulmp 1013%71d10aad Jo suolsor pe St01B POPVYS “FULAMOTQ sf PULA ouy To ~O911p 649 Ut Jarod sMOLTY ‘soul, poop Aq SMAVYJOS( -SCUl] [[NJ 4q UMOYS 0.18 s1uqos] we as wt m ‘ ae a au ~ 08 23 < ~) 4S3MAaN*° ' ' iy ‘ = U /* ra \ ~ NOLS3IAIYD : ! = \ zZ Wwe Fi ounlbany nvs fa : \ . | E 7 ( \ VOL. VIII, #897, PL. a2, } | 37 110n0SH2¥f) = ies x 0z+ : iP. ; | “I 077 ; iN ° Ke Ks ah & YAPHYIng =~ : N ! | wNado a L ° NTOSNI] f19 s2Nniony s3q HOw i meds ee gir ; “ s1noq 153M 49 ar qsed But mp wonmsidyroxd jo suolSea Moys 4 eqs 5ULMO TY st eq} uo j | qujod sMoury ¢ a scOur [Tuy 4q uUAOTS ore 810408] od = wade . NOLSIAIWE > cr | os So \ Sete —- 3] 1n00 LNG an" ig JABUNS Au oe 7 - 1% vAnVvily SES A fC | Sy ‘ ne im) ‘ ‘ ’ . LI . ' =< ’ N 2 . ; ’ - | oO << | 2 | S| oO | ra So j- < =. “un “dd g ‘seat ‘9G ensny ‘owaornmy erpul 480A ov j 1S3MAan* NOLS aA IVS S Jy \ J OINGINny NYS VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. 24. i + 4 Cols uy U ‘Na Vay ° = eo LUGdSARuNS e ‘ beted= Bac — - pore l oo aie if donee gL aanduvy ~ NAT. GEOG. MAG, oo vor ure . * idanory ZL sed Juranp uo0pye41do01d Jo suolZd2moys SBVelB pepeyg “FUIMOTG st PUTA ON. UOT} G -091[p O17} UL JUIOd SMOLITY ‘soul, poyop sq _. SUIIOYIOS] ‘seuly] [ny Aq WAOYsS ole srVqosy ae. ou on ou ve : . A 7" LSAMAIN® VOL, VIII, 1897, PL. 25, Oysti4 > NAT. GEOG, MAG. LS aM AZ? yaLiaor eae a _/TJ\. snva1u0 43N q1anosHo¥f/? . } = =A ‘ ? om AUANOODNOV \ OUNBSAIIA o1s32 VHD, VOL. VIII, 1897, PL. 26 VTIAHSYN » i o1yovs 2. Lor \ L y ovr . “ ORL oS) e 27 11AS1 Ap ~~, vu3 r ° guid vikyent0g a, iia ) Xe f j / aNISNY' ( ° i { 104 S110d Va NNIY paLanduyy, A \—. 2 Ye a sy : rg A avaHvooy) ee | mB) ‘E681 ‘6S JsuSNy Te ee - eC. ; } ; : STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS 81 heavy ocean swell may be caused by the friction of the rapidly gyrating air on the surface of the water, and when the hurricane has a slow progressive movement this swell may be propagated outward from the center of the storm faster than the storm is mov- ing and reach the coast several hours before either the barometer or the wind movement gives any indication of the coming storm. The tracks of West India hurricanes are always in the form ofa parabola. These storms come from the southeast, but on reaching the latitude of our Gulf coast recurve to the northeast along or off our coastline. An examination of the auxiliary chart on the adjoining page shows that the air pressure in the region of the storm has decreased .10 to .50 of an inch during the past 12 hours, and the little bars on the arrows shown on Chart XVI, from Norfolk southward, indicate that the forecast official at Washington has ordered up the storm signals in anticipation that the storm will move up the coast and increase in energy. Chart XVIII, twelve hours later, shows that his warnings were timely, as the storm center has moved slowly northward to Jack- sonville, with greatly increased energy, the barometer at the center reading 29.1 inches, which is about .9 of an inch under the normal air pressure. The auxiliary chart shows that the air pressure has decreased more rapidly during the past 12 hours than during thesimilar period next preceding. The most potent force in accelerating the motion of the eddy or hurricane was the vast amount of heat energy liberated by condensation in the whirling mass. Danger signals have been carried northward to Norfolk, and ports north of the storm center have been warned that the dan- gerous winds will come from the northeast. I wish to make plain that the storm coming from the southwest causes northeast winds to flow in at its front. On the Georgia and Florida coasts the signals have indicated that the wind will blow from the northwest for a few hours, as the air whirls in behind the reced- ing storm center. It will now be seen how it is possible for storms to progress against the wind. In thiinder-storms this rule does not hold, as there is a horizon- tal rolling of the atmosphere, caused by cold and heavy air from above breaking through into a light and superheated stratum next theearth. This rolling motion throws forward the cool air in the direction in which the cloud is moving. Chart XX shows a slight aberration in the northeast course of 6 82 STORMS AND WEATHER FORECASTS the storm, which places the center inland, so that the whole eddy can be charted. West India hurricanes are cyclonic in character, but on account of the fact that the diameter of the whirling eddy is much less and the velocity of rotation much greater than in the average cyclone, it is customary to designate them as hurricanes. In other words, the hurricane is a cyclone of small area but of powerful vortical action, and consequently of great destructive force. To get a rough idea of the difference between storms, we might classify them according to the diameter of the revolving mass of air under their influence as follows: Cyclones, 1,000 to 2,000 miles; hurricanes, 200 to 500 miles, and tornadoes one-half mile to one mile. Then if a great quan- tity of heat energy is liberated by profuse condensation of aque- ous vapor near the storm centers, we might imagine their vortical action and their destructive force to increase as their diameters of rotation decrease. Charts XX to XXV show the progress, in twelve-hour inter- vals, of the hurricane northeastward to New England. It will probably leave the American continent at Nova Scotia and in three or four days cross the Atlantic and make its appearance on the northwest coast of Hurope. Twenty-five years ago mariners depended on their own weather loretto warn them of coming storms; then, although the num- ber of boats plying the seas was much less than it is now, every severe storm that swept across them left death and destruc- tion in its wake, and for days afterward the dead were cast up by the subsiding waters and the shores were lined with wreckage. Happily this is not now the case; the angry waters and the howling winds vent their fury the one upon the other, while the great mass of shipping, so long the prey of the winds and waves, rides safely at anchor in convenient harbors. The United States has the most extensive weather service in the world, and its enormous practical utility is now universally recognized. Careful estimates based on reports from interested parties indicate that cold-wave signals effectively displayed in advance of one severe cold wave sweeping across our country re- sult in a saving of over $38,500,000, while responsible marine representatives declare that each West India hurricane passing up the Atlantic seaboard would destroy not less than $2,000,000 worth of property and many lives if danger signals were not dis- played well in advance of its coming. RUBBER FORESTS OF NICARAGUA AND SIERRA LEONE By Genera A. W. GREELY, Chief Signal Officer, United States Army The increasing commercial demands for raw rubber and the steady diminution of caoutchoue produced by existing rubber forests give special interest to any information bearing on future supplies of caoutchouc pending the discovery of compounds that shall supplantit. In 1892 the Department of State published a Special Consular Report on rubber and rubber manufactures, which has lately been supplemented by additional information. The india-rubber trees, of which there are several profitable varieties, will produce annually from 10 to 40 pounds of caout- chouc for many years. if they are tapped judiciously. It is, however, an almost universal complaint, from Africa, America, and Asia, that the greed and carelessness of the native collectors, who seek to obtain the greatest immediate quantity by the least laborious methods, are rapidly destroying the rubber-bearing plants. Trees are either felled or so deeply and roughly incised as to speedily die. The fresh rubber juice, resembling cream in color and con- sistency, has an ammoniacal odor, which rapidly disappears, leaving the caoutchouc odorless and tasteless. Trees yield the milk copiously for several months each year, and the coagulated rubber averages about 80 per cent of the original juice, two pounds of caoutchoue to the gallon. Brazil is the principal source of raw rubber, and that from Para is the best. In 1890 the receipts of caoutchoue at Para reached 16,570 tons, according to the report of Consul J. O. Kerbey, whose account of rubber-gathering may be of interest: “The rubber-gatherer rolls out of his hammock as soon as it is light in the morning, and takes his gulp of rum and his cala- bash of coffee and starts out to visit his rubber trees. He wears a short pair of breeches. and sometimes a shirt. He goes bare- foot, for he must wade through the swamp mud and ooze of the tide up to his knees, and often up to his waist in water. He 83 84 RUBBER FORESTS OF NICARAGUA AND SIERRA LEONE takes a basketful of earthenware gill cups, a hunk of adhesive clay, and a little, narrow-bladed hatchet. “Tf he adopts the most approved method of tapping the trees, he reaches as high as he can with his hatchet, making an incision in the bark, but not reaching through to the wood. The milk immediately begins to issue in rapid drops or little streams. With a spat of the adhesive clay he immediately fastens one of his little gill clay cups just below the bleeding gash, and molds the clay so as to make all the rubber milk flow into the cup. Three such gashes, at equal distances around the tree and at equal height, is the rule. The next day he will make three more gashes in the same way, just a little below these three, and so continue, until by the end of the season he will have reached the level of the ground. Each of his 100 or 150 trees is treated in the same way, and he returns home, after having traveled from 3 to 5 miles, barefoot and almost naked, through thorny thicket and malarial, steaming swamp. ‘When he reaches his hut, he again takes another gulp from the demijohn, snatches a breakfast of salt fish and mandioca meal, which are often moldy from the reeking damp of the swamp, and then he starts out again with his calabash buckets to gather the milk, which by this time has ceased to flow. His gill cups are full, or nearly so, and when he reaches home he has milk enough to make four kilos of rubber, on an average. The next task is the coagulation of the milk. For this purpose he has a jug-shaped furnace, made of earthenware, called a boido, open at bottom and top, and with a small aperture at the side to admit the air for the combustion. In this piece of fur- niture he builds a fire, or rather a smudge, with the nuts of the inija or urucury palm. The dense, black smoke which rolls from the open top of the boido is the reagent whieh coagulates the milk. For this purpose the rubber-gatherer has a circular- bladed paddle, like the paddle of a canoe, which he smears over with clay, so that the rubber will not adhere to it. This is sus- pended by means of a cord from the limb of a tree just above the smudge, the milk is poured over the blade of the paddle, which is then turned over and around about in the smoke; and in a few moments the film of rubber is coagulated. The same process is repeated of wetting with milk and smoking the grow- ing lump until it reaches the weight of from 5 to 25 kilos or more. Then it is slipped off from the paddle as a mitten is pulled off from one’s hand. This ball is the crude rubber.” RUBBER FORESTS OF NICARAGUA AND SIERRA LEONE 85 RUBBER PROSPECTS IN NICARAGUA A later report from Consul J. Crawfords contains the following information. Recently, many persons in western Nicaragua have declared their intention to plant and cultivate elastie rubber- yielding (some varieties of the juno are but slightly elastic) trees and vines in the eastern part of the state. Such estates are locally named haciendas de hule. These persons are inquiring concerning the localities having the most suitable lands and climate, the species and varieties of trees and vines that annually or biennially yield the largest quantity of good rubber, the proper distance apart for planting the trees and vines, the best modes of cultivation, and how many years must elapse before it is proper to commence the annual or biennial collection of rubber, ete. Many of the valleys in central and northeastern Nicaragua contain all the natural conditions for a full yield of an excellent quality of elastic rubber. They are localities supporting numer- ous groves of large-sized trees yielding rubber until about fifteen years ago, when nearly all the trees had been killed by too severe searifying by irresponsible collectors. Localities in Nicaragua south of latitude 15° north, and in low valleys where the soil is alluvial or vegetable humus and sand, capable of being rapidly drained. and in a climate that is uniformly warm and humid, suit the largest rubber-yielding varieties of trees and vines. Some varieties, giving an excellent quality of very elastic rub- ber, are indigenous to a higher, drier climate and soil. There are several of the natural orders— Urticaceae, Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Apocynaceae, and Euphorbiaceae—indigenous in Nica- ragua, which, when scarified deeply, exude a milk-like sap from which rubber of various degrees of elasticity is separated. The annual quantity and the quality in elasticity differ usually with the species and with different conditioned localities. Some prefer the low alluvial lands under a humid atmosphere, while other varieties flourish best in more elevated, sandy, and decomposed vegetable matter—lands rich in potash, as the volcanic valley dis- tricts south of Lake Nicaragua. The most desirable varieties for quantity per annum and quality of rubber are the Siphonia elastica and Castilloa elastica, habitants of well-drained, low, alluvial val- leys, kept warm by a humid atmosphere. The second best rub- ber-producers are of the ficus family, a variety locally known as matapala, an epyphite having numerous bodies from aerial roots (like the‘banyan tree). It is also an inhabitant of low, fertile, 86 RUBBER FORESTS OF NICARAGUA AND SIERRA LEONE | well-drained lands. By cultivation this tree would probably equal the other low-valley varieties in quality and annual out- put of rubber. It has the advantage that if one of its trunks is deadened by excessive drainage of the sap, it has several other live trunks from which to obtain supplhes of rubber. Another good variety is the manihot balano, locally known as the “arbolde vaca ” (cow-milk tree), a large, hardy, indigenous kind found at altitudes of 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the ocean. The annual yield of elastic material depends on the bulk of the bast or lactiferous tissues that exist or that can be developed. Some trees of 2 or 3 feet diameter and 35 to 50 feet tall will give annually 20 to 40 pounds of good rubber. The quality of rub- ber depends largely upon the form of the cells composing the bast, and in part in the process used to separate the elastic ma- terial from the emulsion-like sap. Quality and quantity are responsive to cultivation. According to very recent reports from Nicaragua, the leaves yield a purer juice, and more copiously, than the bast. If this proves true. the supply of rubber can be largely increased with- ~ out permanent injury to the tree. The shoots should be transplanted to a nursery when one year old, and thence removed to their permanent place when 3 years of age, in rows—say, 64 Matapala, 81 Siphonia, and 100 Castilloa trees per acre. Cultivation consists in ditching the land so as to drain it at will, keeping it moist without permitting water to stand. Keep all undergrowth cut down and the land “ hilled up” around the trees. Fell other varieties of trees and vines until they shade but a very small part of the land. Commence during the sixth or seventh year to collect rubber by small area incisions through the bast, taking, if the trees have matured properly, 8 to 12 pounds of rubber from each tree biennially, but after the tree is 12 years of age a sufficient quantity of sap could be annually extracted to yield 10 to 15 pounds of good elastic rubber. The two following modes of incision are preferable to other processes: (1) Cut with a curved, sharp instrument channels through the lactiferous tissues similar to those made in pine trees in turpentine orchards in the United States; (2) drive tubes cut from the internodes of bamboo (abundant in. Nica- ragua) through the bast, first making a slanting cut of a part of the circumference of the tube, and drive the sharpened end, 12 to 2 inches long, into the tree; then, when the collecting season RUBBER FORESTS OF NICARAGUA AND SIERRA LEONE — 87 is passed. “ plug up” the tubes of that season with wood that has been dipped in some liquid insecticide and saw off the tube and its wooden core even with the thin exterior bark of the tree. The coagulation of the milk-like exudation and the separation from it of the elastic material can be effected by heating to 167 to 175 degrees F. and stirring in a hot decoction of some species of convolvulaceae, as morning glory, or stirring into the emulsion, when fresh and hot, the smoke from burning palm or other oleag- inous nuts, which are abundant in rubber-yielding districts. Secondary crops, planted between the rows of rubber-produc- ing trees, could be the Liberia coffee tree, bananas, or such fibrous plants as hennequen, sisal, etc., of the agave family; also, the vanilla bean, one vine to each rubber tree, which would yield an annual crop equal in value to the rubber product. While the vanilla vine needs trees of this class for sustenance, yet it is probable that the vanilla would not materially reduce the flow of sap or the quantity of elastic material from the tree. A comparative estimate of the annual value per acre in Nica- ragua of coffee trees and rubber trees at nine years of age and thereafter, at present (1896) prices, gives $192 net profit from an acre in rubber trees. RUBBER FORESTS OF SIERRA LEONE The following information concerning the undeveloped rubber forests of Sierra Leone is drawn from the address of His Excel- lency Colonel Cardew to the legislative council of Sierra Leone on his journeys, aggregating 1,500 miles, in the hinterland and protectorate of Sierra Leone in 1894-95. There are large forests with abundance of rubber awaiting ex- ploitation by intelligent and systematic methods and that will ‘yield wealth to the first enterprising comer. An extensive rub- ber forest lies between Makali and Kruto, covering the greater part of the district between the Seli and Bagwee rivers. This area comprises portions of the Kuniki and Koranko districts, and the extent of the rubber forests is estimated at 600 square miles. The portion of the forests seen is composed of rubber trees about ten years old, called “ Kewatia.’ These trees grow rapidly, and in ten years attain a girth of two or three feet, but under present methods they are felled by the rubber-gatherer. Two vines, the “ nofe” and the “ lilibue,” yield rubber, the latter of the choicest quality. The “nofe” is invariably cut up and destroyed for its rubber, and the “lilibue” generally so. 88 RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA The native processes of rubber-gathering are crude and waste- ful in the extreme. If intelligent and economical methods were adopted, there would be far greater yields than formerly, and the west African rubber would command a higher price. Unless better methods of extracting rubber are introduced, it is safe to predict that under the increasing demand for rubber one of the most thriving industries of Sierra Leone will be ruined by the extinction of the plant. At present, for the purpose of extract- ing a few pounds of rubber, large trees are totally destroyed. The forests in the Kuniki and Koranko districts are quite ac- cessible, it being about seven days’ march to Makah, where the woods are entered. Water carriage for light canoes is possible down the Rokel river from Benkia, two marches from Makali. These forests, however, are small compared to those on the Anglo-Liberian frontier along the Morro and Mano rivers, which extend nearly a thousand miles. The exploitation of these forests has been impracticable for the last twenty years, owing to border raids, but under present conditions of peacefulness it is now possible to open up these forests, which abound in rubber and elephants, and the southern portions of which are within two days’ journey of Sulina. A protectorate will shortly be proclaimed over the British sphere of influence in the interior, and under the proposed ar- rangement of five districts, each to be under a competent com- missioner, it is hoped there will be a rapid development of the interior, especially in the way of opening up communications and fostering trade. RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA* Africa is fast losing its title of the Dark Continent, and if explorations continue at their recent rate for a few years longer it will be as well known as other parts of the globe. Three young men recently crossed it from east to west, following, in the main, the route taken by Stanley, and correcting a few of the slight mistakes made by that explorer, as the *In studying the geography of the Dark Continent it should be borne in mind that owing to the interchangeability of the letters r, 1, and d in many of the African dia- lects.and to the fact that explorers of various nationalities have applied to the names of the different tribes and geographic features of the regions they have visited the orthographic forms peculiar to their own languages, the geographic nomenclature, even of such portions of the interior as are now mapned in more or less detail, is far from being definitely established. In some cases the variation in spelling is so great as almost to preclude identification, and not even in the ease of names of European origin is there that uniformity of orthography which is so much to be desired. J. H. : e 2 : , a ‘ i Pore: RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA 89 result, probably, of his rapid marching. These travelers were M. Mau- rice Versepuy, who has since died of fever, the Baron de Romans, and M. Sporck, an artist, accompanied by an escort of 20 riflemen and 130 carriers engaged at Zanzibar. They secured a large collection of weapons from different tribes, of indigenous seeds, flowers, and timber, of skins of various mammalia ; also a live leopard and a Jarge number of photo- graphs, and of water-color and other drawings. They traveled 4,000 kilometers on foot and 2,000 by boat, and their very complete itinerary ‘of their travels contains much interesting geographical information. The explorers left Zanzibar on July 6, 1895, sailing thence for Mombasa. Thence they crossed a barren, rocky country and reached Lake Jipé, where they hunteda while. They ascended the slope of the Kilimanjaro to the German post of Moshi, at an elevation of 1,200 meters. The Kilimanjaro is an imposing mass, nearly 6,000 meters high and covered with eternal snows. The confluence of the rivers Tsavo and Useri was located and the party crossed to the north of Kilimanjaro, a volcanic country en- _tirely uninhabited, and passed by Lake Ngiri. Taking an entirely new route, they made for the English post of Kikuyu, across the plains of Kapotei, where they successfully hunted elephants, rhinoceros, zebras, and antelope. These plains were entirely devoid of vegetation and their rivers were dried up. Kikuyu was reached in November, at which time the Masai were in open rebellion. This brave and fearless tribe is known and feared from the Kenia to German East Africa. They are tall and well-built, are mostly naked, wear their hair long, and smear their faces and shoulders with grease and red clay. They wear war feath- ers about the head and carry spears and shields, but while warlike and nomadic they raise some cattle. It was at this time that an English caravan, composed of 1,200 Wakikovus, was attacked by the Masai, who killed 700 of them. A Scotchman, named Dick, who was traveling with another caravan, left Kikuyu the day before the three French travelers, but hearing of the massacre he fell back and sent a letter to Kikuyu for assistance, which was refused. The Frenchmen joined forces with him and they were furiously attacked by the Masai in the Kedong valley. The attack was repelled, but Dick was killed. Leaving the Kedong valley, the party passed to the east of the small lakes Naivasha, Nakuro, and Elmeteita, and on December 5 reached the English fort of Ravine. The next day they crossed the deep ravine of the Eldoma river, passed the Mau foothills to the country of the Wanandis, across the north of the Kavirondo country, to the Nzoia river, from the banks of which the Victoria Nyanza could be seen. The Usoga, a rich and thickly inhabited country, was next passed and the Nile was reached. The Ripon falls, about 800 meters wide and 10 meters high, were greatly admired. Crossing the Bay of Napoleon brought the travel- ers to Uganda, where the natives are sufficiently civilized to have built roads and bridges. Their capital is Mengo, which the.travelers left on February 22, 1896. Passing by Lake Mitiana, which is more of a swamp than a lake, Lake Ruherou was reached. Itlies to the northeast of Lake Albert Edward, which is itself to the southwest of Mount Ruwenzori. hy 90 RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA According to Stanley, there is a high peak, which he named Gordon Ben- nett, to the north of this lake, but the travelers were unable to discover it. Mount Ruwenzori is about 5,000 meters high, and at night numerous lights were seen on its slopes. On April 11 the explorers were at Kasa- gama, whence they started for Katoné, to the north of Lake Albert Ed- ward, and on the frontier between British territory and the Kongo Free State. During this march they noticed that Lake Ruherou is not con- nected with Lake Albert Edward by a large bay, as Stanley says, but by asmall stream. The two lakes are 40 kilometers apart and have a differ- ence of 200 meters in elevation. On April 17 Katoné was left behind, the thirtieth meridian was crossed, and the caravan camped right under the equator for the third time since leaving: Mombasa. Continuing westward, they entered the Kongo Free State and crossed the foothills of the Ruwenzori, visited by Captain Lu- gard a few years ago, and entered the Semliki valley. The Semliki river is about 200 meters wide and has a very swift current. The next halt was made at the village of Mbéné, where Stokes was captured. From this place to Leopoldville the country is covered with an almost impene- trable forest, on the edge of which is the Arab village of Kissangué, an auxiliary post of the Kongo State. It is the duty of the chief of the vil- lage to warn the Kongolese authorities of the presence of strangers on their territory. After a ten days’ march through the forest Kuamkubi was reached. In this part of the country traces of Arab civilization are everywhere apparent; these Arabs speak the Zanzibar dialect. Leaving this post, the Kongo basin was next entered. The march through the forest was exceedingly difficult, compass and ax being alike indispensable. Finally the Ibina, a branch of the Ituri river, wasreached. Twenty days more along the banks of the Ibina brought the travelers to the Ituri itself, which they crossed in canoes, and then took a guide, who con- ducted them to the Kongolese military post of Kilongalonga. They were well received by the Belgian officers, the first Europeans they had met for several weeks, and after a short rest and the laying in of supplies they left for the next post. Recrossing the Ituri, they followed its left bank as far as Moussa, a small village opposite the mouth of the Ipulo. Here the Ituri is swift and narrow. Eight days more through the forest brought the travelers to Avakubi, where for the fourth time the Ituri had to be crossed. Avakubi is a post and market of some importance. Here the travelers saw a few specimens of the race of pygmies whose ex- istence has by many writers been doubted. The stature of these pygmies is about 1 m. 20, they are absolutely naked, their noses are very flat, and their looks somewhat ferocious. Their weapons are spears and arrows, which are proportionate to their stature. They hunt a great deal and attack even the elephant. They build no huts, but live scattered about the forest, and their habitations are holes. Their suspicious nature ren- ders them very difficult to meet, and it is only once in a while that a few of the least wild among them venture to go to the nearest post to ex- change the products of their hunt for bananas or sweet potatoes. From Avakubi the travelers proceeded in canoes as far as Stanley Falls. ae EK Oe cd GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 91 Here they embarked on a small steamboat and descended the Kongo, which at Bumba has a width of 30 kilometers. On August 3 they sailed for Europe, and M. Versepuy died shortly after his return to France. ErNEst DE SASSEVILLE. Paris, January 22, 1897. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE Laboratory Practice for Beginners in Botany. By William “ active members, $5.00 per annum ; for ila anes 52.00 per annt - members pay also an entrance fee of $2.00 on election. Tae Narronan Magazine is sent regularly to all members, both active and corresponding. — x a atie te for the founding oe Prize Medals aaah: Scholars ECAP eR Ry, sO GHrea rote ete. ote note rote ete etenoteote note rete mete wgte wate tenets ote ty ote note. cte ote ..steacte. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE teeta ate ote MAP OF THE KOOTENAL +/S~ HE most complete map of the rich mining region of the Kootenai ( and adjacent territory in Washington and British Columbia has just been published by the NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY. It is just what is needed by those going to that country or who desire to study and know about it. The map is made in relief, is 25 by 18 inches in size between borders, and has in connection with it—on the same page—smaller maps that show the relation of the region to the world at large. The principal drainage of the country is laid down in blue, the trails and roads are shown, the rail- ways plainly indi- cated, the names of important towns printed in large black letters, and the topography is represented in brown. As far as the ore deposits are known, they are indicated in a ‘cia ee ae general way by red SMELTER, TRAIL, B. C. lettering. The country shown upon the map includes particularly the Slocan, Kootenai Lake, Cariboo Creek, Deer Park, Nelson, Salmon River, Trail or Rossland, and the Boundary Creek regions. It also shows the Arrow Lakes and Lardeau country and some portion of the Okanogan and Fort Steele regions. The map is compiled from reliable and official data and shows the Mining District Subdivisions and the elevations of the mountains and lakes. The opposite side of the sheet contains an accurate statement and description of the country, showing its discovery and development to the present time. The folder will be sent to any address, together with a copy of WONDERLAND ’97, our new tourist book, upon receipt of six cents in stamps. CHAS. S. FEE, Genera/ Passenger Agent, St. Pau/, Minn. mee hi en ee ti ee ane i i i LN LLL LLL | a aan Deen DIE DID DENI AINE SERIE DERN STI DOS DEN DEEN DREN RIES DEE Dn Den Ne SIN DR DERE DIR DRE DEN DERE Dein DeRein SeiNk Denein DeRi Deein. Deatine aeleine Denies eins ee Lae ena De. a De De. Die De 2a hee ee a een DAN DANE DNL Dein. De Satek Detink heii Dink Dein. beeing betel ly NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE * SOUTHERN RAILWAY GCREATEST #* ee 4a SGOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... . DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... 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This pain leaves New York at 12.10 noon and arrives at Jacksonville at 3.30 p. m. next day, St. Augustine at 4. p. m. The CINCINNATI AND FLORIDA LIMITED, another very elegant vestibuled train, makes ae sue in about 24 hours between Cincinnati and Jacksonville, via Chattanooga, Atlanta, Macon, and verett. The ASHEVILLE ROUTE is the scenic route (over the Carolina mountains) between Cincin- nati and Jacksonville, via Knoxville, the Mountain Resorts, Columbia, and Savannah. The KANSAS CITY through car route is by this road, via Fort Scott, Memphis, Holly Springs, Birmingham, Atlanta and Hverett. The NEW ORLEANS ‘through sleeper route runs from New Orleans by, Pensacola on this route and via the beautiful Middle Florida Country. Remember that the FLORIDA CENTRAL AND PENINSULAR does not only go to Jack- sonville, but distributes passengers by close connections all over the State. Get THE BEST INDEXED MAP OF FLORIDA from any of our agents or from the General Passenger Agent. i J. L. ADAMS, Genl. Eastern Agt., W. B. PENNINGTON, Genl. Western Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. 417 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, O. WALTER G. COLEMAN, Genl. Trav. Agt., 353 Broadway, New York. N. 8S. PENNINGTON, Traffic Manager, A. O. MacDONELL, Genl. Pass. Agt., Jacksonville, Fla. ' wa dilly GROG: gael MAGAZINE ee 69000060 DOOSS GE SOOE e JOSS S600 A “a _, The Great Hotels | » KEY WEST AND MIAMI @ pees @ . » , STEAMSHIP CO, tes SOQSSSee ok Qe — THE BEAUTIFUL ROUTE TO REY wes T. ~ East Coast © o” ee oe Keys in daylight. @OO9 eocasoesas oo See local time card for sailing dates AT @ ae o ST. AUGUSTINE, © oR @ ORTIOND, © MIAMI AND NASSAU as of agridaaah . STEAMSHIP SERVICE TUAS til. BETWEEN 2S sees meme | Miami and Nassau, N, P. (Bahama Islands), OE . Will be inaugurated about JANUARY 15th for the WINTER TOURIST SEASON OF 1897 - gaceecestes: See advertisements for sailing dates & For map of Florida and book Florida East Coast, address— J. D. RAHNER, J. R: nee ROT ite J. P. BECKWITH, Ass’t General Pass'r Agent. tce-Pre »sident. Traffic Manager. St. Augustine, Fla. oeeo ease SOOOS SS SSS O0SSSSE8S i H E MAPLE L Vi ts THE DIRECT LINE ETWEEN CHICAGO, DUBUQUE. Wa ST. PAUL.MINNEAPOLIS DES MOINES. LA le: ee JOSEPH eee COry: GOOSOGS OO 288008 ig es NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other ; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to, the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. 3 These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. TH Mutual Life Insurance Company OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, IS # The Largest and Best Life Insurance Company in the World, « Assets over $220,000,000. The Mutual Life has Paid since Organization ... . - + «ss. » . « Over $388,440,897 to Policy-holders. The New Instalment Policy issued by this Company is admirably adapted to the wants of the Insuring Public. EVERY DESIRABLE FORM OF POLICY IS ISSUED BY THE MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY OF NEW YORK. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a ST PAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . ES es ae er eee TOs. 20%, J LD ERZ | | ! sO | Je UTAH and CALIFORNIA. ‘org pictoR\’ FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING PrHE OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE National Geographic Monographs On the PHysIcAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - ) GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - + - - - . 7j. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES = gee s BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - ¢. Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - -— - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. eer onder to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati = Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. WHENEVER YOU VISIT. WASHINGTON ee SS SSS SE YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE = ee rt cane rciie ne x MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + = Qe: OF ~7e @ > WOODWARD & LOTHROP © . OOOO SOG S OOO SOO S OO SO OOS OOO Oe Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are eee on ee The attention of those who anticipate purchasing BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in aay number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in re and 10 ie 50. design: Three or more pieces : CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. | MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. 2@0G000 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY -- RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. ; Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. BS AVA AVA VAVAVAVAVAVAVAUAVAUAUAVAVAVAVLUAVAUAVA UAV UA A VITAL POINT ———_ A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM oe ; IMPROVEMENT THE CRIDER OF THE AG ." MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- THIS POINT IS OF STRUCTED. 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COMPasSS WHIST DUPLICATE WHHIST scone [ cain | trump | Gain | score The one thing needed to perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score tmnade on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost and won on just such little chances. Win A: ni: B:iWw:d A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). Oo: ois . @ a a al ba a : e) 5 re an iS) 1S) a > a = For use & 3 bo Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fait play. ip 10 :@ The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,”’ prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. 1895, by Copyright Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct from the General Agents. E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. ia National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII APRIL, 1897 No. 4 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC By G. R. Purnam, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Among the scientific parties that assembled at Sydney, Cape Breton, in July last, for the purpose of paying a brief visit to the Arctic under the leadership of Lieutenant Robert E. Peary, U.S. N., was one organized by Professor A. E. Burton, of the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology. Of this party I became a member, having been granted leave of absence by the Superin- tendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, with the use of the necessary instruments to carry on magnetic and pendulum ob- servations. ‘The destination of our party was Umanak fiord, in the northern part of Danish Greenland and several hundred miles within the Arctic circle. This fiord, although of consider- able interest, has seldom been visited by exploring expeditions. It is oneof the largest on the Greenland coast and contains some of the finest mountain scenery, being the outlet of a group of glaciers of unusual magnitude. It is also the home of the most prosperous of the Greenland Eskimo communities, Our voyage was but a summer trip to moderate latitudes, de- void of the conventional Arctic hardships; and yet such a trip to Greenland has the peculiar advantage that many of the most striking of Arctic phenomena are either actually encountered or are easily accessible. We sailed from Sydney on July 16 on the steamer Hope, under the command of Captain John Bartlett, an experienced Arctic navigator. The Hope is one of the best of the Newfoundland sealing and whaling fleet, which is composed of strongly built ships, heavily timbered and sheathed for work in 7 x 98 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC the ice, and manned by hardy Newfoundland sailors. Our course lay north along the east coast of Cape Breton and the west coast of Newfoundland, and then through the straits of Belle Isle, where on the third day out we saw the first icebergs. From this time on for over two months these Arctic wanderers formed a part of every scene. At first they were a constant source of interest, because of their enormous bulk, their varied outhnes, and their beautiful coloring, changing from a marble white to a sky blue or a delicate pink, with an emerald green just below the surface of the water. Weamused ourselves by idealizing them, turreted castles, vast amphitheaters, triumphal arches, obelisks, ships, and animals being all represented in the magnificent procession of bergs which we passed. Some which I measured had a height of 160 feet above the water and a length of 800 feet. Soon after leaving the straits we began to encounter floe-ice, through which we continued to steam for about 700 miles, along the Labrador coast, which we closely followed. This was a great stream of ice brought south by the Labrador current, and consisted of ‘‘ pans” from a few feet to several hundred feet in diameter, but generally so separated that the steamer could push her way through without difficulty. In places, however, the effect of the wind had been to drive the pans close together, and then our progress was extremely slow, and indeed sometimes the ship was entirely stopped until a change in wind or tide caused the ice to loosen. ‘To break through barriers across our way it was sometimes necessary to back the ship and then go ahead at full speed, using the prow asa ram. The sensation of a ship striking and pushing these ice pans was a little startling at first, but we soon saw what the vessel could stand, so that only an unusual bump, that would rattle the dishes on ithe table and perhaps throw us off our feet, would cause remark. It took us a long time, however, to become used to the grinding of the ice against the sides of the vessel as we lay in our bunks at night. While in this ice we had some extremely beautiful effects of the mirage. One day when steaming along with ‘only loose cakes about us we appeared to be surrounded by a perpendicular ice-wall, apparently cutting orf all hope of progress, but as we proceeded this phantom ice-wall ever kept at the same distance from us. Near sunset the coloring on this mirage made an especially beautiful sight. We sometimes saw three and even four perfect images of distant icebergs and islands, one suspended above another. Some of these effects were fantastic beyond Sasi aioe A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 99 ee | JoAn B. we Ne fay | 40 Mf ROUTE OF THE ‘‘HOPE”’’ AS FAR AS UMANAK, SHOWING MAGNETIC STATIONS description, frequently changing even while we were gazing on them. Although the ice impeded the progress of the ship, it proved a blessing in disguise to those who were not good sailors, as it had the effect of destroying the ocean swell. Thousands of Newfoundlanders gather on the Labrador coast each summer to fish. Many of their vessels we saw, and at Turnavik, one of their little settlements, we stopped a few hours. It was while in the ice off Cape Chudleigh that we first saw polar bears in their native habitat. A large white bear and two 100 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC cubs were one day seen running over the pans not far distant from the ship, and their curiosity caused them to come nearer and gaze at us. They were nearly the color of the ice and, run- ning nimbly over the pans or swimming rapidly across the water spaces, were a pretty sight. A number of rifles were brought out, and the large bear was killed after a desperate effort to escape. A long chase followed for the cubs, the injunction being to take them alive. They were followed by boats and on foot over the ice and finally were taken. The one captured first was left in charge of one of the Cornell party to hold until the return of the boat. As the cub, although but a few weeks old, would not have been a pleasant companion for one man on a small ice-cake, our comrade, holding to the line about the bear’s neck, kept him in the water and at a safe distance with a boat-hook, and the strug- gles of the bear to get on the ice and of the man to keep him off furnished considerable amusement to those members of the party who remained on the ship. The cubs were finally caged on the deck of the Hope and remained our companions during the remainder of the voyage, growing greatly in size but not the least in affection either for their captors or for each other. They ‘may now be seen in the National.Zoological Park at Washington. The scenery along the Labrador coast became more striking as we proceeded northward. It is mostly a rocky, bleak-looking shore, treeless and barren, indented with deep bays and fringed with islands. In the southern portion the topography is low and its rounded outlines give every indication of the smoothing effect of glacial action. Just south of Cape Chudleigh, however, the mountains fringing the shore attain a height of 6,000 feet, and in many cases have sharp, rugged outlines. Passing into Hudson strait, the Hope was soon clear of the ice. After steaming over 200 miles along the north shore, we reached Ashe inlet on July 24. Here and on the mainland opposite two days were spent in exploration and investigation. At Ashe inlet there was located some ten years ago one of a number of meteorological stations established by the Canadian government for the study of the Hudson bay and strait climate in connection with the practicability of regular navigation in this region. A portion of the frame house was found standing, and it was the only sign of human habitation, with the exception of a few traces of Eskimo encampments. A more bleak and desolate-looking region it would be difficult to imagine; where the rock was not bare, the scanty vegetation was not over a few inches high. In i A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 101 this vicinity one of the ship’s anchors was lost, the chain being parted by a moving pan of ice, and a whale-boat was injured by a southeasterly gale driving it on the rocks. There is a tremen- dous tidal action in Hudson strait, the rise and fall at Ashe inlet being some 30 feet. On this account the strait does not freeze solid in winter, but becomes filled with an enormous ice-pack, which moves back and forth and forms an impenetrable barrier to navigation the greater part of the year. On the way out of Hudson strait we had our first good view of the Eskimo, although we had seen a few of the race at Turn- avik, in Labrador. Our first warning of their approach was a peculiar shrill call, which travels over the water long distances. It was some minutes before the uninitiated could discern the dis- tant specks on the water, which we were told were the Eskimo men in their kayaks. They rapidly approached and were taken’ on board—boats and all. The kayakers were soon followed by an umiak, or large skin boat, filled with the remainder of the set- tlement, including women, children, and dogs, as well as nearly all their earthly possessions. Although their wealth seemed very meager, they appeared to be among the happiest of peoples; their round, fat faces simply beamed with good nature. They were very anxious to trade, the objects most highly prized being plugs of tobacco, knives, guns, and copper coins. The last men- tioned they took in preference to silver, their only use for either apparently being to sew on to the women’s blouses as ornaments. They were dressed in furs, the men and women much alike, ex- cept that the women’s blouses had a long tail behind and a large hood or sack on the back, in which the baby was carried. Their peculiar appetite was shown by the relish with which they drank the contents of some cans of bear oil which the boys had been saving to grease their shoes with. After passing out of Hudson strait, an attempt was made to enter Cumbeyland sound, but the entrance was completely blocked with ice, and our course was shaped for Greenland. In crossing Davis strait we also crossed the Arctic Circle. This event was celebrated by the firing of cannon and the hoisting of flags. Neptune came aboard in the person of one of the sailors, who attempted to shave the uninitiated, using a lather of engine grease, and a ship’s scraping iron for a razor. Our first view of the Greenland coast was obtained near mid- night on August 1, the high, ice-capped mountains in the vicinity of Holstenborg forming a beautiful scene in the Arctic twilight. 102 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC The following day we landed at Godhavn, the capital of the Danish inspectorate of North Greenland, and were cordially re- ceived by the government officials. The interior of the island of Disko, on which Godhavyn is situated, is an elevated plateau averaging three or four thousand feet in height and covered with an ice-cap. The passage through the remarkable channel east of Disko, called the Vaigat, was a continual panorama of fine scenery. High mountains rose directly from the water on either side, with glaciers coming down between them and glimpses of the interior ice-cap presenting themselves at intervals. The Vaigat itself was so filled with enormous bergs that the ship had to wind its course among them. Entering Umanak fiord on the night of August 4, a most beautiful Arctic midnight scene was spread out before us. The sun dipped only about two degrees below the horizon at midnight, so that after about an hour of glowing sunset there was bright sunshine again. Lying along the northern border of the fiord were the highest mountains in this part of Greenland, sharp, cragged peaks of over 6,000 feet. To the eastward were groups of mountainous islands, and _ be- tween them could be seen the smooth, white swell of the great interior ice-cap of Greenland. To thesouth were the mountains, glaciers, and green foothills of Nugsuak peninsula, and to the A SETTLEMENT ON UMANAK FIORD A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 103 west stretched the open water of Baffin bay, while all around were the stately icebergs proceeding from the great glaciers at the head of the fiord. The Hope left our party at Umanak, the principal settlement of the district, which was to be our headquarters for several weeks, and where the vessel was again to return for us after its trip further north. The village is situated on an island, which though only about three miles in length, has in its center a moun- tain nearly 4,000 feet in height, a most remarkable shaft of rock, from which the name Umanak, being the Eskimo for “ heart- shaped,” is derived. The village consists of about 150 Eskimos and three Danish families. We found these Danish officials and their families most intelligent and hospitable people.’ They are almost entirely cut off from the rest of the world, only receiving news from Europe two or three times during the short summer. During ten months they are completely isolated, and for two months they do not see the sun. In the management of their possessions in Greenland and of the native races, the Danes have followed a plan unique in the world’s history. Between Cape Farewell and Upernivik, said to be the most northern civilized settlement in the world, there live about 10,000 Eskimos, scattered in villages along the coast. They are divided into twelve districts, of which Umanak is commer- cially the most important. In each district there are usually a goy- ernor, an assistant governor, having charge of commercial affairs, anda Lutheran pastor, in care of religious and educational mat- ters, but beyond these and a few minor officials in charge of sub- settlements, no Danes or other foreigners are allowed to settle in Greenland. The whole is under the direction of the Royal Green- land Board of Trade, a government bureau in Copenhagen which has a monopoly of the trade of Greenland. Supplies are sent out annually in nine ships, which bring back the products of the region to. Denmark. European goods are furnished to the Eskimos at but a slight advance over cost price, and they are paid amounts fixed in advance, once in five years, for the furs, oil, ivory, ete., which they bring in. All other trade along this coast is prohibited, and vessels are not allowed to even enter the Greenland ports, except by special permission or in distress. The idea has been to protect the natives in their rights and pur- Suits as well as in their morals. The arrangement is not a prof- itable one to the Danish government, the loss on the Greenland trade during recent years being said to have been as much as 104 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC $100,000 annually. Almost every village is provided with a church and a school, and the language taught is not the Danish, but that spoken by the natives themselves. The great majority of the Eskimos can read and write and are nominally, if not actually, christianized. Such a policy could hardly have been carried out in any region less isolated than Greenland. Whether or not their contact with civilization has been beneficial to the Greenlanders, it is probable that the continuance of the Danish system is their only salvation, for if the Danes were to withdraw, the wealth of this region in fisheries and hunting would soon attract a population that would so far interfere with the life and pursuits of the Eskimos as to cause their early extinction. These Greenland Eskimos, although they have been in contact with civilization for 250 years and are largely intermixed with foreign blood, have retained many of their original modes of Iife- The more pure-blooded are an intelligent-looking people, with smooth, round features and frank, open countenances ; they are short in stature and have straight, black hair. They ordinarily live in flat-roofed houses, built of rocks and turf, often contain- ing but a single room, with a sleeping-bench at one end and a long, low entrance for keeping out the cold in winter. In sum- mer they often live in tents, moving from place to place. They A GREENLAND FAMILY A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 105 KAYAKER IN UMANAK FIORD hunt the seal, walrus, narwhal, reindeer, bear, and smaller game— birds and fish—with which the region is stocked. By far the most important of these, to them, is the hair-seal, called by them “ puisse,” many varieties of which are found on this coast. The skin is used for clothing, boat covering, and tents, the blubber for fuel and illuminating oil, and the flesh for food. The highest ambition of a young Eskimo is to become a successful seal- catcher. For this pursuit they have developed some of the most ingenious appliances ever invented by a primitive people. In the summer they use the kayak, a skin boat which is a model of ingenuity, lightness, and gracefulness. With these small, frail boats, sometimes not over 18 inches wide, they do not hesitate to go out into open water and to attack large animals, such as the seal or walrus. The more expert can perform remarkable feats, the most astonishing of which is for the kayaker to turn com- pletely over, boat and all, and right himself again without get- ting out of the kayak, and without getting a drop of water into it. He wears a waterproof shirt tied closely about the small 106 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC opening in the deck in which he sits, and rights himself with a dexterous use of his double-bladed paddle. In addition to the rifle, which is now generally used, his main weapon is a harpoon having a detachable point which remains in the seal after it is struck, Attached to this point by a long line is an air-bag, which — floats on the surface, and enables the kayaker to follow the seal in its struggles. In winter the northern Greenlander depends on his dogs and sled for transportation. The Eskimo dogs are his only domestic animals, and every village is filled with them. On smooth ice great distances can be traversed in a single day, speeds of 16 miles an hour being attained. In Umanak fiord the sledging lasts more than half the year, the season in 1896 not ending until July. The Eskimos are a childlike, gentle race. They are honest and remarkably free from brawls and disputes. Jails and con- stables are entirely lacking in Danish Greenland. The very simple local affairs are regulated by district councils, composed of the leading natives and the Danish officials. who meet twice a year. The language is most peculiar and difficult for a stranger to master. It is composed almost entirely of nouns and verbs, and by suffixes and affixes to these the other parts of speech are formed. It is possible to express the meaning of a long English sentence in a single word, but some of these are forty letters in length. The investigations of Rink have shown that the more familiar words are common to all the Eskimo peoples, thus prov- ing their common origin. He estimates that there are about 30,000 Eskimos, of whom one-third live in Danish Greenland, one-third in Alaska, and the remainder in northeastern Siberia, the northern portions of North America, and a few in Greenland beyond the Danish dominions. From Umanak several trips were made in small boats to the great glaciers at the head of the fiord. The largest of thesé is the Karajak. The face of this glacier, from which the bergs break off into salt water, has a width of about four miles, a height above the water of over 250 feet, and in the center moves with a velocity of from 20 to 35 feet per day. A single iceberg breaking off from this glacier has been estimated to contain 24 million cubic vards of ice. At the price usually paid for ice for domestic purposes in the United States, the ice in such a berg as this would be worth over $100,000,000. At another glacier, the Itivd- harsuk, we saw a great mass, 300 feet long, break from the face ; the crashing and thundering noise that resulted, the surging of A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 107 the berg until it found its equilibrium in the water, and the dashing of the waves on the beach, with spray in places 100 feet high or more, made an impressive scene. In the narrower fiords the calving of a large berg will sometimes cause a tidal swell that will raise the water 20 feet. The surface of a glacier near its front is usually a mass of jagged pinnacles with deep crevasses between. Looking up the slope of the great ice-river the surface becomes smoother, and finally back on the distant horizon one sees the apparently smooth white plain of the ice-cap. A climb to the summit of a 3,000-foot mountain near the Itivdliarsuk glacier gave us some idea of this great ice-cap and the glacial FACE OF ITIVDLIARSUK GLACIER work along its edge. As far as the eye could reach to the north, south, and east extended this smooth, white field of ice sloping up from the seacoast and with an horizon line as level as that of the ocean. At regular intervals along its edge could be seen the crevassing at the heads of the glaciers, which were themselves cut off from view by the intervening mountains. At our feet the course of the ice-river was spread out before us, winding through the mountain valleys and around the nunataks or peaks projecting through the ice, from each of which it drew out a long moraine of rock debris. The interior ice-sheet covers the whole of Greenland with the exception of a narrow fringe along the coast. It rises to elevations of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet in the 108 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC center, and the enormous pressure of the accumulating snow presses out the giaciers through every opening in the bordering mountains. That this ice-sheet was once more extensive than . it is now is proved by the rounded outlines and glacial scratches found on nearly all the coast mountains. On the other hand, the climate of Greenland must at one time have been very much warmer. In the vicinity of Umanak fiord coal deposits are,found and fossils of such semi-tropical trees as the fig and magnolia. Notwithstanding the nearness of the ice-cap, the present climate of Greenland is much milder than that of the opposite side of Davis strait. In the fiords the summer climate is moderate and THE ‘‘HOPE”’’ IN THE ICE OFF CAPE MERCY pleasant; we found light winter clothing comfortable, but noth- ing more was needed. Wherever there is soil, there is an abun- dance of wild flowers and grasses, but we found no trees. A curious meteorological fact is that the Féhn wind, which blows directly off the ice-cap, always brings the warmest weather; the usual explanation being that this heating of the wind is due to its sudden descent from the elevated interior to the low coast. The Hope called for us at Umanak on September 9, and our homeward voyage followed much the same course as our out- ward one. The only severe storm we encountered was in cross- ing Davis strait. Off Cape Mercy the Hope was caught in an A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC 1090 ice-pack, in which she was held for three days. With a change of wind the ice loosened and the ship was slowly extricated, reaching open water in Cumberland sound. Two days were spent in the vicinity of Blacklead island. Thisis a Seoteh whal- ing station, and the settlement consists of three or four Europeans and a large number of Eskimos. The system obtaining here is a sort of feudal one, without government control. The natives work for the management, in return for which they receive Kuropean supplies, no money being used. From this point two passengers were brought back to America, one an English mis- sionary, who had been working among the Eskimos, and the other a Dane, who had charge of an American whaling station farther south. The latter brought with him the whalebone taken from a single whale, the whalebone weighing something over a ton and being valued at more than $10,000. Both of these men, who had spent years in this bleak, cold country, expressed re- gret at leaving it and the hope of soon returning. The voyage from Cumberland sound was without incident, save some beautiful auroral displays at night, and we landed at CUMBERLAND SOUND ESKIMOS 110 A SUMMER VOYAGE TO THE ARCTIC Sydney on September 26, all the 48 persons constituting the passengers and crew returning well and without accident. Some investigations in two lines of terrestrial physics were carried out by the writer in connection with the work of Pro- fessor Burton’s party. At each of the stopping places where time permitted, magnetic observations were made, determining the deviation of the compass needle from true north, the dip of the dipping needle, and the force of the earth’s magnetism. Two of the stations were near enough to the magnetic North Pole of the earth to cause the dipping needle to stand within six degrees of the vertical. The Greenland stations were so well to the east of the magnetic pole that the compass needle pointed more nearly west than north. The horizontal magnetic force in these regions is very weak on account of the great dip, so that mag- netic disturbances caused considerable changes in the needle, a change of over four degrees being noted in a single day at one point. For the same reason the ship’s compasses were irregular. A comparison of these results with earlier magnetic observations made in these regions clearly indicates the direction of change at present going on. At all the stations from Halifax, Nova Scotia. to Umanak, Greenland, the westerly declination, the dip, and the total magnetic force are all diminishing. At several points also pendulum observations for the measurement of the force of gravity were made. This force increases from the equator to the poles, and, following the theorem of the French mathema- tician, Clairaut, the amount of flattening at the poles of the earth may be computed by comparing the force of gravity at different latitudes. By a well-known law, the time of oscillation of a pendulum will be proportional to the square root of the force of gravity ; so that by comparing the time of oscillation of the same pendulum at different places the relation of the force of gravity may be obtained. Comparatively few such observations have been made in high latitudes, where they have great weight in the problem of the figure of the earth. [The illustrations accompanying the foregoing article are from photographs by Pro- fessor A. E. Burton and other members of the party.] AREA AND DRAINAGE BASIN OF LAKE SUPERIOR By Dr Mark W. Harrinarton, President of the University of the State of Washington Lake Superior is the largest and one of the deepest, not only of the Great Lakes of the St Lawrence basin, but of all the bodies of fresh water on the earth, and it possesses some other remarkable characteristics of its own; yet, though it has been so long known that it was roughly mapped 250 years ago under its present name, and charted several times with fair accuracy in details for the time before the end of the 17th century, and though it was charted with minute accuracy by the United States engineers 50 years ago, there has even yet been but little discussion of its more interesting and peculiar features. This is all the more remarkable because its extraordinary wealth in minerals and fish has been recognized from the beginning and has for half a century formed an important item of our national wealth and commerce, and more recent developments ‘have shown agricultural possibilities which are by no means con- temptible. It is the purpose of this paper to call attention to some of the peculiar and noteworthy features of the lake, more especially those which relate to its climate and weather and have a bearing on its commerce and agriculture. The statistics of Lake Superior, as to coast line and area, vary so much in geographic publications that | have had new meas- urements made with a planimeter by Mr R. F. De Grain, of the Weather Bureau, the coast line being carefully meandered. The following are the results: Coast Line MPATHONICAIMAICG.. ete cic swe ae we vale Rema ee iit MUA PTR ANSLTTESICLO 5 «aM gd .dbiaicles os 9 ate a cine cn gla ha vis re ee PR PROPAICCOMSHAAINGs ib... ccs secre se a Se RS, Se 1,872 miles, 112 AREA AND DRAINAGE BASIN OF LAKE SUPERIOR Areas of Lake Superior Total, including ali bays and islands............... 32,166 square miles. Deduct islands: LES ud Oni RE Geel ega bole cca eusirne 223 square miles. Si lonacennra sis ana ek etme 112 te MuGhipleOteIy Sate tas) yee nese 3 us SHUM OSM Aner wetoeehooegdasagee 36 fe GRAM brah s a ack ee rapes ate Ola ere 26 ef PTS Sie ape moo tata ake aoe te ewes Ae 22 oe STAG ide eis raler sie tele erty sal enoeatarayeaees 14 i Clepoycevea pajoe Souap esa sdoe sac ae ne Apostle islands.s:.2i52 262. 1 GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS 157 The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the year ending June 30, 1896. Prepared in the Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Treasury Department. Worthington C. Ford, Chief of Bureau. Vol. 1, pp. I-CxLviI + 1-760; vol. 1, pp. 761-1432. It is rarely that the bimonthly Bulletin of the Department of Labor fails to present some useful contribution to the literature of economic geography. Two articles in the March number are worthy of note in this connection: The Padrone System and Padrone Banks, by John Koren, and The Dutch Society for General Welfare, by Prof. J. Howard Gore, Ph. D., of the Columbian University. Nothing could better illustrate the extraordinery popularity of cycling than the publication for the express use of wheelmen of the attractive handbook and large-scale road maps of Westchester county, New York, recently issued by Rand, McNally & Co. While the easy accessibility to an immense population of the interesting and delightful region described will no doubt fully justify the publishers in their venture, the publication is none the less a notable one and worthy of high commendation. Henry Gannett, whose versatility of mind as a geographer, statistician, and diligent investigator in many other lines of scientific inquiry is con- tinually enriching our technical literature, has compiled for the Annual Report of the Geological Survey an elaborate series of tables and diagrams relative to the variation of the compass. While the chief aim of the author has been to show the approximate declination for the year 1900 at 22,000 different points in the United States, he gives us an interesting historical review of the secular variation and briefly notices the various other changes to which the magnetic declination is subject. The high standard of excellence that has characterized the publica- tions of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department under Mr Worthington C. Ford is fully maintained in the Report on the Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the fiscal year 1895-'96 and in the new number of the Statistical Abstract. The latter is more comprehensive and correspondingly more valuable than ever before. In a country whose official statistical publications are as voluminous as those of the United States, such an abstract is indispensable, and the provision made by Congress for its publication should be such as to admit of a care- ful analysis of such statistical data as may from time to time become available and of an absolutely accurate presentation of them in a sum- marized form. J. Ee GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS The Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute for April contains a valuable paper on ‘‘The Dairy Industry in the Colonies,” by Mr Samuel Lowe. The Scottish Geographical Magazine for April contains an excellent phys- ical and political description of Ceylon by Mr L. B. Clarence and an his- torical article treating of ‘‘The British in South America’’ by Colonel Howard Vincent. 158 GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS The Geographical Journal for April contains several articles of interest, including ‘‘ The First Crossing of Spitzbergen,” by Sir W. Martin Con- way; ‘‘Two Years’ Travel in Uganda, Unyoro, and on the Upper Nile,” by Lieutenant C. F. S. Vandeleur; ‘‘The Southern Borderlands of Af ghanistan,’’ by Captain A. H. McMahon; ‘The Perso-Baluch Bound- ary,” by Colonel Holdich, and ‘‘The River Oder.’’ The last article of the volume is by Professor A. W. Andrews on ‘‘ The Teaching of Geog- raphy in Relation to History.” This article has a spécial interest to members of the National*Geographie Society, inasmuch as it is in line with the course of afternoon lectures recently completed. The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, January-March, opens with an article entitled ‘‘ The Mendi Country and Some of the Cus- toms and Characteristics of its People,’’ by Rev. William Vivian. This is a little known region between Sierra Leone and Liberia. Sir W. Max- well contributes an article on the Results of the Ashanti Expedition in 1895-96, which is supplemented by a description of the Niger River and Territories, by Major Hampden Jackson. The work of the Hausa Asso- ciation is summarized by Rev. W. Robinson, in a paper read at the Liver- pool meeting of the British Association and published here. The Botany and Zoology of Uganda and other parts of Equatorial Africa are the sub- ject of papers by Rev. F. C. Smith, and the number concludes with an excellent article on Queensland, by General Sir Henry W. Norman. The Transactions of the Liverpool Geographical Society for the year 1896 include several interesting and valuable papers. The first, entitled “ Rail- ways in Africa,” by Major Darwin, describes not only the existing lines | of railway, but the lines of water communication and the railway routes needed in the future. Miss M. H. Kingsley writes on the ‘‘Ascent of Cameroons Peak and Travels in French Congo,” the narrative of an in- teresting journey. Mr Gray Hill writes the narrative of ‘‘A Journey to Petra,’”’? and Mr W. A. L. Fletcher of ‘“‘A Journey Toward Llassa.” Mr J. C. Ernest Parkes gives a short description of ‘‘ The Man-Eating People of the Imperri,” and Mr James Irvine furnishes a ‘‘ Description of the Kingdom of Benin,” written about the year 1630 and abridged from the folio edition of John Ogilby, published in 1670. The volume closes with a summary of the scientific results of Dr Nansen’s North Polar Expedi- tion, by Professor Mohn. The April Bulletin of the American Geographical Society is an exception- ally interesting number. Mr Cosmos Mindeleff writes on ‘‘ The Influence of Geographic Environment,” discussing its application to the Pueblo In- dians of New Mexico and Arizona. Dr George M. Dawson summarizes, in two and one-half pages, the ‘* Geographical Work in Canada” in the year 1896. Professor R. 8. Tarr continues his series of papers on ‘‘ The Physical Geography of New York State.’ Mr James Douglas furnishes an historical article entitled ‘‘The Consolidation of the Iroquois Confed- eracy,’’? and Mr Francis C. Nicholas contributes a paper upon the ‘‘ Eco-- nomic Importance of Geological and Physical Conditions in Tropical America.’’ The Washington letter of Mr F. H. Newell contains an ad- mirable summary of the situation regarding forest reserves. The ‘‘ Rec- ord of Geographical Progress’’ is exceptionally full, and this, with Map and Book Notices, closes the number. a. a TATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 159 Among the recent publications in the Johns Hopkins Unive rsity Studies is one entitled ‘‘The Street Railway System of Philadelphia, its History and Present Condition,’”’ by Dr Frederic W. Speirs. The street railway system in that city commenced in 1858, when the first line was opened. The history of the development of the system was probably ver y similar to that of other American cities, extensions being sought by rail- way companies and promoters and strenuously opposed by the majority of the people living upon the threatened streets. In 1876 thesvstem had grown until it comprised 289 miles, operated by 17 separate companie S, which were associated in a pool, under the control of a board of railw: ay presidents. In 1880 the current began to set strongly toward monopoly, and the movement went on, until in 1895 all the mileage of the city, amounting to 430 miles, was in the hands of four companies, and in 1896 the Union Traction Company, a new company formed for the purpose, obtained control of all the lines of Philadelphia, with the exception of one short line, 24 miles in length, the Hestonville, Mantua and Fairmount road. Besides giving a history of the lines, the paper treats in extenso of the financial aspect of the system, the price of franchise privileges, the principal item of which is the paving of the streets, estimated by the Bureau of Highways at $9,000,000. It contains a chapter on the public control of the railway system and upon municipal ownership and corporate influence in the city government. ‘‘ The Relations of the Railways to their Employés’’ is treated in a separate chapter. ; H. ¢ PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, SESSION 1896-’97 Special Meeting, March 29, 1897.—Fifth Monday afternoon illustrated lecture. President Hubbard in the chair. Prof. Benj. Ide Wheeler, of Cornell University, lectured on Greece. Regular Meeting, April 2, 1897.—Vice-President Gilbert in the chair. Mr H. M. Wilson and Mr Isaac Winston described instruments and methods used in spirit-leveling by the U. 8. Geological Survey and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey respectively. Illustration by instru- ments, maps, and diagrams. Special Meeting, April 5, 1897.—Sixth Monday afternoon illustrated lee- ture. President Hubbard in the chair. Rey. Dr Alex. Mackay-Smith lectured on Rome. Special Meeting, April 9, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Vice- President Merriam read a paper, with lantern illustrations, on the Effects of Geographie Environment on Animal Life. Special Meeting, April 12, 1897.—Seventh Monday afternoon illustrated lecture. President Hubbard in the chair. Prof. Edwin A. Grosvenor, of Amherst College, lectured on Constantinople. Regular Meeting, April 16, 1897.—Secretary Gannett in the chair. The paper for the evening was on the Secular Variation of the Magnetic Dee- 160 . MISCELLANEA lination in the United States, by the chairman, with maps and diagrams, followed by an address by Mr G. W. Littlehales on the Magnetic Com- pass in Modern Navigation. Special Meeting, April 19, 1897.—Eighth Monday afternoon illustrated lecture. President Hubbard in the chair. Prof. Wm. H. Goodyear, of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, lectured on Venice and Genoa. Special Meeting, April 23, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Dr T. GC. Mendenhall, President of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, lec- tured, with lantern illustrations, on Weighing the Earth. Special Meeting, April 26, 1897.—Ninth, and last, Monday afternoon illustrated lecture. President Hubbard in the chair. Dr David J. Hill lectured on America. After the lecture a number of lantern illustrations of American scenery were thrown on the screen by Mr B. P. Murray. Regular Meeting, April 30, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Hon. Martin A. Knapp, Commissioner of Interstate Commerce, read a paper, with lantern illustrations, on Some Geographic Effects of Modern Methods of Transportation. Evections.—March 26.—J. M. Boutwell, Pay-Inspector A. Burtis, U. S. N., Col. R. M. Calhoun, Lieut. G. B. Harber, U.S. N., E. T. Parsons, Louis R. Peak, Powhatan Robertson, Hon. N. D. Sperry, Wallace Streator. April 9.—Capt. John Callahan, Rev. Asa 8S. Fiske, Miss L. N. Forrest, Lieut. F. M. Kemp, U. 8. A., Mrs Porter King, W. A. McFarland, Wm. A. McKenney, Dr Grace Roberts, Miss Grace C. Sheldon, Miss Mary A. Spencer, Julius Ulke, Jr. Deatus.—Major Charles E. Bendire, U. S. A.; Rear-Admiral Richard W. Meade, U.S. N. MISCELLANEA The map of the United States published by the General Land Office in 1896 represented in broad lines the original territory of the United States and the several accessions made to it by purchase or otherwise. Among the mistakes perpetuated by this map is that of representing ‘‘ Oregon,”’ i. é., the present states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and part of Mon- tana, as a portion of the Louisiana purchase. This mistake is taken as a text by Colonel James O. Broadhead for a critical review entitled ‘‘ The Louisiana Purchase; Extent of Territory Acquired by the Purchase,”’ published by the Missouri Historical Society. Colonel Broadhead shows most conclusively that Louisiana extended on the northwest only to the limits of the Mississippi drainage basin. The conclusion is not a new one, but we are obliged to Colonel Broadhead for many new items of evidence. If anything were needed to settle the matter beyond peradventure, the proofs which he brings forward should be conclusive. BEG: NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ‘G a oe = ae CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. THE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every Variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. O08 LAKE CRESCENT TROUT FISHING EXTRAORDINARY. R EW species of trout in a new region. If you ag care for fine TROUT FISHING, by all means visit LAKE CRESCENT. H Go and tussle with the famous BLUE BACKS that weigh eleven pounds and more, and are thirty inches E in length. R The Lake is easily reached from PORT ANGELES, Washington. Send Six Cents for our new WONDERLAND '07 N and read about the spot. CHAS. S. FEE, Gen. Pass. Agent, St. Paul, Minn. S | ed OLYMPIC RANGE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... . DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS . BETWEEN . Washington and N. ashville | via Salisbur y, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day pea Additional Trains for local travelers. ... . The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts na - . « »« MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.’’ Niel is for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, Géneral Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. ee Jo 28h WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. : S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New . York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - = - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - -~ - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business” - - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since | its organization, in 1848, frie oa - $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE East PAu sacar us MANN EAPOLIS CHICAGO or ST. LOUIS The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . eS | Je UTAH and CALIFORNIA. FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING fr Hikh OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, _ Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96," E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE GHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND OY. PAUL RAILWAY -RUNS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul.and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches,between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago aud points in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. ' The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON _. YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE ee MIMMOTH DRY cunns ESTIRISHMAT « > MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + 0 © Oe OF AZo @ WOODWARD & LOTHROP & © @ QOS OOO OOOO O OOS OS OO OSS OOOO OS Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are sulla on Fone The attention of those who anticipate purchasing BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in poy numiber of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in style and 10 co oY: design: ‘Three or more pieces 5 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D.C. | GOOSO@ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oN | Shortest Line ; St. Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO _ GREAT vt. WESTERN RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to F. H. LORD, Gen’I Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. : f \ » ’ J. 2 I i — — = —-— _t } ENA eT NP TN Y M4 L . ~ SN ~ Vv . . a, Yv a alae. ag i, a > + 4s 4 = A -_——.~ -4 = x: 2-2 nx ———)—_ ‘x. x A TYPEWRITER’S = PRINTING MECHANISM A PREMIER \ og STATA NO? Se MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- THIS POINT IS OF STRUCTED. UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. Premier Cypewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. “ The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. NVA AAA AAA AVA AAV AVA AV DRERERERERARARRARRARRRANANAAAARAAS € Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 1416 F Street. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE IN ; DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WalST, STRAIGHT WhIST AND EUCHRE, Since Duplicate and Com- pass Whist have come into fashion there has been an unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to the fact that mere /wck is to a large extent eliminated by a comparison of the scores made in the play of the same hands by different players. The one thing needed to perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score made on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost aud won on just such little chances. A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- | fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,”’ prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. aplece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct from the General Agents. WN Cosmos Duplicate WHist Score For use yden, Washington, D, 1895, by Copyright E. MORRISON PAPER CO., COMPASS WHIST score | totats | tRuMP OPPONENTS DUPUICATE WHEHIST ON A niP WEN iQiP: Win Oo :@ LS) 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ' pn eaee””~6 6a De NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHysIcAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOI,UME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - . - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - BEACHES AND ‘TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N.S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof, I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - c Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller ; THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND Its HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati = Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians fee the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second ‘volume. ‘The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for _ making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Riicker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo, ' Future numbers will contain : ‘¢ The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ BY DR... J. 'A. FLEMING. ‘‘ The Electrification of the Atmosphere,”’ : By Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. 4 ‘‘ The Height of the Aurora,”’ " By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE. 9 ‘‘The Distribution of Magnetic Observatories,” + (Illustrated), By Pror. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, ete. ete: : The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Domestic subscription _ @price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents, Foreign subscription price: Nine shillings, nine b _ marks, or eleven francs. Address: ve - TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, % The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohie. at Si). NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ° bo SNe N ae \ \ i‘ ; : N \ EOPLE like to read about the great % oA’ Lae \ \ and wonderful country of the % N \ . % N N Southwest; of its quaint and curious ¢ 4 cHarming book covenae a \ \ Z ; erates \ ‘ sg facts is issued by the \ \ towns, its ancient civilizations, TUSigiiesy N \ ie PASSENGER DEPARTMENT \ . natural marvels. They like to get ac- oF THE N \ curate information about California + Southern Pacific Railway, N NX ba ae 3S d will be sent ia, N \ nd the Pacific Coast. 2 # and will be sent toanyone, postpaid, “ ‘3 the This is because 4 on receipt of TEN CENTS: \ SX + ; SS \ most people want to some day see these 4 \ WX : *° N \ “things for themselves... .*.)- . 0 4 N \ Se SS N + N A nities yoetoeseesonsonsoaseasoasersweswetesieesoesetsetge tis Se . N \ \ N WS XN X N \ X X X N Sooherseogesie-rgeasergeatersoage sseaseshoasessese- oles dese nese seseeeseseoaeseonreeaesseserocen Pees oese \ SS ae OO SX \ “ N \ so ~ \ \ “ ae SX N ~ THE BOOK IS ENTITLED ss \ SS eo ‘" : \ Ka & \ \ & : % XN ‘ : “Through Storyland : 2 SS OG se X < : rough Storylan : . \ eo “ N N oe fi x EN . + sy $ . ae: to Sunset Seas,"— . * Oo ounse Cas, ¢ N +e Sd N *y % \ SS oe se NX \ 2 B) \ SX Wreetestecteatestesteeteateetesteeteet O, .%, .%, ©. .%, .%, .@, © oo o % % © © % © O © & % @ < NV \ eae Serta, POS OCIS ESOC ICIS KS KS SII SIC SAS SISO CO \ NS N \ N \ > N N \N NX \ \ N \\ SX \ Worgeesestesloate clocle ate Leelerterlorlortorvorresvesvostostesteetestoetesteeteeteeteetoereetes X X “e \ N < Ae Me ~+ AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ \ Ke \ . % SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, ~ \ You can get a copy by writing to % \ ee 5 SS \ s. F. B. MORSE ‘ WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... \ . ° ° ’ SS N “ ? \ . General Passenger Agent, = The paper used is FINE PLATE N Southern Pacific, & : \ : : SX \ New Orleans, © © PAPER, and every typographical de- \ \ - eo . : . . e SX . and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ \ ss N N > = . NS \ *¢ four people saw.on just such a trip as N \N\ ‘a a Ne PE See eT Se eee eee eS ee A eee ee Oe P .. ~ 4 THE NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES 185 If we admit that something should be done to secure the per- petuity of the great public forests, the query at once arises as to what it should be and how we should go about it. The most direct way would undoubtedly be to at once reserve all forest lands, have them surveyed and examined, appoint suitable men to take charge of them, to protect them from fire, to designate trees that may be cut, and to attend to the details of the utiliza- tion and preservation of the tree growth. A system of this kind once fairly under way would unquestionably be more than self- sustaining and would bring to the government a considerable and constantly increasing income, besides furnishing a perpetual supply of timber, protecting the sources of water, and adding to the natural attractions which draw tourists to remote parts of the country. But such a step involves many radical changes. The people as a whole are not educated up to it. Those in the West are afraid of interference in local concerns, and those of the Kast are fearful lest large expenditures should be incurred. Asa compromise, therefore, the friends of forestry have proposed that, instead of taking all the forests, certain specified spots should be designated, and that these should be reserved for forestry pur- poses in the hope that later some provision might be made for carrying out a system outlined above, and that the system, if it proved efficient, might be extended gradually further and fur- ther. Accordingly many bills have been introduced into Con- gress, but have all failed from one cause or another. At length. after many failures, a clause was inserted in “An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” approved March 3, 1891, providing, “ That the President of the United States may from time to time set apart and reserve in any state or territory having public land bearing forests, in any part of the public lands, wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the Presi- dent shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof.” The then Secretary of the Interior, the Hon. John W. Noble, took great personal interest in this matter of forest reservation, and through his active assistance the friends of the forestry movement were able to secure the proclamation by President Harrison of fifteen reservations, having an aggregate area of over thirteen million acres. They then renewed their efforts to secure suitable legislation and energetically supported the attempts made to pass laws allowing the reservations to be protected and 186 THE NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES properly utilized. Among others, the McRae bill (H. R. 119) was passed twice by the House, and in a slightly different form once by the Senate, but failed of final consideration. Soon after the beginning of his administration President Cleveland pro- claimed two reservations, one of these, the Cascade Range Forest Reserve, in Oregon, being of enormous size, embracing nearly four and a half million acres. As session after session of Congress passed without the needed legislation to protect these reservations, the friends of: forestry united upon a new line of action. The American Forestry Asso- ciation, in its executive sessions, drew up a letter, subsequently signed by the Secretary of the Interior, the Hon. Hoke Smith, calling upon the National Academy of Sciences for information upon the whole subject. Secretary Smith also asked that Con- gress appropriate the sum of $25,000 for this purpose. In the act approved June 11, 1896, this amount was accordingly set aside “to enable the Secretary of the Interior to meet the ex- penses of an investigation and report by the National Academy of Sciences on the inauguration of a national forestry policy for the forested lands of the United States.” The commission appointed by the President of the Academy at once took up the subject and as soon as practicable visited many of the forestry areas of the West, making a preliminary report to the Secretary of the Interior on February 1, 1897, recommending the establish- ment of thirteen additional forest reserves. The recommenda- tion was at once acted upon, and on February 22 President Cleveland proclaimed the thirteen reserves, containing an esti- mated area of over twenty-one million acres. The commission in this preliminary report recognized the difficulty of securing suitable legislation for the protection of the forests or of the reservations, and accordingly used, as one of its arguments for making these reservations, the fact that a greater number of persons would be induced by self-interest to urge upon Congress the enacting of laws which public interests alone have not been sufficient to bring about. The commission “believes that the solution of this difficult problem [of forest management] will, however, be made easier if reserved areas are now increased, as the greater the number of persons interested in drawing supplies from the reserved territory or in mining in them, the greater will be the pressure on Congress to enact laws permitting their proper administration.” The wisdom of this argument was seen in the demand from the West for immediate fitted © ae. Ss v Ss eee Lee ee ee OE E——— _ GEORGE W. MELVILLE 187 action on the part of Congress. This demand resulted in the insertion in the sundry civil bill that became a law June, 1897, of a number of paragraphs which put into effect at once many of the provisions of the McRae bill. The legislation thus secured, while open to criticism in many directions, marks a distinct progress and is undoubtedly the best that can be had under the circumstances, where such a large and influential body of citi- zens are interested in preventing any measure which shall inter- fere with their obtaining practically for nothing the great stores of public timber. The bill provides for the immediate survey of the boundaries and for the suspension until March 1, 1898, of the thirteen reser- vations proclaimed on February 22,1897. It is explicitly de- clared that ‘“‘no public forest reservations shall be established except to improve and protect the forest within the reservation, or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, or to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States; but it is not the purpose or intent of these provisions . . . to authorize the inclusion therein of lands more valuable for the mineral therein or for agricultural purposes than for forest purposes.” Authority is given to the Secretary of the Interior to make suitable regulations for protection against fire and depredations and for the sale of dead, matured, or large growth of trees. On the other hand, the rights of prospectors and miners are care- fully guarded by the statement that “ nor shall anything herein prohibit any person from entering upon such forest reservations for all proper and lawful purposes, including that of prospecting, locating, and developing the mineral resources. Settlers, miners, residents, and prospectors may be permitted to use timber for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, and domestic purposes.” GEORGE W.. MELVILLE FENGINEER-IN-CHIEF, U.S. Navy Tur Nationa, Grocrapuic MAGAZINE presents to its readers with this number a portrait of one of the most distinguished members of the Society of whose proceedings it is the exponent. Born in the city of New York January 10, 1841, young Melville, after graduating in the Polytechnic School of Brooklyn, acquired 188 GEORGE W. MELVILLE a thoroughly practical knowledge of engineering in the works of James Binns of that city. Stirred to patriotic effort by the out- break of the rebellion, he entered the Navy July 29, 1861, and became an officer of the Engineer Corps of that service before attaining his majority. Constantly on sea duty, Melville saw service on the Great Lakes, in the North Atlantic blockading squadron, at the capture of Norfolk and in the operations on James river, on the Mississippi river, in the capture of the Florida, and as a volunteer in one of the torpedo boats at the capture of Fort Fisher. His most conspicuous war service was in connec- tion with the capture of the Florida in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil, Melville, in civilian clothing, boarding the vessel in broad day- light and gaining the desired information as to the strength of her battery and the location of her machinery. In the capture of the Florida on the following morning Melville displayed his usual bravery, and was one of the three men wounded in the affair. His war services were such that Engineer-in-Chief Loring officially wrote, ‘‘ With the high reputation this gentleman has throughout the service for professional skill, executive ability, energy, and zeal, . . . itis no disparagement to his fellows to say that he has not his superior in his corps.” The dangers of war past, Melville sought the first opportunity for adventurous service elsewhere, and volunteering for service in the Tigress, formed one of the search party for the missing crew of the Polaris. The Tigress, under Commander Greer, reached the deserted camp of the Polaris, near Littleton island, the suc- cess of the voyage being largely owing to Melville’s “ great fer- tility of resource, combined with thorough practical knowledge.” His most conspicuous arctic service was under Lieut. D. W. De Long in the Jeannette, which attempted to solve the polar problem via Bering strait. As will be recalled, the Jeannette, beset by the pack in the neighborhood of Wrangel island in Sep- tember, 1879, drifted almost steadily to the westward until she was crushed by ice-floes and sank June 12, 1881, in 77° 10’ N., 155° KE. During this long and monotonous drift Melville’s quali- ties as a man and his efficiency as an officer were conspicuously displayed ; now it was a series of engineering problems which saved from foundering the leaking Jeannette, again it was physical endurance and will-power as the leader of an exploring party that enabled him to reach and survey Henrietta island, the first of De Long’s discoveries. It was under the most desperate con- ditions, however, that Melville’s spirit and abilities were practi- ee a ae ee : ———— ss —_— a i a ai ti Te i eee =P | . GEORGE W. MELVILLE 189 cally indispensable—when the Jeannette sank five hundred miles from the Lena Delta. Lieutenant Danenhower being disabled and Lieutenant Chipp sick, De Long’s main dependence was in his chief engineer, Mel- ville, who was well, strong, energetic, and fertile in resources. It is unnecessary to dwell on the dangers and hardships which this unprecedented journey entailed on the members of this party, which were met with fortitude, courage, and energy that made its successful issue one of the most notable efforts in the history of man, overcoming obstacles almost insurmountable. It is only to be said that in this fearful journey for life Melville, as the right arm of De Long, was full of energy and expedients. Such was De Long’s confidence in Melville, that, when the three boats left Bennet island, De Long placed the whale-boat entirely under his orders, although Danenhower was placed therein. This unusual step was fully justified by the events, as Melville’s boat’s crew was the only one that was saved, Chipp perishing at sea and De Long in the Lena Delta. When De Long’s des- perate condition became known, it was Melville’s heroie spirit and personal daring that ventured the unsuccessful autumnal search and later, in the brighter but more fearful polar spring, discovered the remnant of De Long’s unselfish crew and secured for them a Christian burial. Congress, in 1890, promoted him fifteen numbers ‘as a recognition of his meritorious services in successfully directing the party under his command after the wreck of the Arctic exploring steamer Jeannette, and of his per- sistent efforts, through dangers and hardships, to find and assist his commanding officer and other members of the expedition before he himself was out of peril.” In 1883 Melville volunteered to lead a relief party for the res- cue of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition, which had that autumn retreated under orders to Cape Sabine, and when the government rejected a proposition, the heroic Melville sailed in the expedition of 1884 commanded by Captain Schley, and was one of the first officers to reach the living remnant of the expe- dition, and thus closed with credit his service afloat. Selected in 1887 as Chief Engineer of the Navy with the rela- tive rank of Commodore, he has discharged the important duties of this office with such professional fitness and administrative ability as to merit universal praise. During this period the United States Navy has been substantially reorganized and with a degree of success that has enlisted the admiration of the world. 190 GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS As the engineering head of more than sixty vessels of all types, from torpedo boats to battle ships, it may at least be said with perfect safety, that as much to Commodore Melville as to any other man in the Navy is due its remarkable degree of efficiency as regards its vessels and its materials. In recognition of his professional ability, of his Arctic career, and of his qualities as a man, George Wallace Melville has been the recipient of distinguished honors from governments and scientific institutions not only of America, but also of foreign countries. A. W..Ga GEOGRAPHIC SERIALS The Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute for May contains an extremely interesting article, entitled ‘‘ Western Canada Before and Since Confed- eration,” by Sir Donald A. Smith. It comprises an outline of the history of the region while it was under the control of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany and a summary of its development since it became a part of the -Dominion of Canada. u The June number of the same Journal contains a paper on the “‘ Colony of Largos, by Sir Gilbert T. Carter. It is mainly a history of this little colony of Western Africa, with a summary of its present trade and social conditions. The Scottish Geographical Magazine for May opens with an article by Nansen, entitled ‘‘Some Results of the, Norwegian Arctic Expedition,” accompanied by amap. It contains also an account of a trip to Mount Tarawera in New Zealand, with an account of the topographic changes produced by its great eruption in 1886. This is illustrated by a map show- ing the present topography of the surrounding region. The June number of The Scottish Geographical Magazine contains an im- portant article by Dr Robert Bell on the ‘‘Geographical Distribution of Forest Trees in Canada.” Mr W. Saville Kent writes on ‘‘ The Market Fishes and Marine Commercial Product of Australia.” The Geographical Journal contains several articles of interest: Nansen contributes ‘‘Some Results of the Norwegian Arctic Expedition,” which is followed by a discussion on the North Polar problem. ‘The Meso- potamian Petroleum Field” is described by Capt. F. R. Maunsell. “* The Formation of the Dungeness Foreland ” is described by Mr F. P. Gulliver, and a summary is given of recent ‘‘ Russian Expeditions in, Tibet.”’ The Quarterly Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society contains a number of articles of interest, among them ‘{The Growth and Progress of the Australian Colonies,” by Mr W. Harper, which is accompanied by a relief map; ‘* Meteorology of Queensland,’’ by Mr Clement L. Wragge ; ““The Suez Canal,’’ by Mr Isaac Bowes, and ‘‘ The Nicaragua Canal, as Proposed by the Maritime Canal Company,” by the same gentleman ; “The Canals and Navigable Rivers of England,’’ by Mr Lionel B. Wells; EEE —<— = _-- NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 191 ‘The Earthquakes of Iceland in 1896,” by Mr John R. Newby; *‘‘ Physi- cal Geography of Northeast Tamtachiva, ” by Mr Herbert Bolton. Ps The Technological Quarterly for March contains, among other papers, an interesting article on ‘‘ The Scientific Work of the Boston Party on the Sixth Peary Expedition to Greenland,’’ by Mr G. R. Putnam. Besides giving a narrative of the expedition, this article contains a siiitary of the Magnetic and Pendulum Observations. The Sierra Club Bulletin for May opens with an article on “ The Conifers of the Pacific Slope,’ by Mr John G. Lemmon. An entertaining story is contributed by Helen M. Gompertz, entitled ““Up and Down Bubbs Creek,”’ and Mr Bolton Coit Brown continues his ‘‘ Wanderings in the High Sierra.” Y The Journal of Geology for February-March contains an article by Prof. R. D. Salisbury on the ‘‘ Drift Phenomena in the Vice inity of Devils Lake and Baraboo, Wisconsin,” describing the formation of the strange glacial deposits of that region. The same journal for April-May continues the . ‘* Glacial Studies in Greenland ” of Prof. T. C. Chamberlin. The Journal of the Tyneside Geographical Society for May devotes half its space to Nansen’s explorations. For the rest it contains a narrative of a journey in Benin by James Pinnock and T. B. Auchterlonie, and sum- maries of lectures delivered before the society. Cs A PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, SESSION 1806~’97 Special Meeting, May 7, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. Mr Walter Dwight Wilcox read a paper, with lantern illustrations from origi- nal photographs, on Scenery and Camp Life in the Canadian Rockies. Annual Meeting, May 14, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. The Treasurer read a progress report on the condition of the Society's finances, postponing the presentation of a complete report sn the close of the fiscal year. A committee, consisting of Messrs W. A. De Caindry, H. C. Rizer, and. A. Aplin, Jr., was appointed to audit Hie nach s accounts, Mr Marcus Baker, Col. H. F. Blount, Lieut. E. Hayden, U. 8. N., Dr C. Hart Merriam, and Prof. W. B. Powell were recélected members of the Board of Managers, and Mr Frederick V. Coville, Botanist of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, was elected in place of Mr J. B. Wight, whose newly assumed duties as a Commissioner for the District of Columbia prevented him from offering himself for reélection. The meeting ad- journed until Friday, June 11, 1897. Special Meeting, May 21, 1897.—President Hubbard in the chair. The meeting was devoted to the following papers in connection with the ap- proaching excursion to Manassas Gap: The Blue Ridge and Piedmont Plateau, Prof. W J McGee; Manassas to Manassas Gap, a Chapter of War History, Major Jed Hotchkiss. 192 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Annual Excursion and Field Meeting, May 22, 1897.—About 250 members and guests went by special train, leaving Washington at 9 a. m., via Ma- nassasand Thorofare Gap, to Manassas Gap, Va. On arrival, at 11.15a. m., a field meeting was held in the open air, President Hubbard in the chair, and addresses were delivered by Major Jed Hotchkiss, on War History ; Mr M. R. Campbell, on the Geography and Geology of the Region; and Gen. Chas. H. Grosvenor, M. C. Lunch was then served, after which an ascent of Mt. Monterey, to the northward, was made by many of the party, a few climbing High Knob, to the southward. The return to Washington was made at 4.30 p. m., arriving at 6.30. Adjourned Annual Meeting, June 11, 1897.—Vice-president Merriam in the chair. The annual report of the Recording Secretary was read and accepted. The annual report of the Treasurer was read and referred to the Auditing Committee. The Recording Secretary stated that as no printed notice of pending amendments to the By-laws had been sent to members, owing to his enforced absence from the city, they could not properly come up for final action at that meeting. Said amendments are as follows: Articte V. Add ‘‘ No initiation fee shall be required of ex-members in case of their reélection to membership. Annual dues shall be reduced one-half for the current season in the case of members elected after the end of January, or who resign before that date; and they shall be re- - mitted altogether for the current season in the case of members elected in April and May, upon payment of full dues for the following season.”’ Omit ‘‘Suitable rebates may be made, in the discretion of the Board of Managers, in the annual dues of members elected in April and May.” Omit ‘‘ within thirty days after election’’ (payment of dues by new members), and add ‘‘upon notice of election, and no certificate of elec- tion shall be issued until the required first payment shall have been made.” After “Annual dues may be commuted and life membership acquired by the payment of fifty dollars” add ‘‘, or, by ex-members or members who have already paid in dues as much as fifty dollars, by the additional payment at one time of twenty-five dollars.”’ Add ‘Suitable restrictions may be made in the issue of tickets and publications to members in arrears.” Arricte VI. Omit ‘‘The Board of Managers shall set apart a time and place for the annual address of the President and Vice-presidents.” Arricte VII. Insert after ‘‘ which (the magazine) shall be sent to all members of the Society,” insert ‘‘ not in arrears of dues.” Add at end of same paragraph, ‘‘ The number issued next after the annual meeting shall contain the By-laws and a list of the Officers and Members of the Board of Managers.” Evecrions—May 7.—Geo. F. Curtis, Elmer S. Farwell, Alpheus H. Hardy, Evert L. Harvey, Prof. Jos. V. Jackman, John P. Logan, Hon. L. T. Michener, Henry T. Offterdinger, Miss J. A. Read, Clinton Smith, Herbert Wright. June 11.—L. 8. Brown, Lieut. J. B. Cahoon, U. 8S. N., John G. Gossel- ing, Niels Gron, Judge Martin F. Morris, Miss Morris, James B. Pinkerton, Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Miss Louise Taylor. NATIONAL ane RAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. CLIMB MOUNT RAINIER swe WITH THE VASA MAS. a 14,532 FEET HIGH. IN JULY meh NORTHERN this club of mountaineers of the North Pacific Coast will ascend this mountain of ice. Men and women in latge numbers are expected to accomplish the feat. They will remain one night on the summit, among the warm ice caves there. : aoe : The climb is not compulsory. Those who desire can remé 1in in camp at Paradise Park ant enjoy botanizing and.exploring. Scientific work will be a part o! the program CHAS. S. FEE, Gen. Pass. Agent, N. P. R'y, St. Paul, Minn., For Wonderland '97 and a Mazama Pamphlet. Send six cents to NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... . DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K.C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chaitanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... .. =. .« The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts me - - +« + MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.”’ Write for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, General Agent, 271: Broadway, New York City. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. C. J. H. WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. ; S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. yc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOE, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. _ W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co, OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - 2 ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ‘($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - : - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business’~ - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since | its organization, in 1848, [cE hs $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President, EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE [ast PAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West.... TA The he Overland Limited eee eee Bee ewes FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING STHE OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,'" E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. ; General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY -RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between. Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated. Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and contest Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT eae Soe ee caand etn + MAMMOTH DRY 6000S ESTABLISHMENT + 6 @ Oe OF ~Ve @ 2 WOODWARD & LOTHROP § @0000000000C0Tee0S@eseCOGe™ Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are ae on ape The attention of those who anticipate purchasing : BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in ony number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in stsde and 4 design: Three or more pieces 3 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. a SISOS IORIOSICS) . aes NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Shortest Line St. Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest CHICAGO _ GREAT ae WESTERN RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information “apply to your home agent or write to F. H: LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. ( > ( ( ( ( ( ( » ( 7 { \ é { 4 4 ) & y) < } ) @ I a a a a a a a a ee sd as AA AA _ SO = - _ e -* A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. w Che Smith.. Premier Cypewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. Superior on [his Folnt as wera 2 The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., SYRACUSE, N. Y., U. S. A. ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. > RRADARADARARARARRADARAAAAAAAA AAAS Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 1416 F Street, BRARABRRAAARRAAA AMAA AMRAIA MAAN AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE IN DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WHIST, STRAIGHT WhIST AND EUCHRE, Since Duplicate and Com- . ' pass Whist have come into Cosmos Duplicate WHist Score fashion there has been an unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to the fact that mere /zck is to a large extent eliminated by SO De SS WiHISST a coniparison of the scores Beane | rorats | trump | OPPONENTS made in the play of the same hands by diferent players. The one thing needed to | perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score made on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost and won on just such little chances. patented Ju A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the “‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little fetal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). 2 = 3 jo - ES a . o = s = s (=) 2 ° W=y n ° 12) o c= »- f= = or use Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is - that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. : : : ‘ . ’ : : : : ? Everett Hayden,-Washington, D. The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,”’ prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. Copyright, 1895, by Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold -or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. aplece extra. Cosmos.Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. AsE to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct from the General Agents. E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. Cc. —_— ee a NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book, LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME Ie GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - : - \y. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - ) BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N.S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - ek Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - a a - J. S. Diller 4 THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - . - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITs HISTORY - - - - . - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York ~ Cincinnati _ ‘Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians j toe the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second volume. ‘The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘he geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs, Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Riicker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo. Future numbers will contain: ‘¢ The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ By Dr. J. A. FLEMING. ‘‘ The Electrification of the Atmosphere,’’ By Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. ‘‘ The Height of the Aurora,”’ By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE. ‘¢ The Distribution of Magnetic Observatories,’’ (Illustrated), By ProF. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, etc., etc. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Nine shillings, nine marks, or eleven francs. Address: : TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohie. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE »N oe SL N : ae \ < PEOPLE like to read about the great ¥ ee N XN Re \\ \ and wonderful country of the ¢ \ WSs , ~\ ; ; : ver y N \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious % A charming book covering these \ \ 4 : past m f > facts is issued by the X N PSC9 y S * towns, its ancient civilizations, its % N \ PASSENGER DEPARTMENT \ \ natural marvels. They like to get ac- 4 OF THE N \ curate information about California ~ Southern Pacific Railway, N Ss t ae r AS SX * ge ae g3 d will be sent to anyone, postpaid, \“N WN h Pp i a z za ae an : Wi e, postpaia, NS \ and the Pacific Coast. Thisis because % on receipt of TEN CENTS. . WS = * S \ most people want to some day see these 4 \ W 2 ° SX N things for themselves... --...-- ae \ \toitesteatestentestesteagestesteatectente Seegeeseegensoegeseasoesensoagessege tsetse ean teegs “ Ni \N SX NS \ \ Srafetonensetedeasctecteaeteteasctecterecteiniedieiesesiesenesie serie setiestesetio ote ote N aN OG . “ SX \ Se “ \ NN “ “~ SX. \ °s 3, \ N oy THE BOOK IS ENTITLED Ks \ wN ~~ e NS N oe we PN . & “ \ : | “Through Storyland = 3 XS “e ee SN < : rough Storylan : : \ a % N \ : $ \ oe to Sunset Seas,”= SN ee N ss O ouNnSet O€as, : N N 3 bf <2 A N *" “ \ WX - “ SX WS _% % SX \ &, + % © © © © % % © o % % % © © ¢ © © & © & © © © © © © ¢ © © © © © © 6 & 83 \ 3 \ Pa a a Ma a a OS Saha a Na MaMa Kaa a aaa aaa a aaa a Maa ad alee ceeleeseesbeseeceese x \ N , X \ N N \ N \ \ sSossentestossonietecsoate ostorrerte setter antncotnn° QS . \ 3 N \ Nees \ . SS Se x AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \N. \ a \ . = SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, < \ You can get a copy by writing to % N ee la SS . Ss. F. B. MORSE Bs WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... \ ww . e ° 9 ee NX N : : N . General Passenger Agent, | The paper used is FINE PLATE \ N Southern Pacific, tvs. \ \ Newmoricaiey Oe PAPER, and every typographical de- < \ . ., . . . . . SX N and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, Bs tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ NX ee NS . 3 four people saw on just such a trip as N . Bes : Id like to mak . \ * you would like to make... ....+ X Uy E? THE — MAZAMA (Spanish for Mountain Goat) ee EES OF MOUNTAINEERS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC COAST ee a GRAND OUTING is —PLANNED FOR— WILY Li —ADUGUSLS 4 on the slopes of MOUNT RAINIER, WASHINGTON. An ascent of the Peak, = 14,532 feet high and covered with ice, is part of the program. _ Scientific KITE FLYING from the Summit, and various scientific observa- tions under direction of men from Colleges and Government Surveys, ete., will = becarried on. The general camp will be made in PARADISE PARK. Special = arrangements for guests—everybody invited. bt Address, enclosing six cents for literature and detailed information, ere CHAS. S. FEE; : Gen. Pass. Agent, Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul, Minn. i TOU ooo ooo eo ooo FETT TULL ULL GIL UCL OTL TL Cee % ; vo a : + £0) os as aghast es Ne -~ | Among the Contents of Forthcoming Numbers. of By PROF. :Bi- Es FERNOW, ; Poe Ds Es ree CHIEF OF THE Division or Forestry, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE; ~ Sere BNO JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. ‘ : , “i os lagazine AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY \Rditor: JOHN HYDE ro | Associate Editors REE: ial _ WJ McGEE HENRY GANNETT HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE © . t A J — CONTENTS, ie. Ts ea e . PAGE AN BOUNDARY COMMISSION AND ITS WORK. Sony Pee Nees ae | MARCUS BAKER. 193 JUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. ~ 201 | AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA. B. E, FERNOW. 203 ELENS. .With map. CHAS. P. BLLIOTT. 226 LITERATURE. — 230 Beret hs) WASHINGTON ) PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIPTY ==) AGents ty tux Usirep Srares anv Cayava ERICAN News Company, 89\}a~p 41 Cuampers Street, New Yors o>) > Paris: BReENTaNos, 37 Avenvk pe V’Orera : Me, oe = P . : I 4 - . Fa « Cents $2.50 a Year dat the Post-office in Washington, D C., ds Second-class Mall Matter National Geographic society Aha eB vy ORGANIZED, JANUARY, 1888 PRESIDENT GARDINER G. HUBBARD MARCUS BAKER WILLIAM H. DALL G. K. GILBERT Vicre-PRESIDENTS TREASURER A. W. GREELY C. HART MERRIAM HERBERT G. OGDEN CHARLES J. BELL RECORDING SECRETARY EVERETT HAYDEN Evi sBLOUNT F. V. COVILLE C. W. DABNEY, Jr. DAVID. .T. DAY MANAGERS CORRESPONDING SECRETARY HENRY GANNETT | JOHN HYDE W J McGEE F. H. NEWELL W. B. POWELL SECRETARY’S OFFICE, 1517 H STREET N. W., WASHINGTON The National Geographic Society, the object of which is the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge, has a paying membership of 1,400. Its membership is not restricted to practical geographers, but is open to any person in good standing who may | be sufficiently interested in its work to seek admission. The annual subscription is: for active members, $5.00 per annum ; for corresponding members, $2.00 perannum. Active members pay also an entrance fee of $2.00 on election. Maaazine is sent regularly to all members, both active and corresponding. Donations for the founding of Prize Medals and Scholarships are respectfully solicited. THe NatronaL GEOGRAPHIC —— —— 863=—|. oe OdvY¥O100 3HL 4O NONVO GNVYS SHL 4O ANINE AHL WOYS MAIA IWOIdAL Te yo eee —-~ - 6% “Id ‘2681 “INIA “TOA “OVW “DOAD “LVN ——— ss 1B National Geographic Magazine THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION AND ITS WORK By Marcus Baker Cartographer, U. S. Geological Survey On the northeast shoulder of South America, between the mouths of the great rivers Amazon and Orinoco, lies Guiana. On the extreme east and nearest the Amazon is French G uliana, or Cayenne; just west of this is Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, while the next division to the west is British Guiana, a colony of Great Britain ; and this in turn is bordered on the west by Venezuela one of the South American republics. Between these last two, British Guiana and Venezuela, current maps show a boundary line which, starting at or near the south- ern mouth of the Orinoco (for there are many mouths in its 150- mile-wide delta), runs in a southerly direction into the interior. This line, speaking in only the most general terms, is the now famous Schomburgk line. This boundary is in dispute, and has been so for more than half a century. It has been a source of prolix and interminable diplomatic correspondence and negotia- tion, a correspondence couched in politest phrase, without con- cealing the earnestness, nay, bitterness, underneath. Proposals and counter-proposals had been made, but without success. Arbitration*had been proposed, but until recently Great Britain had steadily refused to submit the entire disputed territory to arbitration. So the case dragged on for weary years. Finally, in 1886, some 10 years ago, Venezuela severed diplomatic relations with Great Britain and sent her official representative away. Venezuela then sought to bring about indirectly, through the friendly aid of a third power, a settlement of the long standing 13 ’ 194 THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION and irritating controversy. The matter was taken up by our own foreign office (the Department of State) and correspondence car- ried on in 1895 between Secretary Olney and Lord Salisbury. Secretary Olney, ina document resembling a lawyer’s brief much more than it does the ordinary diplomatic dispatch, stated the case as it appeared to him and asked that it be arbitrated. To this Lord Salisbury replied in two careful and most courteous dispatches (as diplomatists are wont to call letters), declining general arbitration. Thereupon President Cleveland, on December 17, 1895, sent to Congress this correspondence, accompanied by a brief but now famous message—a message of which, without exaggeration, it may be said that it startled the civilized world. After summa- rizing the correspondence and commenting upon Lord Salisbury’s two replies, President Cleveland proceeded as follows: In the belief that the doctrine for which we contend (the Monroe doc- trine) was clear and definite, that it was founded upon substantial consid- erations and involved our safety and welfare, that it was fully applicable to our present conditions and to the state of the world’s progress, and that - it was directly related to the pending controversy, and without any con- viction as to the final merits of the dispute, but anxious to learn ina satisfactory and conclusive manner whether Great Britain sought, under a claim of boundary, to extend her possession of territory fairly included within her lines of ownership, this government proposed to the govern- ment of Great Britain a resort to arbitration as the proper means of set- tling the question, to the end that a vexatious boundary dispute between the two contestants might be determined and our exact standing and relation in respect to the controversy might be made clear. It will be seen from the correspondence herewith submitted that this proposition has been declined by the British government upon grounds which, in the circumstances, seem to me to be far from satisfactory. It is deeply disappointing that such an appeal, actuated by the most friendly feelings toward both nations directly concerned, addressed to the sense of justice and to the magnanimity of one of the great powers of the world and touching its relations to one comparatively weak and small, should have produced no better results. The course to be pursued by this government, in view of the present condition, does not appear to admit of serious doubt. Having labored faithfully for many years to induce Great Britain to submit this dispute to impartial arbitration, and having been now finally apprised of her re- fusal to do so, nothing remains but to accept the situation, to recognize its plain requirements and deal with it accordingly. Great Britain’s present proposition has never thus far been regarded as admissible by Venezuela, though any adjustment of the boundary which that country may deem for her advantage and may enter into of her own free will cannot of course be objected to by the United States. ~— i a i ices i tt i pe te i hit el Mat ee ee ee THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 195 Assuming, however, that the attitude of Venezuela will remain un- changed, the dispute has reached such a stage as to make it now incum- bent upon the United States to take measures to determine with sufficient certainty for its justification what is the true divisional line between the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana. The inquiry to that end should of course be conducted carefully and judic ially, and due weight should be given to all available evidence, records, and fac ts in support of the claims of both parties. In order that such an examination should be prosecuted in a thorough and satisfactory manner, I suggest that the Congress make an adequate appropriation for the expenses of a commission, to be appointed by the Executive, who shall make the necessary investigation and report upon the matter with the least possible delay. When such report is made and accepted it will, in my opinion, be the duty of the United States to resist by every means in its power as a willful aggression upon its rights and interests the appropriation by Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation, we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela. In making these recommendations I am fully alive to the responsibili- ties incurred and keenly realize all the consequences that may follow. I am nevertheless firm in my conviction that while it is a grievous thing to contemplate the two great English-speaking peoples of the world as being otherwise than friendly competitors in the onward march of civil- ization and strenuous and worthy rivals in all the arts of peace, there is no calamity which a great nation can invite which equals that which follows a supine submission to wrong and injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and honor, beneath which are shielded and defended a people’s safety and greatness. This short message went to Congress December 17, 1895, where ‘it was read and referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The following day, December 18, the chairman of that commit- tee, the Hon. R. R. Hitt, reported a bill (H. R. 2173) appropri- ating $100,000 for the expenses of a commission to investigate and report upon the true divisional line between British Guiana and the Republic of Venezuela. This bill was passed by the House of Representatives forthwith and unanimously; it was then sent to the Senate. It was on the following day, the 19th of December, referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations in the Senate. The next day it was reported back, debated, and passed without amendment. The following day, December 21, it was a law, having received the signatures of the Speaker of the House, the Vice-President, and the President. Thus Presi- dent Cleveland’s suggestion on December 17, that a commission be created, was four days later the law of the land,and made so with an unanimity almost, if not quite, unparalleled. No vote 196 THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION against it was recorded in either branch of Congress. On Jan- uary 4, 1897, the commission was appointed, and consisted of five persons, Viz: Hon. David J. Brewer, one of the justices of the Supreme Court of the United States ; Hon. Richard H. Alvey, Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia ; Mr Frederick R. Coudert, a distinguished member of the New York bar, who had acted as counsel for the United States in the Bering Sea arbitra- tion case ; Hon. Andrew D. White, historian and diplomatist, and Dr Daniel C. Gilman, a learned geographer, president of the Johns Hopkins University. This commission organized by elect- ing Mr Justice Brewer president and Mr Severo Mallet-Prevost, of the New York bar, as secretary. Upon this commission were laid two duties: jirst, to investigate, and second, to report. Obviously investigation was first, not merely in order, but in the amount of labor involved and in im- portance. In the early sessions of the commission the whole subject was canvassed, and the work of investigation planned, organized, and assigned. Professor George L. Burr, of Cornell - University, a painstaking and accurate historian and linguist, was sent to Holland to investigate the Dutch archives. Later on he was joined there by Mr Coudert, of the commission. For assistance in the preparation of maps and in geographical in- vestigation, application was made to the U.S. Geological Survey. To this work I was assigned, and from January to May, 1896, eave to it such time as could be spared from Survey duties. In May, 1896, I was, however, detailed to the service of the commis- sion, and continued to serve on this detail till the close of the com- mission’s labors and the publication of its results in June, 1897. When, in November, 1896, it was made known that Great Britain and Venezuela had at last come together and had agreed to submit their dispute to arbitration, the commission found itself set free from the need of pronouncing judgment. As the con- tending parties had themselves agreed to submit their differences to an arbitral tribunal, it was obviously for that tribunal to pro- nounce judgment: Moreover, as Mr Justice Brewer had been chosen as a member of the arbitral tribunal, it was obviously im- proper that he should pronounce judgment in advance of his sitting with that tribunal. The commission accordingly decided ~ to withhold any conclusions it might have reached and to pub- lish only its investigations. Thus the facts gathered have become public property. The investigations undertaken were unfinished THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 197 when arbitration was agreed upon, but the commission decided to stop short and print in as complete and systematic form as time permitted the facts then gathered. The facts gathered by the commission are set forth in three octavo volumes and an atlas comprising 76 maps. The atlas constitutes volume 4 of the report and was the first volume com- pleted. It is composed, as above stated, of 76m: aps, divided into three groups or parts. Part I comprises 15 maps, all printed on the same base. This base map was specially compiled and engraved for the commis- sion, and is designed to represent the latest and best information as to the natural features of the Orinoco-Essequibo region. It is based chiefly on the so-called great map of the colony, dated 1875, and published by E. Stanford, of London,in 1877. Various other maps were also made use of in its compilation. The dis- puted territory along the seacoast is so differently shown on maps of high authority that a compromise seemed impossible, and accordingly two different maps of the same tract are shown side by side on the base map. Map 1 shows various boundary lines proposed or claimed, map 2 the forests and savannas, map 3 the principal drainage basins, and map 4 the geology of the region as far as known. Maps 5 to 14 are historical maps, showing European occupation at various dates oie the earliest down to 1814. ‘“ These eleven historical maps,” says Professor Burr, ‘have been prepared to illustrate my report on the evidence of Dutch official documents as to occupation and claims in the re- gion between the Essequibo and the Orinoco, and are an attempt to show graphically the conclusions reached by that report.” It may be noted in passing that if title to the disputed tract is to be determined by occwpation, these maps showing occupation are of great significance and importance. Part II of the atlas comprises 41 maps, facsimile reproductions of the “ mother maps ” of the region—produced during a period of about 300 years. . Volume 3 of the commission’s report con- tains a paper by the secretary, Mr Severo Mallet-Prevost, on the Cartographical Testimony of Geographers. The 41 maps mentioned illustrate that report and exhibit the gradual evolu- tion of our geographical knowledge of the disputed area, and also the evolution of the various boundary lines. It constitutes an interesting and instructive group of maps and makes avyail- able for students a number of scarce ones. 198 THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION Part III comprises 20 maps of an official or semi-official char- acter, of which 12 are from manuscript originals not hitherto published. The origin of these maps, their character and mean- ing are set forth by Professor Burr in a paper in volume 3. In describing the atlas, we have in part anticipated the de- scription of volume 38, which is devoted to geography. It is an octavo volume of 517 pages and contains 6 papers. The first is by the secretary of the commission on the cartographical testi- mony of geographers. In its 80 pages the historical evolution of lines showing territorial division are worked out with great care, and the size of the paper inadequately measures the labor needful to gather and arrange and clearly set forth and discuss the facts therein contained. . The second paper is by Dr Justin Winsor, librarian of Har- vard College, and it deals with the same topics as the preceding paper, but in a different manner. This paper was submitted to the commission very early, its date being March 4, 1896, just two months after the commission was appointed. The third and fourth papers are by Professor Burr. _ The fifth paper, entitled Notes on the Geography of the Ori- noco-Essequibo Region, South America, is by the present writer. It consists of a prosaic compilation of statements made by vari- ous travelers and explorers in the region as to its geography, with references. in foot-notes, to the sources of these statements. All the geographic names found applied in the region, whether now in use or not, were recorded in these notes, which are fully indexed. Thus it is possible to proceed quickly by means of the index and foot-notes to the original sources of geographic information touching any part of the country described in these notes. The last paper in the volume is a partial list of maps of the region, also prepared by the writer. It was hoped to make an exhaustive list, but time did not suffice for this, nor for the preparation of a bibliography of the region. Volume 2 is given mainly to extracts from Dutch archives. There are 353 of these extracts, comprising 662 pages. They are printed in double columns, the original Dutch forming one column and the English translation the parallel column. Some miscellaneous manuscript documents, filed with the commission by the government of Venezuela, close the volume. Volume 1, first in order but last to be published, is now in press and will shortly be published. It is to contain the report THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION 199 of the commission, which, however, is not new to the world, having been published May 25, 1897, as Senate Document No. 106, 55th Congress, Ist session. It is to contain also a report by Professor J. F. Jameson, of Brown University, on the Treaty of Miinster of 1648, and also Professor Burr’s report upon what he found in the Dutch archives bearing upon the boundary matter. Exact reproductions of those Dutch documents with translations constitute the major part of volume 2. Professor Burr’s report, however, will tell a connected story of Dutch occupation and doings in the disputed territory, as gathered from these old manuscript chronicles of the Dutch. With the publication in the summer of 1897 of these four vol- ‘umes the labors of the Venezuelan Boundary Commission end. The controversy, however, is not ended, but its settlement has been relegated to a new tribunal—a tribunal of arbitration, to be composed of five of the world’s leading jurists. The commission, whose work now ends, it will be remembered, is wholly a United States commission. The United States de- vised it, created it, and maintained it; and it did this ‘ to deter- mine with sufficient certainty, for its own justification, what is the true boundary line between British Guiana and Venezuela.” It is a high compliment to the character of the commission that both Great Britain and Venezuela promptly and cordially aided it to the fullest extent by furnishing information fully and freely. Neither was bound so to do, and neither had agreed to accept itsconclusions. Butas time progressed it became clear that this quasi or involuntary arbitration, if I may say so, might well be turned into an actual arbitration—an arbitration where all the facts could be sifted out, judicially weighed, and a just conclusion reached. Accordingly, at the Lord Mayor's banquet in London last November, Lord Salisbury announced that an agreement had been reached by which the long-drawn-out controversy was on its way toa peaceful, amicable, just, and final determination ; an agreement to arbitrate had been reached. That the action taken by the United States some eleven months before was a powerful agency toward securing this much-to-be- desired end does not admit of doubt. Such is the prevailing opinion. Such is the opinion of the commission itself, which in its report says: “A wise and just view of the case is that the commission has been a potent factor in bringing the two nations into a consent to stibmit the matter in dispute to an arbitral tribunal.” 200 THE VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION In addition to the influence exerted by the commission in initiating the peaceful settlement of the dispute, the contribu- tion which it has made to the scholars of the world should not be overlooked. The investigations in history and geography set forth in the papers accompanying its report have a value wholly apart from the case to which they owe their origin. A few words about the arbitral tribunal and the work before it must end this already too long article. On February 2, 1897, a treaty of arbitration as to the boundary was signed in Washington by Sefior José Andrade, for Venezuela, and by Sir Julian Pauncefote, for Great Britain. It consists of 14 articles, describing in precise legal and formal phraseology how the dispute is to be disposed of. A printed copy of that now: public treaty les before meas I write. Let me summarize it. First. An arbitral tribunal is to be named forthwith. Second. It is to be composed of five jurists, two named by Venezuela and two by Great Britain. Venezuela names Chief Justice Fuller and Mr Justice Brewer, of the United States Su- preme Court, and Great Britain names Baron Herschell and Sir Richard H. Collins, of Her Majesty’s privy council. These four are to select, on or before September 14, 1897, a fifth arbiter, a jurist, who is to be president of the tribunal. In the event of failure to do so, the fifth arbiter is to be chosen by the King of Sweden. ; Third. The tribunal is to determine what belonged to the Netherlands and what to Spain at the time when Great Britain acquired from the Dutch what is now British Guiana. Fourth. The tribunal shall take account of all pertinent facts, shall be governed by the principles of international law, and by three rules, viz: (a) Adverse possession or prescription for 50 years to consti- tute a good title. (0) Thearbitrators may recognize and give effect to laws sup- ported on any other valid foundation (than adverse possession) and which conform to international law. (c) In determining the boundary, if the tribunal shall find that the territory of one party was at the date of this treaty oc- cupied by citizens or subjects of the other, it shall give to such occupation the effect which in its opinion is required by reason, justice, the principles of international law, and the equities of the case. i ay “wt MINERAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES 201 Fifth. The arbiters are to meet in Paris within 60 days after the printed arguments have been submitted, and decide the questions submitted ; all questions to be decided by a majority ; each party to appoint an agent to assist the tribunal. Sixth. Within eight months, 7. ¢., on or before February 14, 1898, the case is to be submitted, with proofs, documents, ete. Seventh. Within four months thereafter, i. ¢.. on or before June 14, 1898, the counter-case is to be similarly submitted, and may contain new matter, with proofs. Kighth. Within three months thereafter, i. ¢., on or before September 14, 1898, the agent of each government must submit his argument in print. Oral arguments may then be had. Ninth. The arbiters may lengthen each period above named by 30 days. Tenth. Decision to be rendered within three months after the case has been argued, to be in duplicate, in writing, and signed by the arbiters who assent to it. Eleventh. An exact journal of proceedings is to be kept. Twelfth. Each government is to pay its own agent, and the cost of the arbitration shared equally. Thirteenth. The parties agree to be bound by the decisions rendered. It thus appears that the controversy bids fair to reach its final stage sometime during the winter of 1898-99. MINERAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES The mineral products of the United States in the calendar year 1896 had a total value, according to a recent report of the U. S. Geological Survey, of $621,969,943, the value of the me- tallic products being more by $4,868,951, and that of the non- metallic less by $5,586,656, than in 1895. The great increase in the production of pig iron, so much com- mented upon last year, has not been maintained, the output having fallen off more than 800,000 long tons, representing a decrease in value of nearly $15,000,000. On the other hand, the production of gold has increased from $46,610,000 to $53,088,000, that of silver from $36,445,000 to $39,655,000, and that of copper from $38,682,347 to $48,698,267. Gold shows an increase of over 60 per cent in four years, the production of silver is the largest since 1893, and even the output of copper has almost doubled 202 MINERAL PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES since 1889. The most remarkable increase, however, is that of aluminum, the production of which has increased from 18,000 pounds, worth $59,000, in 1887, to 1,500,000 pounds, valued at $520,000, in 1896, the value per pound having fallen, as will be perceived, from $3.28 to 40 cents within the period named. To return to a comparison of the statistics of 1896 and 1895, an increase in the production of bituminous coal from 135,- 118,193 to 187,640,276 short tons has been accompanied by a sufficient decline in prices to reduce the total value of the output from $115,749,771 to $114,891,515. On the other hand, a con- siderably smaller production of Pennsylvania anthr&cite has represented almost as great a value in the market as the output of the previous year. The production of building stone has been the smallest in point of value (quantities not being reported) since 1888, but the estimated production of brick clay is still represented by the same round figures, $9,000,000, that have done duty for the last half-dozen years. There appears to have been a considerable increase (nearly 4,000,000 gallons, or over 18 per cent) in the sale of mineral waters. It would be interesting to know how far this remarkable increase is due to the use of non-medicinal mineral waters for table pur- poses, and how far it is to be attributed to the apparently largely increased use of lithia water as a remedy for certain bodily ail- ments that seem to be peculiarly characteristic of our time. Of the remaining principal products reported upon, petroleum reaches, in 60,960,361 barrels, the highest figures its production has ever attained; salt shows a slight increase in production, with a considerable decrease in value, and the production of borax—no less than 13,508,000 pounds—is the largest on record, with the single exception of that of 1894. de THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA* By Bernuarp E. Frrnow, Ph.D., LL.D., ete., Chief of the Division of Forestru, U. S. Department of Agriculture It is a notable fact that but few of our people have any ade- quate conception of the vastness and the varied conditions of their country, and still less do they realize its opportunities for future growth. The horizon of the majority, even of those who have made hasty overland trips, rarely reaches beyond the limits of their personal observation, and as to the possibilities of the future—even those who have studied our past development fail to realize them. Our imagination—save in the professional boomer—lags behind reasonable expectation. When I told my friends that a happy accident—the invitation of a generous and public-spirited friend—would take me for the summer months to and through Arizona, two expressions were most frequent: one of commiseration at my prospects of sum- mer temperatures, the other a somewhat astonished inquiry as to what a forester could find of interest in that country of cactus and desert. That a large part of the territory of Arizona can boast of an ideal summer climate, unequaled for camping, was a revelation to them; and that some of the most interesting moun- tain forests—botanically speaking—are to be found there, and the most lovely and most extensive, as well as most economi- cally important pineries that exist between the great forests of the Pacific coast and the western border of the Atlantic forest in Texas and Arkansas, a thousand miles away in either direc- tion—this seemed to them almost incredible. Why should this particular forest area become a subject of in- vestigation? The question is worthy of answer. Here is a ter- ritory still undeveloped, still undespoiled for the larger part—a territory needing for its best future development not only the material which these forest areas can furnish forever, but depend- ent on irrigation for its agricultural future, and thus requiring that protection of its water sources which a forest cover is sup- posed to afford. Would it not be wisdom to study the relation of this resource to the whole development of the country, and *An address delivered before the National Geographic Society, February 5, 1897 203 204 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA to study the conditions under which this resource could be ra- tionally managed, so as to avoid as far as practicable the devas- tation that has characterized our occupation of other sections, and thus pave the way for a rational use of this important, yet limited, resource? To be sure, this is hardly the way we are wont to do, for with regard to our resources, especially our for- ests, we take a position somewhat similar to that of the old gen- tleman from Arkansas: ‘‘ When it was raining he could not mend his roof, and when it was not he did not need a roof any- way.” Arizona, the unknown and maligned; the land of thorns and spines; the province of apparently hopeless deserts and yet of rich promise; the land of dreary wastes and yet of infinite va- riety and contrasts; the territory most picturesque and full of interest to the geologist and botanist and ethnologist, even to the mere sightseer, and yet the least visited; the earliest discovered of the western territories and yet the last to pass from the red- man’s dominion and the least developed ; the land of a high pre- historic civilization, of cave-dwellers and cliff-dwellers, and of the peaceful agricultural Hopi and Pima, and yet until a decade ago terrorized by the most warlike of the Indians, the Apache— Arizona is one of the most interesting of all our provinces. It is curious that the health-inspiring, rejuvenating quality of Arizona’s dry air did not impress itself upon the Spanish seekers after the Fount of Eternal Youth, one of whom was destined, while balked in his search for the latter, to first set foot on this ‘part of the continent. Alva Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, with two Spaniards and one Negro as companions, all four fugitives by land from slavery among the Seminole Indians in Florida and finding their way across the continent, were the first to see the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” the Hopi villages; were the first to pass under the shadows of San Francisco mountain and to share the hospitalities of the Pima Indians just 3860 years ago.. Three years later (in 1540) an exploring expedition under Vasquez de Coronado visited the same country, and it was then that one of his lieutenants, Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, gazed—the first white man—on the wonders of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado. Forty years later another of the conquistadors, Antonio de Espejo, ventured forth and claimed and named the country for Spain, Nuevo Mexico, under which name it came to the United States ; the portion north of Gila river by the treaty of Guada- lupe Hidalgo in 1848, the portion south of the Gila by the treaty oS THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 205 and purchase negotiated by the then Minister to Mexico, James Gadsden, in 1854, for the purpose of obtaining a suitable route for a southern Pacific railroad, the price paid for the latter por- tion being $10,000,000. Spanish development was confined entirely to the lower por- tions, and consisted mainly in the establishment of missions to convert the agricultural Indians, and in the location of presidios at Tucson and Tubac to protect the missions and the few haci- endas and silver mines then worked, the hostile Apache con- stantly harassing their Indian and Spanish neighbors alike and withstanding the progress of civilization. In 1863 the territory of Arizona was segregated from New Mexico, the name probably being a modification of Arizonac, a Papago Indian name of uncertain meaning which had been, ap- _ plied to a native village and was extended to the lower portion of what is now our southwestern province by the Spaniards. The expeditions of the War Department under Sitgreaves, Wil- liamson, Whipple, Parke, Gray, Beale, and Ives during the years from 1852 to 1860 give us the first definite knowledge of the country. Almost simultaneously with these, immigration and mining development began under protection of military forts Buchanan and Breckinridge. From 1863, when the territory was segregated from New Mexico, to 1874, the history of Arizona is written in blood. It took a hardy man to run the risk of tomahawk and scalping- knife in order to benefit from the rich mineral discoveries in southern and middle Arizona. Nor were the mining communi- ties themselves without their internal strife and shotgun admin- istration of desperadoes and Mexican laborers. The successful campaigns of General Custer, however, broke the war spirit of the Indians and led to the treaty of 1874, when these Indians were placed on reservations. The advent ofthe Southern Pacific railroad in 1878 stimulated anew the development of the mining districts, and since the Apache Indians, with their cunning leader, Geronimo, were removed to Florida in 1886 the peaceful progress of the territory is assured, and one may travel through the coun- try with no more fear of a hold-up than in Texas or New York. Three centuries and three score years of history! Yet the be- ginnings of civilization and of the development of the territory date back hardly a score of years, and it is only a little over a decade since a really peaceful progress has begun—since the marauding Apache has been removed! 206 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA Arizona, with an area of about 114,000 square miles, equaling the combined areas of New York and the New England states, or of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, is in the main a plateau rising from the southwestern corner toward the north and east. From an altitude of not more than 40 feet above sea-level, at or near Yuma, the plateau level rises to 7,000 feet or more, and, with the many mountain ranges that overtop the plateau, every altitude is found up to 12,800 feet in the rude stone monument erected by Mr Gilbert on the highest peak of San Francisco mountains. There is, however. a convenient and significant altitudinal sub- division of the plateau to be noted, by which the northeastern section, with about one-third of the territory, is segregated as the Colorado plateau—a part of the great plateau which extends northward, with an average elevation of over 4,000 feet, the south- western two-thirds forming a lower plateau, with an average ele- vation of probably over 1,000 feet, studded with rugged sierras which sometimes reach up nearly 10,000 feet. ‘The division be- tween these sections is sharp and sudden; in most parts it isa line of cliffs and steep slopes, varying from 600 to 1,200 feet and more in height, which form a rim to the higher plateau, popu- larly known among the Mexicans as the Mogollon and among Americansas “therim.” This great escarpment forms so abrupt a boundary line that a stone may be hurled from one region into the other. Immediately below this rim there isa climatically and botanically intermediary region or transition zone which only accentuates the two main divisions. The convenience of this subdivision extends beyond topo- graphic distinction, for the two sections differentiate climatically almost as abruptly as the surface, giving rise, from the standpoint of the visitor, to a summer section and a winter section, with cor- responding differences in flora, fauna, and economic conditions. Thus the range of summer and winter climate which a latitudinal difference of a thousand miles effects from Maine to Florida is here effected approximately by altitudinal differences within a hundred miles. Furthermore, the two sections are best reached, and until a few years ago could only be approached, by rail on two inde- pendent railroad systems—the Southern Pacific affording pas- sage through the southern section and the Atlantic and Pacific (now part of the Santa Fé system) traversing the northern sec- tion. At present there is a connection between the two trunk lines by way of Phcenix and Prescott, giving access to the central THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 207 section. These three lines, with a few short feeders, comprise the entire railroad system of the territory. The tourist starting for Arizona in July will probably enter the territory by the northern route and spend the warm months on the plateau, making Flagstaff his headquarters or base of supplies. After the hot and dreary ride over the featureless plains of western Kansas and eastern Colorado and through the hardly less dreary though more varied mountain scenery of New PETRIFIED STUMP, ARIZONA Mexico, and after passing through the desert country of the east- ern border county of Arizona (containing the celebrated petrified forests, strewn in huge logs over the sandy waste), it is a relief when suddenly the pifion and juniper appear in dense masses, and finally the pine forest is entered within an hour of reaching Flagstaff. To add to the: feeling of comfort and new interest which this unexpected forest scene creates, the grand peaks of the San Francisco mountains come in sight, possibly with a white veil of freshly fallen snow that vanishes before the day is over. 208 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA Then when the heavy up-grade puffing of the engine and the rumbling of the cars cease and we alight at the terminus of the railroad journey and the beginning of our camping tour in the oddly-named town, Flagstaff, in the midst of this lovely pinery, we feel at home at once, without any misgivings as to the com- fort or interest of the expedition. Coming to study the forests, we are naturally attracted by the chimneys and lumber piles in the distance, which suggest what becomes of the grand pines that we have just learned to admire. Although the sun is low—the train arriving late in the after- noon—the sawmills, which, with the cattle and sheep interests, form the raison d’étre of the little settlement of 1,500 people, call for immediate inspection. At the mills and offices we learn that of the 24,000,000 feet of lumber now cut in the territory annually, the various sawmills of Flagstaff, supplied by a logging road of 20 miles, produce about one-half, besides some 200,000 railroad ties, supplying the local demands of the northern part of the territory and also of southern California and New Mexico. We learn from inspection of the yards that the pine lumber of the pine (Pinus ponderosa) is only of medium quality, yet good enough for ali local uses. With a lumberman’s eye we have noticed that-the trees cannot yield much clear timber, and this impression is verified by the books of the sawmill men, which show that not more than 6 to 7 per cent of the logs reaching the mill yield first-class material; and we have also noted that the cut per acre must be far below what eastern lumbermen would expect. These conditions are fully realized in Flagstaff. The opinion of the president of the Arizona Lumber Company, con- veyed to the governor of the territory and printed by him in his report for 1899, is suggestive : I believe that it is the duty of every person who can give the matter thought and who is in position to influence any one’s action in the prem- ises, to make some endeavor to perpetuate our forest conditions for the benefit of future generations in the territory. Upon the rational use of our forests will depend the happiness and welfare, and I may say the ab- solute existence, of any large population in this territory ; and the time to act is the present, when the least possible injury will be done to vested rights. T believe the government ought to withdraw all timber lands it pos- sesses and ought to appoint a competent forester who would make it his sole duty to see that the covering which nature has afforded our moun- ‘tain tops should be preserved, to the end that the valley land of the terri- tory be protected either from droughts or floods in the years to come. ee eS ee eee ee ee ee — Sih ROS cat THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 209 The next morning we are naturally eager to start out early to climb that magnificent mountain which rises north of the little hamlet in solitary grandeur, a huge voleano whose fires have but recently been extinguished, now unique in its symmetrical and striking outlines, the most impressive feature in the land- scape. The elevation of Flagstaff being about 7,000 feet, a steady ascent is made from the town for ten or twelve miles to the foot of the cone at 8,000 feet, and then comes a steeper climb. The road is through a lovely forest of bull pine (Pinus ponderosa), a PETRIFIED LOGS, ARIZONA species common from British Columbia southward, both along the Sierra Madre and the Rocky mountains, down to Mexico. The forest is open and parklike, the trees standing in groups, with here and there an old stager which was a good-sized sap- ling when the first white conquistadors passed through this wilderness 360 years ago. The open stand of the stately pines rearing their heads 100 and more feet into the remarkably blue sky naturally causes the formation of a long and rather sym- metrical crown which adds to the scenic beauty, but not to the commercial value of the timber. Since the rainy season has not yet set in, there is but little grass and lower vegetation visible ; hardly any undergrowth impedes the view; yet here and there a 4 210 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA clump of the scrubby Rocky mountain white-oak (Quereus gam- belit) forms a pleasing contrast. As we reach an altitude of 9,000 feet a change of scene occurs; the yellow-green, heavy-foliaged bull pine is supplanted by the graceful, dark-green white pine of the Rockies (Pinus flexilis) and the still more striking Douglas spruce, which in scattered indi- viduals studs the now really grassy slope, for at this higher alti- tude more moisture and less evaporation favor the grassy growth. One thousand feet higher and we reach the region of the Foxtail pine (P. aristata), well named, for the long, flexible branchlets closely beset at their ends with crowded needles exhibit strik- ingly the appearance of a fox’s tail. As we ascend, the Engelmann spruce, as widely distributed over the west as the bull pine, joins these trees and with them forms a more or less dense forest, the trunks short and much branched and gnarly, of little or no eco- nomic value. Here we find also in a few individuals a beautiful fir, a new accession to our flora, which Dr Merriam has this sum- mer described as the Arizona cork fir (Abies arizonica) from speci- mens gathered on this very trip from this very tree. At 11,500 feet the last Engelmann spruce, tousled and shorn by the wintry blasts at this high elevation, and low creeping junipers, denote timber line. Toward the northeast we look down into what was -once an enormous volcano, one side blown out; the three peaks are still above us. A short climb of a thousand feet more over large blocks of lava or gravelly detritus brings us to the top of Humphrey’s peak. From here the eye sweeps over a goodly portion of the northern part of the territory, and the vast expanse of the pine land can be traced. Toward the north stretches the Coconino forest, flank- ing the Grand Cafion, whose sheer walls on the opposite side are dimly discerned. Eastward and northeastward the color of the clouds indicates the position of the Painted desert, separated from the San Francisco forest by a fringe of junipers and pifions at the _ levels between 6,000 and 7,000 feet ; toward the south and south- east, far as the eye can imagine sight—to the Mogollon and White mountains—and westward beyond the three-peaked landmark of Bill Williams mountain and Mount Sitgreaves, stretches the sea of pines, covering altogether an area of not less than 3,000 square miles. It is proper that we should give full consideration to San Fran- cisco mountains, for not only are they among the most picturesque and interesting to the sightseer, geologist, and plant geographer, THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 211 but they are of importance economically ; not merely for the pas- turage that might be gleaned from their slopes, or for their timber (which on the higher levels is not worth the cutting), but for their meteorological effect, which is increased by the forest cover. Their peaks arrest and precipitate the clouds, which would otherwise pass over the plateau and find no cause for precipitation over the eastward desert. Nu-va-ti-ky-dbi(Home of the High Snows)is the name the Indians give to them. They form the only elevation in Arizona on which snows can and do accumulate, giving up their stores in spring, furnishing supplies for many springs and washes and to at least one perennial stream—Oak creek. From this con- sideration it would be proper to make into a forest reservation all the area above the level of 8,500 feet. We may take our descent on the western face of the mountain, passing one of the loveliest spots where a never-failing spring of cold delicious water invites us tocamp among the aspen growth which intermingles with the spruces and white pines; and we may also extend our excursion to pay a brief visit to Walker lake or to Crater lake, whose yawning mouth, once spouting molten masses, is now sealed by a sheet of water, a welcome find to the cattle herds roaming over the plateau to pick the some- times scanty herbage. Water even on the plateau is the one deficiency of the whole territory ; not that there is not sufficient and even too much at times, but in its distribution it is uncertain and extreme, both by localities and by seasons, and even within the rainy season the dry air makes constant and excessive demands. Here, as in the southern portion of Arizona, there are two wet seasons, winterand summer. On the plateau, after the beautiful days of Indian summer in November, winter begins with Christ- mas. While mostly clear and calm, with temperatures rarely below 22° at night, ranging to 50° or 60° in the day, snows come every ten to fourteen days to a depth of 4 to 24 inches, drifting badly, but rarely lying long, except on the higher levels, and even the frozen ground becomes soft in the middle of the day. Spring begins about the middle of April and is the dry season— windy, dusty, the first half cooler, the last half warmer, than one would wish. With the first week of July the rainy season sets in, lasting until September. With it comes the profusion of flowers which is characteristic of the Rocky mountains, and which by and by will fill the pine woods below with gay beauty and luxuriance. Whole fields of the blue flag (Jris versicolor) 212 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA bloom; there are magnificent carmine Gilias and Pentstemons, the dark purple and golden Primula parryi, the yellow columbine, and a host of others changing off through the season and mak- ing this plateau a veritable flower-garden. The rains hardly ever comeas land rains, but their nature and quantity are very variable. A short shower each afternoon is said to be the regulation rain, but the season of 1895 excelled in terrific downpours, with most boisterous thundering and bril- liant lightning, not even respecting the nightly rest of the tentless camper. Yet the dry air soon obliterates the dampness. The temperature, however, is kept at a most delightful, uniform de- eree, never much above 75° or 80°, and the sunsets after a late thunderstorm are the most gorgeous to be seen anywhere. The nights are cool, toward morning occasionally even cold. Alto- gether the summer climate in the pines is ideal. While preparing for our trip of exploration there are many points of interest around Flagstaff to visit. We may descend into Cosnino or Walnut cafion, a deep, narrow cut, with its long rows of cliff-dwellings built into the limestone walls reminding us of bygone millenniums, when a teeming population must have lived here. These dry ridges and plateau portions are wooded with the low trees, rarely over 30 feet high, often shrublike in form, of the pifion or nut pine (Pinus edulis), whose sweet seeds are gathered for food by the Indians, and the western juniper (Juniperus utahensis), fit only for firewood, interspersed with shrubs of striking form and foliage, almost always spiny and of peculiar interest. Among these are the pink-flowered locust, the yellow-flowered, prickly-leafed barberry, the fruit making ex- cellent jam, the trifoliate, red-fruited squawberry, of delicious acid taste, and the snowy, white-tufted cliff rose, which is not a rose at all, yet fills the air with a rare fragrance. An inspection of the logging operations gives an opportunity to make measurements of the rate of growth of the pines and to observe the differences in their development, giving rise to the lumberman’s classification into jack pines, the younger or quickly grown, and yellow pines, the older or slowly grown, which are from 250 to 300 years and more old. Presently we start southward, looking back on the hospitable town of Flagstaff and its grand mountain and forest entourage, across the waste which the logger and the unavoidable forest fire have made, and the natural prairie or glade south of it. Such glades, from a few acres to several square miles in extent, are THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 213 vw a very general and interesting phenomenon throughout these woods, furnishing not only most pleasing vistas but opportunity for pasturage and agricultural use. Their soil is usually rich black loam washed from the surrounding hills, rather compact and liable to a wide range of moisture conditions on account of deficient drainage, and hence inimical to tree-growth, but readily supporting a greensward of grass. In wet seasons these depres- sions sometimes turn into lakes. Mormon lake, which we pass, is such a prairie, some five miles long and one to two miles wide, which, when the Mormons arrived there, had the appearance of a rich meadow, inducing them to settle and go into dairy farm- ing; after a few years the glade filled up with water and became a lake; in 1895 it was all dry except a small remnant of water in the lowest depression. As these patches of fertile land, forming about 15 to 20 per cent of the forested area, are destined to be- come objects of agricultural development—they have begun to be so used—and in that way to be helpful in the rational man- agement of the surrounding forest country, it would be of inter- est to experiment as to their best treatment; many of them by judicious ditching, by which the moisture extremes may be abated, can undoubtedly be made to produce various crops be- sides the potato and alfalfa or oats which the short season and the cold condition of the soil now permit. As we proceed we presently pass a most forbidding spot, where the limestone soil is covered with black blocks of lava, giving rise to soils locally known as malapai, corrupted from the Span- ish mal pais, bad lands, although the soil is not so bad after all, at least for tree-growth. One of the great lava fields of the world, made up of basalt and trachyte, extends from San Francisco mountains southward and northward, covering fully 20,000 square miles with its overflow. As we progress through the forest we learn from the differences of soils and consequent differences in development of the trees something of the geology of this plateau. Archean, Silurian, Carboniferous, Juratrias, Cretaceous, and igneous rocks are found. Three soil formations are readily recognized —limestone here, sandstone there, and over both, irregularly, the decomposed beds of lava which have overflowed thousands of square miles, giv- ing rise tothe malapai. So faras tree-growth is concerned, wher- ever the decomposition of the lava blocks has been thorough and limestones have added their quota, the soil is by no means unfavorable. The limestone soils seem to produce the best timber, the sandstone soils the poorest. 214 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA Water is to be found in springs only at rare intervals, and hence camping places must be known; yet the few wells which have been dug here and there, furnishing deliciously cool and good water, suggest that the development of water resources could be extended. As we become familiar with the woods and observe how the trees always stand in groups with open spaces between, and how the young gfowths, from the seedling to the sapling, also occur only in groups and patches; and as we lie in our tentless bed in an open spot, where neither cones nay caterpillars can drop on us, and ponder over the reasons for this aspect of tree distribu- tion, we come to the conclusion that water conditions or soil conditions affected by drainage must account for it. Those portions of the rocky and unevenly disintegrated soil which permit a temporary storage of sufficient moisture at the proper season will alone reproduce and permit the young growth to thrive. Another interesting observation regarding these pine forests is that young growth seems to appear only in irregular periods, from three to ten years intervening between the groups of young trees. After a fortnight’s progress of the rainy season» millions of little seedlings spring up all through the wood, car- rying their seed shells in characteristic manner above ground, a rich promise of a dense, young aftergrowth, yet probably all doomed to perish from frost, because the short season does not permit the ripening of their wood. The reproduction, to be per- manent, must take place in the spring, induced by a wet winter and spring season, which occurs only at considerable intervals- The farther south we progress on our journey the denser, state- lier, and more valuable grows the pine forest, undisturbed as yet by the hand of man. Presently we emerge from its shady recesses, and as we pass the last pines a candelabrum of flaming red and yellow lights—a century plant in bloom, messenger of warmer climes, that has found its way up along a cafion from the lower levels—tells us that soon we shall be in the region of cactus, yucca, and catsclaw. If we had time we would visit those picturesque red rocks which loom up in the west, forming the cafions of Oak creek, the perennial daughter of San Francisco mountains, the clearest mountain stream in this entire region, in its upper part famed for beautiful trout pools. In its middle part, hardly known to even the nearest neighbors and not at all to the outside world, it affords the most romantic and most picturesque rock country 480» ISAHHO4 ANId IVOIdAL GN¥ MOGVAW NIVLNNOW HLIM ‘YNOZIUV ‘SNIVLNNOW OOSIONVYS NVS 08 “Id ‘2681 ‘IIIA “10A “OVW “90RD “LVN ‘ THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 215 imaginable, the celebrated Garden of the Gods in Colorado being an insignificant imitation only. The manifold, curious, wind- carved shapes of the red sandstone rocks rising abruptly from the ground, contrasted with the green of the surrounding plain, are worth a long journey to see. The few who have visited this secluded valley will also not forget the remarkable bouquet and aroma of the grape, raised by one of the more enterprising ranch- ers on these sun-warmed sand bottoms, which promises some day to outrank the finest vintage of Bordeaux. Presently a wide view opens before our eyes; far below us stretches Verde valley, and we are looking over the rim into the borderland of the southern desert region. In red and white and yellow and brown tints glare the arid gravels, studded thinly with a scant, shrubby vegetation, dry and gray. The fresh, bright green spots that catch the eye we find afterward to be groups of opuntias, large prickly pears, whose red, acid fruit we appre- ciate later in the season, after we have learned how to avoid the prickles which almost invisibly cover them in small tufts. Among the trees, the first we meet is a peculiar, leafless, shrub- like form, with long, slender, green branches, the falsely so-called paloverde, Cunotia holacantha of the botanists. The majority of the shrubs of the brush desert belong to the Acacia tribe, all with symmetrically rounded heads, and, like every other plant here, provided with thorns or spines, the peculiar adaptation to desert conditions making the labors of the collector a hard task. Many unfamiliar plant forms excite the curiosity of the new-comer. We have suddenly dropped to the 3,000-foot level, and begin to feel the difference in temperature ; the canteen is often called into requisition. By-and-by the heat of the early afternoon sun leads us to wish that camp were near. Uncertain of the road, we ascend one of the glaring, white limestone hills, and lo! what an unexpected sight meets oureye. The contrast is so great that we think a mirage must have risen to mock,our heated brain. There lies at our feet, stretching away for several miles, a land of green vegetation, rich and luscious as in the most favored spots of the Alleghanies in early summer, a broad river of foliage, in- terrupted here and there by fields of alfalfa and corn, with orchards from which the red roofs peep out hospitably. We are looking into the valley of. Beaver creek, one of the affluents of Rio Verde, which, like all these water-courses, hidden away under a dense cover of deciduous trees, are the surprises of the deserts through which they flow, and furnish the water for the irrigated fields of the rancher. 216 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA Here we find not only the cottonwoods, hackberry, and ash of several species, as along the streams of the more eastern plains, but a tree alder of excellent shape, peculiar to Arizona, and a plane or sycamore much more striking and beautiful in its foliage than those which are planted in our eastern streets and parks. There is the same tangle of luxuriant vegetation, with grapevines trailing over bushes and trees, that we find in the bottom lands of our Gulf states, with rock and debris and driftwood and sand carried by the flood waters of the stream which comes from the pine plateau—the forest watering the plain. Down in this bower of green, a real paradise after the weary desert ride, we gladly camp and enjoy a refreshing bath in the soda springs. In addition to the creek and these interesting soda springs, there is a still more remarkable sheet of water to be found in the well-known Montezuma well, a deep hole in the limestone hills, probably originally a large limestone cave, the roof of which fell in when the water collected in it. Here also we find reminders of the cliff-dwellers, who, a thousand years ago or more, built their abodes in the walls of this huge well and used its never- failing water, which passes through a subterranean tunnel into the creek, to irrigate their fields, as do the ranchers of today. Not only the line of the ancient ditch has been found clearly defined, but the petrified ditch itself has been dug out, the lime of the water having completely filled the original ditch with its deposit. A thrifty agricultural population, with whom agriculture, and especially horticulture, evidently pays, has now taken the place of these prehistoric tillers of the soil, who have left the signs of their existence and their activity everywhere through the terri- tory in more or less preserved ruins, the largest and most elabo- rate of which, named Montezuma castle, probably because of its size and elaborateness, is found not many miles from Montezuma well. Little is known of these prehistoric people, but after see- ing the present abodes and ways of the Hopi and Zufii Indians, there remains but little doubt in our minds that the ancients were the ancestors of these natives, perhaps not so many cen- turies removed ; and observing that these cliff-dwellings are as a rule situated near or overlooking agriculturally available grounds, and recalling the history of the Apache raids, we conclude that they were agricultural Indians driven to construct their dwellings in inaccessible places for defense against their enemies. Resuming our journey, a few miles bring us to Verde—the abandoned military post known as Camp Verde—where 2,000 of 6 . | v oqeeree. ee) ee ee a ee ee Se ee Ee eee THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 217 the wild Apache surrendered to General Crook in 1883. then and there breaking the war spirit of the race which had harassed for centuries peaceful Indians and white settlers alike. Except in the irrigated valley, everything looks brown and sear and un- compromising under the July sun.* The cattle industry used to thrive in this valley, as in many others of the territory, and also on the plateau; but, just like lumbering in other regions, it was carried on recklessly, the natural meadows being overstocked far beyond their capacity ; so that large areas which twelve years ago were luxuriant grass-producers are now absolutely barren, with not a spear of grass visible. The broad valley of Rio Verde, which carries the drainage from the plateau to Salt river, is capable of agricultural develop- ment to a much greater extent than has been attempted ; but, as in other parts of the territory, this requires systematic storage and utilization of the water. By careful management the cattle, sheep, and goat industry would no doubt be able to use advan- tageously the large nonirrigable areas. The home market for this secluded valley is mainly in Jerome, which is the seat of one of the largest copper mines and reduction works in the United States, with an annual output of about one million dollars in value. Prescott and the mining districts surrounding it are also within reach by a long day’s ride. There is hardly a drearier ride to be imagined than that from Verde valley over the Black Hills to Prescott. Up and down hill, over dry ridges studded with chaparral, scrub oak, man- zanita, and the like, we traverse a region for which, but for the mineral wealth that may be under ground, no use suggests itself. Arriving at Prescott, we reach once more the altitude of the pines in Bradshaw mountains; but we find that there is little timber left, the town and the mining districts surrounding it having used up most of it. Prescott was once the capital of the terri- tory and is still the metropolis of central Arizona, the supply- base of many outlying mining districts and the cattle ranches in the large valleys on the north and west. Here we may take train for the southern portion of the terri- tory. A branch road starts from Ash Fork on the Atlantic and Pacific railroad, whence it passes through the Black forest—not of spruces, firs, and pines, like the celebrated forest of that name * When we passed this way again, in September, after the rains had had opportunity to be effective, the country was almost unrecognizable; the dry, brush desert had changed into a beautiful prairie, and for the first time in eight years the grass had grown large enough to be cut for hay. 218 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA in Germany, but of somber, low-topped cedars and pifion—the road running over trestles and loops to get from the plateau into the valley. Passing southward from Prescott on this line, we traverse a rugged, dry, mountain country, which contains rich mining ground where a man may wash his day’s wages in gold from the sojl anywhere in the creek bottoms or cafions. Defi- ciency of water alone retards this mining development; yetsome large mines are worked by pumping water six and eight miles over the mountain. As we descend into the plain from the 6,000-foot level of Pres- cott the temperature seemingly rises in geometric ratio, and as we reach the plain, at about 1,200 feet, we begin to suspect our friends were right after all in commiserating our fate. We reach Pheenix at night, and the broad waters of Salt river in the moon- light at least suggest coolness, and the night, warm enough to sleep outdoors, does indeed afford relief from the excessive heat of the day, when the thermometer was at 110°. The southern portion of Arizona can be subdivided into two sections fairly well differentiated topographically, climatically, and economically. The eastern district is elevated and moun- tainous; it is bounded on the west by the high mountain ranges of Santa Rita, El Rincon, Santa Catalina, and Tortilla and Super- stition mountains. The western part is a vast desert plain out of which, like islands from the sea, rise abruptly, in parallel lines ten to thirty miles apart, in black and purplish hues, rugged and ‘towering granite mountains, reflecting the sun’s rays with daz- zling brilliancy. These mountains are mostly devoid of vegeta- tion and mostly also of soil, awful in their barrenness, while the desert below may be just as barren in places or else is studded with the sparse vegetation of cacti, agave, yucca, catsclaws, palo- verde, mesquite, etc.—a paradise of spines and thorns. There would appear on general principles nothing more depressing than such a country; soit is when viewed from the car-window ; yet, asa matter of fact, to the explorer it is full of interest, a stimulus to the curiosity and furnishing real entertainment ; and, finally, much of this hopeless desert promises to the future many a paying enterprise. Not only do the desert mountain ranges contain minerals of value—gold and silver and others— while salt, borax, gypsum, sulphur, asbestos, kaolin, and pumice- stone may be found in the plain, but the soil is capable of pro- ducing profusely in this southern clime, if only water can be brought to it. Water is the great problem here. The little rain THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 918 that falls over the vast region fills the water-courses, where there are any, for only a few hours, after which what is not evaporated sinks into the loose sand and the river continues underground. the bed above “running dry.” Yet, as to the possibility of finding enough water to irrigate the most of it, who will foretell ? There are really only two rivers which run alwavs full—the Colorado and the Gila. While Gila river and its affluents, the San Pedro, Salt, and Hassayampa, which run dry occasionally, furnish only a limited quantity, the mighty Colorado river ear- ries a volume of water not only six times as rich in fertility as that of the Nile, but of almost limitless and continuous supply, which would suffice to irrigate several million acres. To be sure, the bed lies considerably below the level of the plain, yet when the economic conditions of the country require it, there will be no difficulty in devising the mechanical means to bring this water upon the land, as is being done now in a small way at Yuma. And, with the addition of artesian wells, perhaps it may only be a question of time when these dreary wastes will be turned into fertile fields and gardens such as are beginning to grow up around Phenix, Yuma, and other cities—a revival of bygone times when an ancient and industrious people occupied the Gila bottom lands, of whose existence now only the ruins of long-fallen towns, the remnants of large aqueducts, and widely distributed fragments of pottery testify. Phamnix, the capital, already boasts of being a garden spot, all owing to the exten- sive irrigation canal system which derives its waters from Salt river, and certainly the green alfalfa fields and extensive or- chards of peach and almond, olive and pomegranate, are a most pleasing contrast to the surrounding cheerless brush desert. The city, embowered in the tropic foliage of palms and pepper trees, with its luxurious hotels, is bound to become—nay, has already become—a Mecca of the seeker after a mild winter cli- mate and relief from pulmonary complaints. While its sum- mer temperatures may be said to lack nothing in generosity, for eight months in the year the climate is said to be perfect. The eastern mountain region is mainly a pasturing region ; the valleys are clothed with hardy grass and stunted acacias, while the mountains, when over 6,000 feet high and massive enough to induce precipitation, are wooded ; the drier exposures and lower altitudes support an open growth of stubby live-oaks, the trees varying in height from 12 to rarely over 25 feet, which in the distance have the appearance of an old apple orchard, 220 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZO} . Higher above the 6,000-foot level and reaching to the tops at 10,000 feet at most, the pines appear, including several most in- teresting species, which are at home further south in Mexico, together with some of more northern nativity. In these mountains, within a day’s ride from Tucson, we may find the most lovely, cool recesses of a trout-stream either in the Santa Catalina mountains or, with a few hours of railroad added, in the Chiricahua range, where we may readily forget that we are in the dryest and hottest—erroneously Ft) believed—portion of the United States. Here, at the higher elevations among the pines, the air is most delightful, and while the days are just about right, the nights may, even in September, be frosty enough for a double blanket. Tucson being 2,400 feet above sea-level at the eastern border of the desert is the rival of Phoenix; not indeed with regard to agricultural development, for this old presidio of the Spaniard placed there to protect the mission of San Xavier among the Papago Indians, still in existence, lies high and dry beyond sufficient water supplies, unless some time artesian wells may be developed ; but it is or will bea rival as a health resort, excelling the capital in the conditions and quality of the air, helpful in pulmonary diseases. Returning to the plateaus of northern Arizona, there are two trips which we must take together from Flagstaff, for without them a visit to the territory is decidedly incomplete—one to and through the Painted desert to the villages of the Hopi Indians, the other to the Grand Cafion. Having heard that within three days the cachet ele dance is to take place at Oraibi, one of the Hopi villages 100 miles northward, we get ready our camp outfit for a plunge into the desert. Once more we skirt the San Francisco mountains, which will remain our guide and landmark through the whole trip, visible at any time and to the last. Once more we pass through the pine forest and over the black lava sands of the juniper and pifion belt, coming out on the rocky limestone plateau, with its scanty pasture and low shrub growth. _ Water is scarce on this trip, and although spring wells and so-called tanks—clayey soil depressions and rock cavities in which rain-waters collect—may be found at distances of 25 to 40 miles apart, it is safer to carry water in the approved fashion. We reach the river, the Colorado Chiquito, or Little Colorado, marked in the distance by the line of cottonwoods, on the morn- THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 99] ing of the second day, and find its bed, which is usu: lly dry, filled to the brim with a yellow loam puddle, a rushing torrent, We should have to camp here until the flood abates but for the enterprise of a trader. who has spanned the river with a steel cable by means of which we transfer our packs, swimming our horses. Now we have in truth entered a desert, such as we have met nowhere else in the territory. The scene is one of utter desolation. Nota tree or a shrub breaks the monotony of the flat table-land; here it is eroded into deep, dark, varicolored green, blue, and vellow-brown ravines and chasms, there overtopped by high mesas with flaming red edges, the sands reflecting the sun's rays in a white and yellow glare, and the white summer clouds in turn reflecting not only the heat but the colors of the desert. In the distance peculiarly shaped purplish peaks and pinnacles and solitary buttes mark the limit of the desert proper and our destination two days hence, while now and then a mirage brings into view a sheet of water so distinct and natural that in spite of our knowledge of the im- material nature of the apparition our eyes refuse to accept the reasoning of our minds. Now and then we pass over different soils, alkali in nature and still more forbidding than the sand ; then again heavy loam soils with scant brush growth. If there ever was a region which would be thought beyond the possibili- ties of useful occupation, you would think that this was the one; and yet as we reach the trading postof the enterprising German whose cable helped us over the river we are as ready to distrust our eyes believing to see a mirage as when we found ourselves deceived in the phantasmal lakes, but there certainly seem to be ereen corn-fields. We are not, however, deceived; there is real corn of various kinds, and sugar-cane and patetied and other garden truck, not less than 40 acres in cultivation right in the sand and without irrigation. Listen to what the enterprising cultivator writes of his success in the first year’s experiment: “ Our crop has furnished us 80 tons of hay and fodder; sugar-cane did the best, 8 feet high ; corn, the old Indian variety, has done well; watermelons, onions, and sweet potatoes seem to be at home here, and all that without a drop of rain for 18 months. Our trial plantings have fully paid us. Now we have a lake here, made by construction of a mud- dam across a dry wash, and filled by the floods from the upper country, 1 by 14 miles in extent and 20 feet deep. The reservoir was filled about September 15, and has lowered until now, Jan- 222 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA uary 3, hardly 15 inches. Irish potatoes were small, but per- haps would have made good-sized tubers but that they were drowned; yet we caught ducks in return, which we shot from _ our boat. The cottonwoods planted have done well; expect to plant 10,000 this spring. ‘There are a million acres around me which can do the same.” How is it possible, you ask, without water? It is due to the moisture held in storage from occasional rains and drainage by the sand, whose structure prevents its evaporation as well as its sinking away. Who will foretell the possibilities of the future? After this experience we are not surprised to find further on the cornfields of the Navajo Indians on the sandiest sites, much more primitive, to be sure, and when we reach the village of Oraibi the thrifty fields, small garden patches, and peach orchards show that these sands and dry deserts can yet support a goodly population. Here we are at last, after a weary ride over the sand and through the cornfields and bean patches of the Hopi Indians— called Moki by alien tribes in opprobrium and by some whites through objectionable imitation—-at the base of a precipitous mesa, perched on which, 300 feet above, stands Oraibi, one of the “ Seven Cities of Cibola,” where for hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years the original race of Indians have lived peacefully, closely packed in their stone houses. There can be no more picturesque sight than this town, with its inhabitants, clad in blankets of bright colors, grouped on the tops of the gray limestone houses, watching the snake dance, nor is there anything more fascinating than to watch these ceremonies. There is hardly a more promis- ing field for ethnological study than these primitive house-build- ers and agriculturists, but they are foreign to our chief subject, and we can only glance at a few features in rapid succession. This has been a festive time, and hence the usual filth has been in part removed and a general house-cleaning and cleaning of hair and body has taken place, so that inspection of the dwellings, which the good-natured children of Nature rather court, is com- paratively satisfactory. The wealthier householders have even whitewashed their houses outside and inside, and their stores of corn are in ship-shape order. The ceremonies of the snake dance last nine days in all, partly in public, partly in their secret tem- ples, where, as a rule, only the priests of the two orders—the Antelope and Snake—are admitted. Today is the last day, and the snake dance is the end of the ceremonies, the purport of which is to bring rain for the suffering crops. The Antelope THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 993 priests— painted, masked, and decorated—coming from their kiva in single file, perform a rhythmic round march and place them- selves on guard before the snake hut made of cottonwood boughs. in which the reptile partners to the danceare placed. The snake priests perform the same round march, and then, placed in rows opposite each other, the two lines begin a low incantation, ac- companied by rhythmic motions in unison, sidewise, to and fro. Weird is their song, weird are their looks, and weird their motions, but weirder still all these when their wriggling, writhing partners enter the circle and the round march with the snakes begins. For this the snake priests divide into sets of three, the carrier holding the reptile, venomous or not, and in full posses- sion of its fangs, between his teeth, and rhythmically swinging its curling body, the charmer following him, with eagle feathers stroking the hair and shoulder of the carrier or else his burden, while the catcher trips on the outside, ready to pick up with un- failing accuracy the reptile. When it has done its service it is laid on the ground and darts away for liberty. The dexterity with which this act is performed, the man taking time to first strew the sacred meal and apply the charm of eagle-brush to the escaping rattler, makes the catcher the hero of the hour. When all these 20 or 30 reptiles have thus passed through the rite, it only remains to carry them toward the north, south, east, and west, whence they came, and set them free, unhurt, for they are the personified spirits of ancestors, who have in the ceremony been induced to intercede with the deities. The result of the prayer for rain, which is the purport of the whole ceremony, seemed to follow immediately in a most tremen- dous downpour, which turned the dry wash at which we are en- camped into a raging torrent 60 feet wide and 5 feet deep. This result, however, was promptly disclaimed by the snake priests, for their prayer is for gentle rain—a drizzle, as it were—which they rarely get. But we must hurry away for our last trip, the one by which we shall always remember Arizona if all else be forgotten—the Grand Cafion of the Colorado. A flying stage from Flagstaff brings us in a long day’s ride, yet not a dreary one, through the pine woods past San Francisco mountain, again through the cedars,over open mesas and through pine woods once more to a neat tent city—a hotel establishment well fitted to its surroundings and well kept—nestled in a depres- sion among the stately pines close to the cafion. Weare within 224 THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA a hundred steps of the object of our visit, but there is no indica- tion ofits presence; nothing but commonplace landscapes, albeit in the lovely setting of the shady pine boughs. We ascend the slope, unsuspecting what it is that makes people who have seen it so unreasonably effusive when speaking of it; and then sud- denly the sight bursts upon us; the earth has sunk away at our feet to illimitable depths. The first sensation is one of awe and bewilderment; a shock, a sense of oppression, perhaps of horror, overpowers you. ‘There is nothing you have seen before that has given you even a hint of what this is; nothing you can compare it to. It is an inno- vation in nature which it takes.time to comprehend—to appre- ciate; then as you gaze grows on you a realization of the enor- mousness, the gorgeousness, the weirdness, the grandeur, majesty, and sublimity of the scene. Speechless you gaze on the vast sea of ghostly, giant shapes, and are overcome by the feeling of your own insignificance as in the presence of infinity. Only gradually are you made fully conscious that you behold the most sublime of all earthly spectacles. “a ae eae ee ee +; THE FORESTS AND DESERTS OF ARIZONA 225 sa) No picture has ever conveyed an idea, language there is none that can ever give an adequate conception of the ensemble of this great chasm —its vast proportions, its intricate plan, the nobility of its architecture, its colossal buttes, its wealth of ornamentation, the splendor of its rich colors. It is not a cafion at all that you see—the word belittles the scene; itis a labyrinth of an infinite number of chasms and cafions that press themselves upon your view all at once, a mighty mountain country filled with most fan- tastically carved, gigantic, rock masses, cyclopean castles thou- sands of feet in height, gracefully towering gothic cathedrals, round-topped Moslem mosques, Greek and Indian temples, frown- ing rock cities, pyramids, and obelisks, battlemented fortresses, all the wonders of the Arabian Nights multiplied and heaped to- gether in a wild chaos, stimulating your fancy beyond its power. And not only is the ensemble present the most stupendous sight; even the least imposing portions of the cafion are as im- pressive as any scenery that can be found in the world. For 200 miles of the river bed, with a breadth of 10 to 12 miles and more, is here revealed the interior of the workshop of Nature and the secrets of the building up of our earth’s crust. Thesurrounding plateau country is scored by intricate mazes of side cafions. In these and in the main chasm to a depth of 6,000 to 8,000 feet geo- logical history is exhibited in precipitous walls with a clearness ‘unparalleled in any portion of the world, telling of sons of rock- building and of millenniums of rock-carving by wind and water. Far below, hardly recognizable if at all visible from above, flows the great river, which in its ceaseless rush has carried to the sea the sands and debris, results of the denudation of more recent formations; has cut through the pale gray limestones of the Permian, the pink and brilliant red sandstones and the purplish and vermilion limestones of the Triassic, the deep brown rocks of the Carboniferous, down to the somber, iron-black granites of the Silurian and Archean ages, through which the river now rolls its yellow waters, gathered from thousands of square miles in the mountains of Coloradoand the plateausof Utah and Arizona— here in placid and majestic dignity, there with a wild current in roaring rapids, over boulders and rocks and precipitous falls. “ Great as is the fame of the Grand Cafion of the Colorado, the half remains to be told,” wrote Major Dutton in 1881, in his su- perb monograph on the cafion; and this is still true today, and will be for many years. While its geology has been unfathomed with considerable detail by that philosophical geologist, we have 15 * 226 MOUNT ST. HELENS but fragmentary knowledge of its flora and fauna, and we have hardly yet dared to think of its undiscovered wealth of minerals and its other economic possibilities. We arrive at the brink on Sunday night; a thunderstorm has left a deep black nimbus, a dense glowering sheet, in the sky to the east, on which two beacon-lights appear, the bases of an un- finished rainbow, standing straight, like two sentinels, on each rim of the cafion. To the west, the sinking sun paints the hori- zon in deep crimson, surrounded with a golden glory, each one a cluster of small black clouds, while in the north a wild, yellow hail-cloud casts its lurid glare. It was in this setting that through rising mists in purplish hues the mystery of the cafion, awful in the utter stillness, revealed itself to us—‘a thought of God on earth expressed, all meaner thoughts expelling.” Whatever may become of Arizona in the future, it will always be known to the world as the country of the Grand Cafion, the wonderland of the Southwest. MOUNT ST. HELENS By Lieut. CuHaries P. Exvuiorr, U.S. A. In going by steamer from Portland, Oregon, to Vancouver, Washington, on a clear day it is possible to see from the pilot- house five snow-capped mountains—Hood, Jefferson, Adams, Rainier, and St. Helens.. The last mentioned is more to the west than the others, and has the appearance of a regular, inverted cone, truncated and rounded off. The mountain presents this same appearance from all sides when the observer is at any dis- tance. ‘Two seasons spent on this extinct volcano have enabled the writer to get a general idea of the effects of volcanic action on the local geography and to make a topographic map of the district. Since it is within plain view of many prominent points astronomically established, it seems strange that Mt. St. Helens should not be accurately placed on any map which the writer has examined, either as to its own position or relatively as re- gards the other snow-clad peaks. Mt. St. Helens lies east of Vancouver Barracks, north of Lewis river, west of the Columbia, and south of the Cowlitz; it is west of the divide of the Cascade range, even more to the west than Mt. Rainier. From rough triangulation based on recent surveys, MOUNT ST. HELENS 997 ~—/ the writer’s map shows the summit to be in the northeast corner - of township 8 north, range 5 east, of the Willamette meridian, and its altitude taken on a clear, still day, with an excellent aneroid, is 8,608 feet. The approach to the mountain is by wagon road up the north fork of Lewis river to the foot of the trail to Lake Merrill, around the lake to and across the Kalama river, up the Kalama for a short distance, then toward and by Goat mountain and in a northeasterly direction to what is known as Butte camp, at an elevation of 3,700 feet. From this point horses can be taken to the bench above, but there is no water and but little wood, and Butte camp is the proper place from which to climb the mountain unless you are thoroughly familiar with the very rough country around the base. Formerly the approach was from Lewis river, four miles above the trail to Lake Merrill, and up a continuous run of lava, sloping gradually up from the river, to Butte camp, a rough, hard trail, in many places over broken lava. Mt. St. Helens is not difficult of ascent, and is probably the least dan- gerous of any of the snow-clad mountains of the Cascade range. In going from Lewis river the trail leads up a steep hill, rising 900 feet in two miles,.and then drops down 100 feet, when you most unexpectedly find yourself on the south edge of a small lake about two miles from Lake Merrill, without any apparent reason for its existence. On going to the northern end of the lake you find a mass of lava extending entirely across the axis of what was originally a mild cafion. There are a few small streams flowing into Lake Merrill, but there is no visible outlet. The difference between high and low water is more than thirty feet. The rainfall in autumn and spring and the snowfall in winter are very great, and the fall in the level of the lake at the close of the spring rains is much too great to be accounted for by evaporation. Ona very still day during September, 1895, I searched carefully at the north end of the lake and found in the sandy bottom, about fifty yards from the shore, a deep, funnel-shaped hole, evidently the begin- ning of the outlet. Further to the north and toward the Kalama river, where the lava flowed over the standing trees (the places of the trunks now forming wells in the lava). running water can be heard, and with a strong cord and bucket drawn up. Still nearer the Kalama a bold stream breaks out of the lava and flows into the river just below a beautiful fall formed by the Kalama flowing over the edge of the same run of lava that 228 MOUNT ST. HELENS dammed up the waters of Lake Merrill. The space between the lake and river on the north is comparatively level, the lava in many places being covered with soil, and that with a heavy growth of timber. Where the sand and ashes predominate the growth is poor. The flow of lava, volcanic sand, etc., that ends at Lake Merrill and the falls of the Kalama, starts from the west and southwest sides of Mt. St. Helens, flows against the Green Buttes and neighboring hills, almost filling up the space between these elevations and the mountains, passes around the buttes, unites and fills in between Goat mountain and the high ridge northeast of it, forming a swampy meadow at the base of Goat mountain, the waters of which are strongly impregnated with iron, while to the south of the ridge runs a clear, cold stream com- ing from the lava at Cold Springs and joined by a second stream coming from the snow directly west of thesummit. To the south from Green Buttes the country is filled in until checked by a semicircle of hills that turn to the west and extend south of the Kalama river. A small lake fills the level space between the hills. The Kalama river bursts as a full-fledged stream, bub- bling up like a fountain from the southwest side of the more northerly hill, flows south to the lake, then turns to the north of west, flowing at first through willows and swampy ground, then gradually gains strength and cuts down in the volcanic sand and boulders on its north bank, the high ridge being to the south. Finally, near where the trail crosses the river, it cuts through the volcanic formation and ends by leaving all the vol- canic deposit on the south side, a spur from Goat mountain form- ing its north bank. When the river tumbles over the falls it leaves the voleanic formation and runs through a growth of fine timber to the Columbia river at the town of Kalama. Except where lava and bed rock are exposed, the country below the level of 5,000 feet is covered with a dense growth of timber and brush. To the east of the head of Kalama river is a run of lava that starts near the summit of St. Helens and extends with a nearly uniform slope to the north fork of Lewis river. This lava has filled up the country in its course, flowing around hills as a river around islands. About two miles from the river it has crossed the course of a small stream, forming during the wet season a large pond, with an underground outlet sufficient to carry off the flow of the stream during the dry months and the exeess, due to rain and snow, after the dry season sets in. The water from the pond and stream finds its way into Lewis river under NAT. GEOG, NAT. GEOG. MAG, VOL. Vill, 1897, PL. $1 = MAP OF MOUNT SAINT HELENS Compiled from original surveys and field notes by Lieut. Charles RP Elliott, USA. () 1 2 3 & 3 MILES a 4 1 Ww AZ, Se hoe a eat MOUNT ST. HELENS 299 the surface of the lava. East of the lava run is a bold stream with several branches, some coming from the snow and some from a swamp east of south from the mountains. The black lava spreads out like a fan on this side. Where it stops the slopes are covered with boulders, and as the high ground to the south arrests the flow of volcanic sand, ete., and is filled in, a comparatively level swamp is formed, with streams flowing into Big creek on one side and Pine creek on the other. Northeast of the lava and nearly due east of the summit the most consid- erable glacier on the mountain is found. The glacial stream issuing from it flows through boulders, ashes, pumice-stone, ete., as a dirty stream for about three miles, when it sinks with high banks of volcanic sand on both sides, but soon appears as a clear stream, between very high, white,sand banks, until within a few miles of Lewis river, where the volcanic deposits disappear. Going to the northeast and across Pine creek you find a suc- cession of buttes that form the watershed between Pine creek and the Big Muddy, and also act as a barrier for the sand and pumice-stone, now very plentiful, that has fornged a nearly level and barren plateau between the base of the mountain cone and the tops of the buttes. Two small streams—one clear, the other muddy—run gently over the level and, having joined, pitch over the steep slope and join the Big Muddy. To the north of the hills a third stream flows down from the ice and snow and finds its way also to the Big Muddy. Northeast of the mountain the deposit of sand, ashes, and pumiee-stone is greater than on any other side. This deposit, passing to the north and keeping west of the high ground of the original formation, has formed a dam across a cafion, and the result has been Spirit lake, a deep and quite considerable body of water. The outlet over the dam is known as Toutle river. Following down Toutle river from the lake, the flow at first is very gentle, then a shallow pond is formed about a quarter of a mile long, and below that the stream gets more rapid, but remains clear until about two miles below the lake, where a muddy stream comes in from the mountain. One mile further down a second stream comes in from near the base of the mountain. Leaving the river on what is called the Spirit Lake trail, through dense underbrush and pine thickets, you pass below the lower edge of a run of lava from the northeast side of the mountain and across a swamp, formed as before by volcanic agencies; also across two small streams, from springs below the lava, and climbing steadily up, over ground covered 230 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE with boulders and heavy timber, the edge of the cafion of the South Toutle is reached. The north side of the cafion is of fine white sand, and is very steep and hard to climb. The South Toutle flows from under a glacier in plain view, and runs in a bed of boulders directly toward the point where the trail first strikes the edge of the cafion, then turns more to the west and with a constantly widening .bed of sand and rocks, filling the original cafion to a width of a half mile or more, the stream ~ flows sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other. The water occasionally forms a dam in one of its temporary beds among the rocks, and having gathered sufficient head, bursts the dam and comes down, bringing large boulders with it. After leaving the South Toutle and passing over high ground a second and smaller cafion is crossed, with a bold stream running from the mountain into South Toutle, then up to a high bench and down to Cold Springs, which crops out under the lava and flows toward Goat mountain and finally into Toutle river. The circuit of the mountain on the lower levels is now com- plete. At the summit of the mountain the highest point is bare rock. . South af east and also north of east are two other bare points; the intervening space is covered with snow, and between the two easterly points the largest glacier issues, from which Pine ereekruns. Almost directly north of the head of this glacier and across the northern point of rocks the second glacier begins, the water from it flowing into the North Toutle, and northwest of the highest point is the third giacier, the source of the South Toutle. Snow falls to a great depth over all this country in winter, but in early summer the warm rains and hot sun melt the snow very rapidly and the black lava on the mountain, to its very summit, is exposed in streaks radiating from a common center. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE Magnetic Declination in the United States. By Henry Gannett. From the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey. Washing- ton, 1896. Pp. 203-440, with map of the United States showing the lines of equal magnetic declination for the year 1900. This memoir of 237 pages sets forth and discusses the data used in mak- ing the magnetic map which accompanies it. This map, whereon the curves of equal declination or isogonic lines for the year 1900 are shown, , GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE to — is about 18 by 28 inches in size, and is printed in four colors: black for projection lines, names, and all cultural features; blue for streams: green for the oceans and large lakes, and brown for the hill and mountain fea- tures. These relief features are shown by contour lines. The contour interval, from 2,000 feet upward, is 1,000 feet. Below the 2,000-foot con- tour the interval is variable. Over this base map the magnetic curves are printed in red. The magnetic declination, popularly called variation of the compass, is subject to several known periodic changes. Of these the most important is the secular change—a change witha period running through centuries: hence its name. As this secular change is progressive from year to year for long periods, and as it amounts in the United States to from 2/ to 5’ per year, it is for the surveyor and mariner the most important of the -periodic changes. Indeed, it is the only one of much practical importance at present. It is to this practically important quantity that Mr Gannett has wisely devoted the greater part of the labor expended on this memoir. The weakness of similar maps hitherto produced has been recognized by | both their makers and users to be largely due to defective knowledge of the secular change. Of the 237 pages comprised in the memoir 82 are devoted to data for secular change. A table of results by counties occupies 135 pages, while the remaining 20 pages are given to introductory matter, discussion, state- ment of sources of data, ete. 4 The sources of the data are the Coast Survey, Lake Survey, the Wheeler, Hayden, and Powell Surveys, New York State Survey, New Jersey Geo- logical Survey, Boundary Surveys, United States Corps of Engineers, Army Exploring Expedition, National Academy of Sciences, and others ; but it is chiefly from the records of the United States General Land Office and from county surveyors that a vast quantity of hitherto unused material has been derived. Indeed, so abundant are data in the General Land Office that it was only needful to select for the older “ land office” States such as were desired. The mass is much greater than is needed to pro- duce a map sufficient for all practical needs. As to this Mr Gannett says: _ “T have not attempted to make a complete collection of this material. The amount is too vast to make it worth while. I have, however, col- lected all the observations which appear upon the plats of exteriors and standard lines (the Land Office requires that in the survey of all standard and exterior lines the declination be observed), supplementing them wherever needed by observations made in connection with the subdivision of townships. Altogether, I have abstracted from the plats of the Gen- eral Land Office nearly 20,000 observations, and these form, perhaps, nine- tenths of the material herewith presented.” As the work of subdivision and accompanying magnetic observations began a century ago, it is obvious that these Land Office records consti- tute a veritable storehouse of information on secular change—a st yrehouse of which Mr Gannett is the first to make general use. - In addition to these data a circular was sent to all the county surveyors in the United States, and from the returns much valuable information was obtained. 232 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE As the accuracy of the material from the Land Office and county sur- veyors is not of the highest, the adopted mode of reduction was not the most accurate. The graphic methods used were rapid and sufficiently accurate for the purpose, which was to present in the form of a map and the form of a table the best knowledge available as to the magnetic decti- nation in the year 1900. The work was planned and executed as a prac- tical matter and chiefly for the use of surveyors. The only wonder is that the great stock of data in the General Land Office has not been hitherto made use of. Now that it has been, perhaps some of the colleges and universities in the land office States may be stim- ulated to undertake a similar work for their own States, going over all the data and supplementing them by observations where such are found to be desirable. Mo. B: Carpenter's Geographical Reader. Asia. By Frank G. Carpenter. Pp. 304, with maps and illustrations. New York: American Book Co., 1897. This little book treats of the various countries of Asia, mainly with relation to the occupations, social customs, amusements, etc., of their inhabitants. Being derived in the main from personal observation and experience, its descriptions are vivid and characteristic, with plenty of local color. HG. Studies in Indiana Geography. Edited by Charles Redway Dryer, M. A., M. D., Professor of Geography in The Indiana State Normal School. First series. Pp. 113, quarto. Terre Haute, Indiana: The Inland Publishing Company. 1897. 50 cents. This is ageographic reader, treating of local geography, shaped on the lines of modern science. The dedication to Professor William M. Davis is an index to the character of the book. The opening chapter, entitled ‘The New Geography,” is a most excellent statement of what geography should be. The general physical geography of the State is given in broad outlines, clearly and simply. The topography of the State being largely the result of glacial deposition, this subject receives considerable atten- tion under the chapter headings ‘‘ The Glacial Deposits of Indiana’’ and ‘©The Morainal Lakes of Indiana.’’ The natural resources of the State— coal, gas, petroleum, soils, building stone, clays, etc.—receive a chapter. An interesting subject, only too briefly treated, is the changes which have taken place in the surface of the State during the period of white occupa- tion. As aspecimen of what might be done for.all our great cities, the book contains ‘‘A Study of the City of Terre Haute.” This consists of a number of questions intended to draw out from schoolboys a full account of the origin, history, location, mode of government, municipal improve- ments, and social condition of the city. It is exhaustive, extremely sug- gestive, and altogether admirable. The book closes with a history of the Great Lakes, which seems rather out of place in this connection. The maps in the book are by no means in keeping with the quality of the text, being crudely drawn and poorly executed. The work as a whole is a most valuable addition to the teaching of geography, and its influence will be felt not only in the State of Indiana, but elsewhere. ERG: NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a S oF — — é - ay pis ain sand CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F, VY. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. te H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. 2 , eS eee Send Spend your vacation SIX CENTS there in 1897, for our New 797 TOURIST BOOK. | Worthern Pacific. CHAS. S. FEE, ee | Te General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con-. junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS | ... BETWEEN... Washington and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. . Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and: New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... .. « « The direct line to the Vago GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts of . . . ». MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —-AND THE BEST— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs— The Land of the Sky.” Write for Map Folders. R. D. CARPENTER, General Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. C. J. H. WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCO'TER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McGURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - : ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - “ - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income “ - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business” - - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1843, | - = $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE EoaSTPAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . : | } \ } if BEA \ | J 0 : ND: = sm —-i'O0:0:0@ 22 23 24 TOTALS 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. ‘ 7 : _ —_— EK ee lll NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOILUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - = . = 2 GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - a * BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - Pe Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller f THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND Its HISTORY - . . . - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati = Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians \) (eee the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support.» Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Rticker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo. Future numbers will contain: ‘¢The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ By Dr. J. A. FLEMING. ‘The Electrification of the Atmosphere,”’ BY Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. ‘‘ The Height of the Aurora,’’ By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE. ‘‘The Distribution of Magnetic Obseryatories,’’ (Illustrated), By Pror. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, etc., etc. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Dome stic subscription price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Nine shillings, nine marks, or eleven francs. Address: é z TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE \ Ve es Lees Vf MUMIA Uy se >) by ; WS KA Ut Wr. Wii; Ui MUM 4b a wyysn 4 N EOPLE lik & Mi Wii li Wl MR \ ike to read about the great © % N \ : \ N and wo ¥ N Cs nderful country of the % 2 e \ NX outhwest; of its quaint : ee N N quaint and curious + \ N tow : 2” A charm N \ wns, its ancient civili : BY ing book covering the NX \ natural civilizations, its ¥ facts is issued by the is \ “natural ma iv \ \ oe They like to get ac- - PASSENGER DEPARTMENT \ SX cula e infor 7 ie OF 2 \ \ mation a * : te THE \ Maia about California + Southern Pacifi ¢ N \ nd the Pacific Coast. This is be SS 3 acific Railway, N \ 5 CAUISe2 Ee X \ most people want to some d SS ae we et re an one, postpaid, \ \ hi edaysee these % pt of TEN CENTS. \ N things for themselves Re : N \ ise eo i. \ \ e e e . e +,° N \ettesitedieetedesietecns eeuels sh 4 4 \ N aXe Xe Xe Xe Xa aX Bead oegeegeeserss ra otectectoctectoctoct bo N X SPP UP MP eeese Tsetse tsetse rse tsetse ters Ox SX \ rat tat tat tgs *e' N N \ \ \ \N \ N NS Meta ste stent ste et hestiguite N \ ae Ne ogo she ate-oke she ale-sse ste sse-eesteatestesces lose sce soateseeecestoateseesreetoet 2 be \ \ xs fe ofealoeestoerereoatoerongoereeroeroetneronlesosre \ \ “ é \ \ * + \ RS 25 ~ SS \ BA THE 2 \ \N oe BO “~ N . : Ok EE? : : WS ee 6 SX \ 2, ote” \“ . = 4 h P 3 . . : “Through Storyl : : SS 2 a SX. \ 3 orylan ‘ \ +, Gi . % to ; t ‘ , % . N- 3 t ry % N \ Re Sunse eas % \ \ * Peas \ RS “ > + \ & < \ \ srostestoatoa® ovens ys “ \ Sacsecsecs oefeeteesee’ MoMostectectoctoctecten o. \ oeoaleeloeceeleeleecoeseeeeleereecescesceereeleeceees fos o N \ Oe aS osteelesteeteeseeteeteeton’ Rene ot > \ N oeleeleeleeleereereerenceece N \\ N N SN NY \ sestestestertestestectecte testesterter% N N oy seeseate esse ecescoac oslo sleateeleacesteeceace ste ecesce sconce sone \ \ a < Seedeteteletetetetee NN & AND riscubs N NX ge IS N Sy es A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ XX You can get ; ae SX \ get deopy bwritine @ oe \ \ 5. F. B. MORSE * WITH 160 ILLUSTE ES, < \ General Passenger Agent * PH UO: \ S&S: ? 0 2 ek le NS 2 Th : 7 SX \N Souther ses eo S aper : SX \ Mee = PAP paper used is FINE PLATE § \ ew Orlean ae ER SX N Bye and : \ . and sending 10 cts. to defray postage Bs tail Y every typographical de- . N - & tail is artisti \ SS z iSt S SX \ 5S ic. It is a story of what \ \ Ae Xt *° four peopl N \N Ks ple saw on just such a trip as \ \ oe ou . : N See * you would like to mak \ ST, Mi GM WY) fy) YE HC HE 3@@; os AKC See ae X SOSOOSO0S9909900009| ———- (8@80806000009000099 (990089009080 990000 —— 18808060000090000000 (88 S88909000900050000 189 GGG00H000509000900 _....| THE NEW WONDERLAND BOOK -_NORTHERN | eri ~ PACIFIC _For1897.- RAILWAY | NEW COVER NEW ILLUSTRATIONS Send six cents. NEW TEXT CHAS. S. FEE, Gen. Pass. Agent, St. Paul, Minn. QOOSOOHHH HHH HT HGHSE GOOSSG0009000090006 BOSSSS0000000 000008 OSS O806 000050000006 B8OOOG 0SG0000050000 HOOG990000000080006 ~ « . +! . 4. 7 ' at ee ats & > af THE G ee LAKES BY EARTH MOVEMENT. ~ G’ K. GILBERT, 233 ~ |) \ 247 {PPED. ‘AREAS ON THE BARTH'S SURFACE AWAIT- oa aaa AND, GEOGRAPHER. J~SCOTT\KBLTIE. . 251 © AES IN Mo: ERN NAVIGATION. G. WALITTLEHALES. 266 te Ey “se a Ve oo NW. ASHINGTON _ PUBLISHIND BY TiN NATIONATAGHOGRAPIL - SS; AGENTS. IN, fires une Spates ASD! S, Tue “Ascaldais News Company; Ds HeoCrny | * a Paris: Brenravos, - Sf AVENN National Geographic Society ORGANIZED, JANUARY, 1888 PRESIDENT GARDINER G. HUBBARD Vicr-PRESIDENTS MARCUS BAKER A. W. GREELY WILLIAM H. DALL C. HART MERRIAM G. K. GILBERT HERBERT G. OGDEN TREASURER CHARLES J. BELL RECORDING SECRETARY " CORRESPONDING SECRETARY EVERETT HAYDEN HENRY GANNETT MANAGERS H. F. BLOUNT JOHN HYDE F. V. COVILLE W J McGEHE C. W. DABNEY, Jr. F. H. NEWELL DAVID T. DAY W. B. POWELL SECRETARY’S OFFICE, 1517 H STREET .N. W., WASHINGTON The National Geographic Society, the object of which is the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge, has a paying membership of 1,400. Its membership is not restricted to practical geographers, but is open to any person in good standing who may be sufficiently interested in its work to seek admission. The annual subscription is: for active members, $5.00 per annum ; for corresponding members, $2.00 perannum. Active . members pay also an entrance fee of $2.00 on election. ‘Tae NarronaL GroGRAPHIC MaGazine is sent regularly to all members, both active and corresponding. Donations for the founding of Prize Medals and Scholarships are respectfully solicited. eS a eee GO909900008 899000850000 i i i ac lee ee il NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. Y. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between-Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, 0. C. 8 8 8H 8 OOOO DSO OOE The Jumping-off Place of the United States in Northwestern Washington is a region of unusual grandeur. A wild, craggy range of mountains, the OLYMPICS, looks out upon the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the strait of Juan de Fuca. The high peaks of the range are crested with eternal snow and ice. Deep in their hollows are lakes of great depth and crys- tal purity. The flanks of the mountains are covered with the finest timber in the United States. Giant pines, cedars and firs rise 100, 200, and even 300 feet in the air, The streams race through wild ravines and are full of mountain-trout. It is a paradise for the woodsman and angler. rhe lakes have large and new varieties of trout in them that fight viciously for life. It is a land little known and explored—perhaps less so than any region of equal area in the United States. The NORTHERN PACIFIC’S new tourist book, WONDERLAND '07, has a chapter on this section, and it will be sent to any address by ¢ spices nas S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minnesota, upon receipt of SIX CENTS in postage-stamps. BSSSSOO SSS SOOSO OO NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 3 SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest.. . DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... ... .-« The direct line to the aR aca GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts of . . ~. ». MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, ——AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—“ The Land of the Sky.’’ Write for Map Folders. R. W. POLLOCK, General Agent, 271 Broadway, New York City. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 106 EK. German Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, D. C. J. H. WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. G. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOE, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager, W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income ° - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business~ - - - - ($136,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since - its organization, in 1848, t - = $437,005,199.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President, EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. = —" NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Burlington 1 , tt STPAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Ley in the West... . a The he Overland Limited age | UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. Premier’ Cypewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. Superior on [This Point as “Ce The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., SYRACUSE, N. Y., U. S. A. ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. RARRAARARARAARAARRARR ARR DRAA RADDA RADRRRDRRARRDRARARARARAAAARAAE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No, 1416 F Street. q " AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE IN DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WHIST, STRAIGHT WHIST AND EUCHRE Since Duplicate and Com- pass Whist have come into fashion there has been an unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to the fact that mere /zck is to a large extent eliminated by a comparison of the scores made in the play of the same hands by different players. Cosmos Duplicate Whist Score COMPaSS WHEHIST DUPLICATE WHHIST The one thing needed to perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score * made on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of. the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost aud won on just such little chances. WN O:iP: Wid patented Ju ce.) A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table .ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). OoO:0:@:sI WN Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. aig 0 0 The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,” prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. N Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct trom the General Agents, E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MA GAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHySIcAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE, students of geography fresh and interesting materi designed especially to supply to teachers and al with which to supplement the regular text-book LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES . - - - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - ly W. Powell . : v0 ~ PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - ) BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC Co AST Prot. N.S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - G Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITs HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York ~ Cincinnati a Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians \' ee the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second volume. “Che hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs, Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Riicker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo. Future numbers will contain: ‘¢The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ By Dr. J. A. FLEMING. ‘‘ The Electrification of the Atmosphere,’’ By Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. ‘ ‘‘ The Height of the Aurora,”’ By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE. | : ‘‘The Distribution of Magnetic Observatories,” (Illustrated), By Pror. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, etc., etc. Domestic subscription The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Nine shillings, nine price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents. Foreign subscription price : arks, or ele francs. Address : : » ella COS ee RRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SS “ 3 \ \ EOPLE like to read about the great Ae a , . SS % N \ and wonderful country of the \ \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious “ A charming book covering these N \ ¥ : Une eae Ff ! 988 facts is issued by the N \ towns, 1tS anedLent) civilizanons eis ire N \ ; 69 ASSENGER DEPARTMENT \ . natural marvels. They like to getac- 4 oF THE \ N s) - ° ° 2 ege ° WS < curate information about California 4 Southern Pacific Railway, N N eng eos We 5 X \ and the Pacific Coast. This is because SS and will be sent to any one, postpaid, N NS “e on receipt of TEN CENTS. N > Ss + % \ most people want to some day see these 4 \ \ : % N NS Oo we SWS . things for themselves... ....-.-+ ¥ A \ \, 4. 0%, OO, GO. Oe. Hs He Oy Pa Me ote toctoctorten’ oO. OO OO. OO. o.oo. 9 \ \ Cosfeatestesieaiestestesie stesso sie ee tee “gorge tartan tar tatgn tartan ten ter tan enter an ren artes * \ N \ N \ aS N N \ \ N SS N \ Se es N \ “ % NX N Se PN \ a ~ \ NS v \ WN “ ~ NY \ “ THE BOOK IS ENTITLED ~ \ SS oe x \ & % \ \ “ bs < \ \ x te NN < : “Through Storyland : e N Oo a \N N fo eS N SX ae ‘. \N . ; to Sunset Seas,” : . SX se :, N \ ‘ Cas, xy N N +, ~~ SS \ a “ N NV ae ox \N S \ oyoeges! raresreseoeresseatesseeleeseeleeseseeereeeeereerese ere eeres coer eeresrrereeloeres ese recede reresresreoes \ \ N \ * XK Ss \ \ N \ sSertentestessontontesseste feetetetedetedetedetetedetedetedtedtntetedites \ + N \ “" \ . eae se * AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ N 2 \ RS - N . % SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, \ \ You can get a copy by writing to ; \ c ee S . S. F. B. MORSE ‘ WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... N ° e e 3.¥ 9 RA SS N .. 1 \ . General Passenger Agent, | The paper used is FINE PLATE ~< \ Seuthern Pacific, + : \ \ New oseane: z PAPER, and every typographical de- \ XN 3 x sah Ae . \ . and sending 10 cts. to defray postage. Bs tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ = SS N x ; : \ \ $ four people saw on just such a trip as : \ Se Me ee : N N & you would like to make \N N £3 Mer, le ee te Ler ome NS NS. My Me, My My 1M MY My My My My My sh My iy My M4 My i We My . J % \ oo ; a eee Dee THE National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII SEPTEMBER, 1897 No. 9 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES BY EARTH MOVEMENT * By G. K. Gitpert, U. S. Geological Survey The history of the Great Lakes practically begins with the melt- ing of the Pleistocene ice-sheet. They may have existed before the invasion of the ice, but if so their drainage system is unknown. The ice came from the north and northeast, and spreading over the whole Laurentian basin invaded the drainage districts of the Mississippi, Ohio, Susquehanna, and Hudson. During its wan- ing there was a long period when the waters were ponded between the ice front and the uplands south of the Laurentian basin, form- ing a series of glacial lakes whose outlets were southward through various low passes. A great stream from the Erie basin crost the divide at Fort Wayne to the Wabash river. A river of the mag- nitude of the Niagara afterward flowed from the Michigan basin across the divide at Chicago to the Illinois river; and still later the chief outlet was from the Ontario basin across the divide at Rome to the Mohawk valley. The positions of the glacial lakes are also markt by shore-lines, consisting of terraces, cliffs, and ridges, the strands and spits formed by their waves. Several of these shore-lines have been traced for hundreds of miles, and wherever they are thoroughly studied it is found that they no longer lie level but have gentle slopes toward the south and southwest. Formed at the edges of *Publisht by permission of the Director of the United States Geologival Survey, A more extended paper, of similar scope, entitled “ Recent earth movement in the Great Lakes region,” will appear in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Survey. 16 234. MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES water surfaces, they must originally have been level, and their present lack of horizontality is due to unequal uplift of the land. The region has been tilted toward the south-southwest. The dif- ferent shore-lines are not strictly parallel, and their gradients vary from place to place, ranging from a few inches to three or four feet to the mile. The epoch of glacial lakes, or lakes partly bounded by ice. ended with the disappearance of the ice-field, and there remained only lakes of the modern type, wholly surrounded by land. These were formed one at a time, and the first to appear was in the Erie basin. It was much smaller than the modern lake, because the basin was then comparatively low at the northeast. Its outline is approximately shown by the inner dotted line of the accompanying map. Instead.of reaching from the site FIG. I—ANCIENT AND MODERN OUTLINES OF LAKE ERIE The broken lines show the positions of the shores at two epochs of the lake’s history of Buffalo to the site of Toledo, it extended only to a point oppo- site the present city of Erie, and it was but one-sixth as large as the modern lake. Since that time the land has gradually risen at the north, canting the basin toward the south, and the lake has gradually encroacht upon the lowlands of its valley. At a date to be presently mentioned as the Nipissing, the west- ern end of the lake was opposite the site of Cleveland, as indi- cated by another dotted line. The next great lake to be releast from the domination of the ice was probably Ontario, though the order of precedence is here not equally clear. Before the Ontario valley held a land-bound lake it was occupied by a gulf of the ocean. Owing to the dif- _ ferent attitude of the land, the water surface of this gulf was not MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES 235 parallel to the present lake surface but inclined atanangle. In the extreme northeast, in the vicinity of the Thousand Islands the marine shores are nearly 200 feet above the present water level, but they descend southward and westward, passing’ bak neath the lake level near Oswego, and toward the eenberit end of the lake must be submerged several hundred feet. This con- dition was of short duration, and the rising land soon divided the waters, establishing Lake Ontario as an independent water body. The same peculiarity of land attitude which made the original Erie a small lake served to limit the extent of Ontario, but the restriction was less in amount because of the steeper slopes of the Ontario basin. Here again the southward tilting of the land had the effect of lifting the point of outlet and en- larging the expanse of the lake. THOUSAND i ( 4, io if ISLANDS FIG. 2—ANCIENT AND MODERN OUTLINES OF LAKE ONTARIO The broken line shows the original extent of the lake There is some reason to think that the upper lakes, Huron, Michigan, and Superior, were at first open to the sea, so as to constitute a gulf, but the evidence is not so full as could be de- sired. When the normal lacustrine condition was establisht they were at first a single lake instead of three, and the outlet, instead of being southward from Lake Huron, was northeastward from Georgian bay, the outlet river following the valleys of the Mattawa and Ottawa to the St Lawrence. The triple lake is known to us chiefly through the labors of F. B. Taylor, who has made extensive studies of its shore-line. This line, called the Nipissing shore-line, is not wholly submerged, like the old shores of lakes Erie and Ontario, but lies chiefly above the 236 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES present water surfaces. It has been recognized at many points about Lake Superior and the northern parts of lakes Huron and Michigan, and measurements of its height show that its plane has a remarkably uniform dip, at 7 inches per mile, in a south- southwest direction, or, more exactly, S.27° W. As will be seen by the accompanying map, reproduced from Taylor, it crosses the modern shore-line of Lake Superior near its western end, thereby passing beneath the water surface ; and it similarly passes below the surface of Lake Michigan near Green bay, and below the FIG. 3—THE NIPISSING GREAT LAKE (AFTER TAYLOR) Its boundaries are shown by the broken line surface of Lake Huron just north of Saginaw bay. The south- ward tilting of the land. involving the uplift of the point of outlet, increast the capacity of the basin and the volume of the lake, gradually carrying the coast-line southward in Lake Huron and Lake Michigan until finally it reacht the low pass at Port Huron and the water overflowed via the St Clair and Detroit channels to Lake Erie. The outlet by way of the Ottawa was then abandoned. and a continuance of the uplift caused the water to slowly recede from its northern shores. This change after a time separated Lake Superior from the other lakes, bring- MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES 237 ing the St Marys river into existence, and eventually the present condition was reacht. These various changes are so intimately related to the history of the Niagara river that the Niagara time estimates, based on the erosion of the gorge by the cataract, can be applied to them. Lake Erie has existed approximately as long as the Niagara river, and its age should probably be reckoned in tens of thou- sands or hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Ontario is much younger. All that can be said of the beginning of Great Lake Nipissing is that it came long after the beginning of Lake Erie, but the date of its ending, through the transfer of outlet from the Mattawa to the St Clair, is more definitely known. That event is estimated by Taylor to have occurred between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago.* The lake history thus briefly sketcht is characterized by a pro- gressive change in the attitude of the land, the northern and northeastern portions of the region becoming higher, so as to turn the waters more and more toward the southwest. The latest change, from Great Lake Nipissing to Great Lakes Supe- rior, Michigan, and Huron, involving an uplift at the north of more than 100 feet, has taken place within so short a period that we are naturally led to inquire whether it has yet ceast. Is it not probable that the land is still rising at the north and the lakes are still encroaching on their southern shores? J. W. Spencer, who has been an active explorer of the shore-lines of the glacial lakes and has given much study to related problems, is of opinion that the movements are not complete, and predicts that they will result in the restoration of the Chicago outlet of Lake Michigan and the drying of Niagara.t The importance of testing this question by actual measure- ments was imprest upon me several years ago, and I endeavored to secure the institution of an elaborate set of observations to that end. Failing in this, I undertook a less expensive investi- gation, which began with the examination of existing records of lake height as recorded by gage readings, and was continued by the establishment of a number of gage stations in 1896. To understand fully the nature of this investigation It 1s necessary to consider the difficulties that arise from the multifarious mo- tions to which the lake water is subject. ~Studies in Indiana Geography, X. A short history of the Great Lakes. Terre Haute, 1897. + Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol LIII, 1894, p. 246. 238 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES If the volume of a lake were invariable, and if its water were in perfect equilibrium under gravity, its surface would be con- stant and level, and any variation due to changes in the height of the land could be directly determined by observations on the position of the water surface with reference to the land; but these conditions are never realized in the case of the Great Lakes, where the volume continually changes and the water is always in motion. The investigator therefore has to arrange his meas- urements so as to eliminate the effect of such changes. Consider first the influence of wind. The friction of the wind on the water produces waves. These are temporary and practi- cally cease in periods of calm; the perpetual ground-swell of the ocean is not known on the lakes. The friction of the wind on the water also drives the water forward, producing currents. The water thus driven against the lee shores returns in under- currents, but the internal friction of the water resists and delays the return, and there is consequently a heaping of the water against lee shores and a corresponding lowering of its level on other shores. During great storms these differences amount to several feet, reaching a maximum in Lake Erie; in October, 1886, a westerly gale is reported to have raised the water 8 feet at Buffalo and deprest it 8 feet at Toledo.* For light winds the changes of level are much smaller, but they are nevertheless appreciable, and they have even been detected in the case of the gentle “land and sea” breezes which in calm weather are created by the diurnal cycle of temperature change on the land. The water is also sensitive to atmospheric pressure. If the air prest equally on all parts of the lake surface the equilibrium of the water would not be disturbed; but its pressure is never uniform. As shown by the isobars on the daily weather map, there are notable differences of pressure from point to point, and within the length of one of the Great Lakes these often amount to several tenths of a barometric inch. A column of mercury 0.1 inch high weighs as much as a column of water 1.3 inches high ; and whenever the atmospheric pressure at one point on a lake exceeds the pressure at another point by the tenth of a baro- metric inch, the water level at the first point is, in consequence, 1.3 inches lower than the water level at the second point. When a cumulus cloud forms over the water there is a reaction on the * Science, vol. VIII, pp. 34, 391. The effect of a storm in October, 1893, is ably diseust by Wm. T. Blount, in Ann. Rept. Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., for 1894, part 6, pp. 3431-3435. ; MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES 239 water, disturbing its equilibrium, and the passage of a thunder- storm often produces oscillations attracting the attention of even the casual observer. Such sudden and temporary variations of pressure give rise to waves analogous to those caused by a fall- ing pebble, except that they are broad and low, and these waves not only travel to all parts of a lake but are continued by reflec- tion, so that a local storm at one point is felt in the water surface at all points and for a considerable period. The passage of the greater atmospheric wayes associated with ordinary cyclonic storms and the impulses given by winds are also able to set the whole body of the lake in motion, so that it sways from side to side or end to end like the swaying water in a tub or basin, and these swaying motions are of indefinite continuance. In the deeper lakes, and probably in all the lakes, they are so enduring as to bridge over the intervals from impulse to impulse. Such oscillations, which appear at any point on the coastas alternate risings and fallings of the water, with periods ranging from a few minutes to several hours, are called seiches. Their amplitude is usually a few inches, but at the ends of lakes is sometimes a foot or more. The lakes, like the ocean, are swayed by the attractions of the sun and moon. ‘Their tides are much smaller than those of the ocean, and are even small as compared to the seiches, but they are still measurable. At Milwaukee the lunar tide rises and falls more than an inch and the solar tide a half inch, At Chicago and Duluth each tide amounts to an inch and a half, and their combination at new and full moon to three inches. Water is continually added to each lake by rivers and creeks, but the rate is not uniform. Usually a few freshets, occurring within two or three weeks, contribute more water than comes during all the remainder of the year. Water is also added in an irregular way by rain and snow falling directly on the lake. It is subtracted by evaporation, the rate of which varies greatly, and by overflow, which varies within moderate limits. The volume of water contained in the lake, being subject to these variable gains and losses, is itself inconstant, and the general height of the water surface therefore oscillates. In average years the range of variation for Lake Superior is 12 inches; for lakes Michigan and Huron, 12 inches; for Lake Erie, 14 inches, and for Lake Ontario, 17 inches. Low water occurs normally in January or February for all the lakes except Superior, where it occurs in March. High water is reacht sooner in the lower lakes, June 240 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES being the usual month for Ontario, June or July for Erie, July for Michigan and Huron, and August or September for Superior. ‘a Pie Ae The observations for Lake Superior cover the period 1862-1895 ; for Michigan-Huron, 1860-1895 ; for Hrie, 1855-1895 ; for Ontario, 1860-1895 ' == sole a Kas il n Al A ae n RQ 4 < | a < Lan a A Q 4 2) aq =) Q 7) & iS lo) nD Q 9) 4 & 4 p 127] Q x a & [e) mn vA © A a < y 4 H 2) wn ° H Q-7 and Charlotte... \ 86 16 : -061 sot ots Port Colborne and ap a Cleveland....... \ 158 141 ay 239 ae Bu Port Austin and = } 5 3 9 a5 rs) UE Er aa \ 959 176 207 Nia che tesa 09 Escanaba and Mil- >| 9 * (9) 2 oO ee, \ 192 186 Boro tet 43 | .06 Mean...... Al Weighted mean...... 42° = .05 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES 245 The stations of the several pairs are at different distances apart, the directions of the lines connecting them make various anvles with the theoretic direction of tilting, and the time intervals separating the measurements are different. To reduce the results to common terms I have computed from each the rate of tilting it implies in the theoretic direction, S.27° W. In the sixth column of the preceding table the rate is exprest as the change in relative height of the ends of a line 100 miles long during a century. Compared in this way, the results are remarkably harmonious, the computed rates of tilting ranging only from 0.37 foot to 0.46 foot per 100 miles per century ; and in view of this harmony it is not easy to avoid the conviction that the buildings are firm and stable, that the engineers ran their level lines with accuracy, that all the various possible accidents were escaped, and that we have here a veritable record of the slow tilting of the broad lake-bear- ing plain. The computed mean rate of tilting, 0.42 foot per 100 miles per century, is not entitled to the same confidence as the fact of tilt- ing. Its probable error, the mathematical measure of precision derived from the discordance of the observational data, is rather large, being one-ninth of the whole quantity measured. Perhaps it would be safe to say that the general rate of tilting, which may or may not be uniform for the whole region, falls between 0.30 and 0.55 foot. While the credit of formulating the working hypothesis or geo- logic prediction which has thus been verified by measurement belongs to Spencer, itis proper to note that the fundamental idea of modern differential earth movement in the Great Lakes region was announced much earlier by G. R. Stuntz, a Wisconsin sur- veyor. Ina paper communicated to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1869, he cites observations tending to show that in 1852-53 the water of Lake Superior stood abnormally high at the west end while it was unusually low at the east, and he infers that the land is not stable. The geographic effects of the tilting are of scientific and eco- nomic importance. Evidently the height of lake water at a lake's outlet is regulated by the discharge and is not affected by slow changes in the attitude of the basin; but at other points of the shore the water advances or retreats as the basin is tipt. Con- sider, for example, Lake Superior. On the map (Fig. 7) a line has been drawn through the outlet at the head of St Marys river in a direction at right angles to the direction of tilting. All 246 MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES points on this line, called the isobase of the outlet, are raised or lowered equally by the tilting and are unchanged with reference to one another. All points southwest of it are lowered, the amount varying with their distances from the line, and all points to the northeast are raised. The water, always holding its sur- face level and always regulated in volume by the discharge at the outlet, retreats from the rising northeast coasts and encroaches on the sinking southyest coasts. Assuming the rate of tilting to be 0.42 foot per 100 miles per century, the mean lake level is rising at Duluth 6 inches per century and falling at Heron bay 5 inches. Where the isobase intersects the northwestern shore, which happens to be at the international boundary, there is no change. Lake Ontario lies altogether southwest of the isobase of its outlet, and the water is encroaching on all its shores. The same tilting that enlarged it from the area markt by the dotted line of figure 2 is still increasing its extent. The estimated vertical rise at Hamilton is 6 inches per century. The whole coast of Lake Erie also is being submerged, the estimated rate at Toledo and Sandusky being 8 or 9 inches per century. The isobase of the double Lake Huron-Michigan passes south- west of Lake Huron and crosses Lake Michigan. All coasts of Lake Huron are therefore rising as compared to the outlet, and the consequent apparent lowering of the mean water surface is estimated at 6 inches per century for Mackinac and at 10 inches for the mouth of the French river on Georgian bay. In Lake - Michigan the line of no change passes near Manistee, Michigan. At Escanaba the estimated fall of the water is 4 inches per cen- tury ; at Milwaukee the estimated rise is 5 or 6 inches, and at Chicago between 9 and 10 inches. These slow changes of mean water level are ceneeaiee from ordinary observation by the more rapid and impressive changes due to variations of volume, but they are worthy of considera- tion in the planning of engineering works of a permanent char- acter, and there is at least one place where their influence is of moment to a large community. The city of Chicago is built on a smooth plain little above the high-water level of Lake Michigan. Every decade the mean level of the water is an inch higher, and the margin of safety is so narrow that inches are valuable. Al- ready the older part of the city has lifted itself several feet to secure better drainage, and the time will surely come when other measures of protection are imperatively demanded. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 247 Looking to the more distant future, we may estimate the date at which the geographic revolution prophesied by Spencer will occur. Near Chicago, as already mentioned, is an old channel made by the outlet of a glacial lake. The bed of the channel at the summit of the pass is about 8 feet above the mean level of Lake Michigan and 5 feet above the highest level. In 500 or 600 years (assuming the estimated rate of tilting) high stages of the lake will reach the pass, and the artificial discharge by canal will be supplemented by an intermittent natural discharge. In 1,000 years the discharge will occur at ordinary lake stages, and after 1,500 years it will be continuous. In about 2,000 years the dis- charge from Lake Michigan-Huron-EKrie, which will then have substantially the same level, will be equally divided between the western outlet at Chicago and the eastern at Buffalo. In 2,500 years the Niagara river will have become an intermittent stream, and in 3,000 years all its water will have been diverted to the Chicago outlet, the Illinois river, the Mississippi river, and the Gulf of Mexico. THE TORONTO MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCI- ATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE If the British Association for the Advancement of Science has never yet done itself the honor of electing a geographer as its President, it at least is not open to the reproach of neglecting so important a department of knowledge as that which is con- cerned with the distribution of the human race and the manifold conditions of its environment. Throughout its entire history of 67 years the Association has given geography a prominent place in its proceedings, and there have been few distinguished ex- plorers who have not reserved some of their most interesting and important utterances for the Geographical Section of this great scientific body. Just 40 years ago, in the city of Dublin, it was to see and hear Livingstone that people crowded into the hall assigned to Section E. Fifteen years later, at Brighton, before an equally large and brilliant assemblage, Mr Stanley narrated the thrilling story of his search for the great missionary-traveler in the wilds of equatorial Africa, and almost every Arctic ex- plorer and every seeker for the mysterious sources of the Nile and every daring adventurer who has penetrated the recesses of 248 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION the great Asiatic plateau has modestly narrated the story of his travels and his discoveries before the British Association. If the recent Toronto meeting will not be remembered for any dramatic incidents or other highly sensational features, it was in many respects a notable gathering and by no means lacking in im- portant contributions to geographic science. The address of the President of the Geographical Section, Mr J. Scott Keltie, LL. D., Joint Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society and Editor of ‘ the Geographical Journal and of the Statesman’s Year-Book, dealt with the geographic problems of the future and set forth in ad- mirable and most instructive array the various regions of the globe that are still wholly or in large part unexplored. This address is published, with but very slight abridgment, in the following pages, as a matter not merely of general interest, but of especial value to teachers and geographic students who find it difficult to keep abreast of geographic research in the more remote parts of the world. Dr Keltie’s address was delivered on August 19, and in the afternoon of the same day Sir George Scott Robertson, the Hero of Chitral, described Kafiristan and the Kafirs; Mr E. G. Raven- stein, of London, presented the sixth report of the Committee on the Climatology of Africa, a subject of great interest in view of the recent extension of European territory on that continent ; Mr E. Delmar Morgan, of London, read a paper on Nova Zem- bla and its Physical Geography, summarizing the results of re- cent Russian investigations and presenting the conclusion that the country is now undergoing a new process of glaciation that will convert it into an icy wilderness; Mr B. Leigh Smith, also of London, spoke on Recent Temperature Observations off Spitz- bergen, and a voluminous report was presented on The Position of Geography in the Educational System of Great Britain. On the following day the proceedings of the Geographic Sec- tion included a paper by Prof. Richard E. Dodge, of the Teachers College, New York, on Scientific Geography for Schools, which was a plea for the more scientific teaching of geography in the public schools and for systematic codperation in the bringing about of a much-needed improvement; a paper by Col. F. Bailey, of Edinburgh, on Forestry in India, showing the serious results of forest denudation in that country and the measures that have been adopted to remedy the evil; a Scheme of Geographical Classification, by Dr Hugh Robert Mill, of London; a paper by Mr Vaughn Cornish, on The Distribution of Detritus by the Sea ; THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 249 a paper by Mr E. G. Ravenstein, on The Kongo and the Cape of Good Hope, 1482 to 1488, a narrative of one of the most in- teresting periods in the history of geographic exploration, and a communication by Prof. John Milne, of the Isle of Wight, on Certain Submarine Geological Changes, which was mainly an epitome of the article on Suboceanic Changes, published in the July and August numbers of the Geographical Journal. On August 23 Mr Marcus Baker, of the U.S. Geological Survey, read a paper, the joint production of himself and Mr Gardiner G. Hubbard, President of the National Geographic Society, on the Geography of the United States and the Agencies employed in its Exploitation; General A. W. Greely presented a paper by Prof. F. H. Newell, Chief Hydrographer of the U. 8. Geological Survey, on the Hydrography of the United States; Dr T. C. Men- -denhall, President of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute and formerly Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Mr Otto H. Tittmann, Assistant in charge of the Office of the Survey, discussed the geographic work of that important goy- ernment bureau; Mr J. B. Tyrrell, of Ottawa, read a paper on the Barren Lands of Canada, by which title he designated the plains and prairies which stretch from Hudson bay to the Mac- kenzie river and from the coastline of the Arctic ocean south- ward to the region of civilization; Mr W. J. White read a paper on the Topographic Work of the Geological Survey of Canada; Prof. Charles D. Walcott, Director of the Geological Survey of the United States, presented a valuable communication on the geographical work of the institution over which he so ably pre- sides, and Prof. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the U. 8S. Weather Bureau, discussed entertainingly and instructively the Clima- tology of the United States. The proceedings of August 24 opened with an address by Mr F. C. Selous on the Economic Geography of Rhodesia, a re- gion in which he has spent twenty-five years in elephant and lion hunting, but in which the ultimate destiny of a large part of the African continent is now being wrought out. This was followed by a Journey in Tripoli, by Mr J. T. Myers; Potamol- ogy as a Branch of Geography, by Prof. Albrecht Penck, of the University of Vienna; the Geographical Development of the Lower Mississippi, by Dr E. L. Corthell, of New York; South- eastern Alaska, by Mr Otto J. Klotz, of Ottawa; The First Ascent of Mt. Lefroy and Mt. Aberdeen, by Prof. H. B. Dixon, of Man- chester; Mexico Felix and Mexico Deserta, by Mr O. H. Howarth, 17 250 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION of London, and The Direction of Lines of Structure in Eurasia, by Prince Kropotkin, an important paper written in a Russian prison and saved from destruction by the Russian Geographical Society after the escape of its author. On August 25, the closing day of the meeting, Prof. W. M. Davis, of Harvard, spoke on the importance of geography as a university subject; General A. W. Greely read a paper by Mr Henry Gannett, Chief Geographer of the U.S. Geological Sur- vey, on the Growth and Material Conditions of the United States, and Dr Mill and Prof. Penck exhibited a large number of views illustrative of geographic scenes and conditions. While the foregoing represents the work of the Geographical Section, it by no means exhausts the list of subjects of interest to the student of geography that were discussed at the Toronto meeting. In the Section of Mathematics and Physics, on August 19, Prof. John Milne presented a report from the Committee on Seismological Observations, and exhibited, for the purpose of illustrating the nature of certain recent discoveries, the wonder- fully delicate instruments that are used in locating breakages in submarine cables. On the same day, in the Section of Geology, Prof. J. C. Branner, of Stanford University, discussed The Former Extension of the Appalachians across Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and Dr F. D. Adams demonstrated the plasticity of rocks. Again, in the Section of Mathematics and Physics, on August 20, Mr Alexander Johnson, of McGill University, dis- cussed the project of an Imperial Hydrographic Survey, and at the Horticultural Pavilion Prof. H. O. Forbes, of Liverpool, lectured on British New Guinea, its People, and the Problems which the Region offers to Geologists and Naturalists. In the Section of Meteorology, on August 23, Mr F. Napier Denison, of the Toronto Observatory, discussed the Great Lakes as a Sensitive Thermometer; Mr John Hopkinson read a paper on The Monthly and Annual Rainfall in the British Empire during the last Twenty Years, Dr Van Rijckevorsel, of Rotter- dam, discussed the Temperature of Europe, laying stress on the influences originating in western Asia on the east and in or be- yond the Atlantic ocean on the west; Mr R. F. Stupart, of the Toronto Meteorologicai Department, read a paper on The Clima- tology of Canada, and Mr R. G. Haliburton, a learned member of the Canadian Bar, discussed November Meteors and Novem- ber Flood Traditions. In the evening Prof. John Milne lectured before the Association in general session on Earthquakes and ao THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE 95) Volcanoes, an exceptionally large and distinguished being attracted by the fame of the man who announced in Eng- land on the day of its occurrence the terrible earthquake which visited Japan in June, 1896. The Anthropological Section also presented many attractions to the geographer, especially on August 23, when the proceed- ings included a paper by Mr B. Sulte on the Origin and Charae- teristics of the French-Canadians, an account of the Seri Indians, by Prof. W J McGee, Acting President of the American Associa- tion, and a long discussion on the Evidences of American-Asiatic Contact, opened by Prof. F. W. Putnam, of Harvard. It will readily be seen from the foregoing that the Toronto meeting of the British Association was the occasion of many notable contributions to geographic science, and no apology will be offered for the presentation in forthcoming numbers of Tue NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of abridgments of such of them as are of greatest value and are available for the purpose. J. H. audience THE GREAT UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE AWAITING THE EXPLORER AND GEOGRAPHER* By J. Scorr Keurig, LL. D., Secretary to the Royal Geographical Sociely, Editor of the Geographical Journal and of the Statesman’s Year-Book, etc., ele. We meet this year in exceptional circumstances. Thirteen years ago the British Association met for the first time in a por- tion of the empire beyond the limits of the British islands. Dur- ing these thirteen years much has happened of the greatest inter- est to geographers, and if attempted to review the progress which has been made during these years—progress in the exploration of the globe, progress in geographical research, progress in geo- graphical education—I could not hope to do it to any purpose in the short time during which it would be right for a president to monopolize the attention of the Section. But we have, at the same time, reached another stage in our history which naturally leads us to take stock of our progress in * Presidential address delivered before the Geographical Section of the British Asso- Giation for the Advancement of Science, at Toronto, August 19, 1897, 252 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE the past. We have all of us been celebrating the sixtieth year of the glorious reign of the Sovereign of whose vast dominions Canada and the United Kingdom form integral parts. The pro- gress made during that period in our own department of science has been immense; it would take volumes to tell what has been done for the exploration of the globe. The great continent of Africa has practically been discovered, for sixty years ago almost all but its rim was a blank. In 1887 enormous areas in North America were unexplored and much of the interior of South America was unknown. Inall parts of Asia vast additions have been made to our knowledge; the maps of the interior of that continent were sixty years ago of the most diagrammatic character. The Australian interior was nearly as great a blank as that of Africa; New Zealand had not even been annexed. Need I remind you of the great progress which has been made during the period both in the North and South Polar areas, culminating in the magnificent achievement of Dr Nansen? It was just sixty years ago that the great Antarctic expedition under Sir James Ross was being organized ; since that, alas! little or nothing has been done to follow up his work. Sixty years ago the science of oceanography, even the term, did not exist. It is the creation of the Victorian era, and may be said almost to have had its origin in the voyage of the Challenger, which added a new domain to our science and opened up inexhaustible fields of research. * * * < * * * I have thought, then, that the most useful and most manage- able thing to do on the present occasion will be to indicate briefly what, in my estimation, are some of the problems which geogra- phy has to attack in the future, only taking such glances at the past as will enable us to do this intelligibly. ASIA Turning to the continent of Asia, we find that immense progress has been made during the past sixty years. In the presidential address given sixty years ago Mr Hamilton says of Asia: “ We have only a general knowledge of the geographical character of the Burman, Chinese, and Japan empires; the innumerable islands of the latter are still, except occasionally, inaccessible to European navigators. Geographers hardly venture on the most loose de- scription of Tibet, Mongolia, or Chinese Tartary, Siam, and Cochin China.” Since then the survey of India, one of the greatest THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE 253 enterprises undertaken by any State, has been completed, and is being rapidly extended over Burma. But I need not remind you in detail of the vast changes that have taken place in Asia dur- . ing these years and the immense additions that have been made to our knowledge of its geography. Exploring activity in Asia is not likely to cease, though it is not to be expected that its in- hospitable center will ever be so carefully mapped as have been the mountains of Switzerland. The most important desiderata, so far as pioneer exploration in Asia is concerned, may be said to be confined to two regions. In southern and central Arabia there are tracts which are en- tirely unexplored. It is probable that this unexplored region is in main a sandy desert. At the same time it is, in the south at least, fringed by a border of mountains whose slopes are capable of rich cultivation and whose summits the late Mr Theodore Bent found, on his last and fatal journey, to be covered with snow. In exploration, as in other directions, it is the unexpected that happens; and if any traveler cared to face the difficulties—phys- ical, political, and religious—which might be met with in south- ern and central Arabia, he might be able to tell the world a sur- prising story. The other region in Asia where real pioneer work still remains to be done is Tibet and the mountainous districts bordering it on the north and east. Lines of exploration have in recent years been run across Tibet by Russian explorers like Prjevalsky, by Rockhill, Prince Henry of Orleans, and Bonvalot, by Bower, Lit- tledale,Wellby,and Malcolm. From the resultsobtained by these - explorers we have formed a fair idea of this, the most extensive, the highest,and the most inhospitable plateau in the world. A few more lines run in well-selected directions would probably supply geography with nearly all she wants to learn about such a region, though more minute exploration would probably fur- nish interesting details as to its geological history. THE FORBIDDEN CITY The region lying to the north of the Himalayan range and to the south of the parallel of Lhasa is almost a blank on the map, and there is ample room here for the enterprising pioneer. The forbidden city of Lhasa is at present the goal of several advent- urers, though as a matter of fact we cannot have much to learn in addition to what has been revealed in the interesting narra- tive of the native Indian traveler, Chandra Das. ‘The magnifi- 254 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE cent mountain region on the north and east of Tibet furnishes a splendid field for the enterprising explorer. Mrs Bishop recently approached it from the east, through Sze-chuen, and her descrip- tion of the romantic scenery and the interesting non-Mongolian inhabitants leaves us with a strong desire to learn more. On the southeast of Tibet is the remarkable mountainous region, con- sisting of a series of lofty parallel chains, through which run the upper waters of the Yangtse, the Mekong, the Salwin, and the Irrawaddy. This last-named river, recent exploration has shown, probably does not reach far into the range. But it will be seen by a glance at a map that the upper waters of the other rivers are carried far into the heart of the mountains. But these upper- river courses are entirely conjectural and have given rise to much controversy. There is plenty of work here for the explorer, though the difficulties, physical and political, are great. But besides these great unexplored regions there are many blanks to be filled up in other parts of Asia, and regions which, though known in a general way, would well repay careful exam- ination. There is the mountain track between the Zarafshan _river and the middle course of the Sarkhab, tributary of the Oxus, and the country lying between that and the Oxus. There isthe ereat Takla-Makan desert in Chinese or Eastern Turkistan, part of which has recently been explored by Russian expeditions and by that young and indefatigable Swedish traveler, Dr Sven Hedin. It is now one of the most forbidding deserts to be found anywhere, but it deserves careful examination, as there are evidences of its once having been inhabited, and that at no very remote period. It is almost surrounded by the Tarim, and on its eastern edge lies - Lob-nor, the remarkable changes in which have been the subject of recent investigation. As readers of Dr Nansen’s Voyage of the Fram will remember, the Siberian coast is most imperfectly mapped. Of course it is a difficult task, but it is one to which the Russian government ought to be equal. China has on paper the appearance of being fairly well mapped; but asa matter of fact our knowledge of its mountain ranges and of its great river courses is to a large extent extremely vague. All this awaits care- ful survey. In northeastern Manchuria and in many parts of Mongoha there are still blanks to be filled up and mountain and river systems to-be surveyed. In the Malay peninsula and in the great array of islands in the east and southeast of Asia—Su- matra, Borneo, the Philippines—much work still remains to be done. Thus for the coming century there will be abundance of THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE — 255 work for explorers in Asia and plenty of material to occupy the attention of our geographical societies. DARKEST AFRICA Coming to the map of Africa, we find the most marvelous trans- formation during the last sixty years, and mainly during the last forty vears, dating from Livingstone’s memorable journey across the continent. Though the north of Africa was the home of one of the oldest civilizations, and though on the shores of the Med- iterranean Pheenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans were at work for centuries, it has only been within the memory of many of us that the center of the continent, from the Sahara to the con- fines of Cape Colony, has ceased to be an unexplored blank. This blank has been filled up with bewildering rapidity. Great rivers and lakes and mountains have been laid down in their main features, and the whole continent, with a few unimportant ex- ceptions, has been parceled out among the powers of Europe; but much still remains to be done ere we can form an adequate conception of what is in some respects the most interesting and the most intractable of the continents. Many curious problems still remain to be solved. The pioneer work of exploration has to a large extent been accomplished ; lines have been run in all directions ; the main features have been blocked out; but be- tween these lines the broad meshes remain to be filled in, and to do this will require many years of careful exploration. How- ever, there still remain one or two regions that afford scope for the adventurous pioneer. ' To the south of Abyssinia and to the west and northwest of Lake Rudolf, on to the Upper Nile, is a region of considerable ex- tent, which is still practically unknown. Again, in the western Sahara there is an extensive area, inhabited mainly by the in- tractable Tuaregs, into which no one has been able to penetrate, and of which our knowledge is extremely scanty. Even in the central Sahara there are great areas which have not been tra- versed, while in the Libyan desert much remains to be done. These regions are of interest almost solely from the geographical and geological standpoints; but they deserve careful investiga- tion, not only that we may ascertain their actual present condi- tion, but in order, also, that we may try to discover some clues to the past history of this interesting continent. Still, it must be said that the great features of the continent have been so fully mapped during the last half century that what is required now 256 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE is mainly the filling-in of the details. This is a process that re- quires many hands and special qualifications. All over the con- tinent there are regions which will repay special investigation. Quite recently an English traveler, Mr Cowper, found not far from the Tripoli coast miles of magnificent ruins and much to correct onourmaps. If only the obstructiveness of the Turkish officials could be overcome, there is a rich harvest for any one who will go to work with patience and intelligence. Even the interior of Morocco,and especially the Atlas mountains, are but little known. The French, in both Tunis and Algeria, are extending our knowl- edge southward. EFFORTS OF THE POWERS All the powers who have taken part in the scramble for Africa are doing much to acquire a knowledge of their territories. Ger- many especially deserves praise for the persistent zeal with which she has carried out the exploration of her immense territories in East and West Africa. The men she sends out are unusually well qualified for the work, capable not simply of making a run- ning survey as they proceed and taking notes on country and people, but of rendering a substantial account of the geology, the fauna, the flora, and the economic conditions. Both in the French and the British spheres good work is also being done, and the map of Africa is being gradually filled up. But what we especially want now are men of the type of Dr J. W. Gregory, whose book on the Great Rift valley is one of the most valuable contributions to African geography ever made. If men of this _ stamp would settle down in regions like that of Mount Ruwen- zori or Lake Rudolf or the region about lakes Bangweolo and Tanganyika, or in the Atlas or in many other regions that could be named, the gains to scientific geography, as well as to the eco- nomic interests of Africa, would be great. An example of work of this kind is seen in the discoveries made by a young biologist trained in geographical observation, Mr Moore, on Lake Tan- ganyika. There he found a fauna which seems to afford a key to the past history of the center of the continent, a fauna which, Mr Moore maintains, is essentially of a salt-water type. Mr Moore, I believe, is inclined to maintain that the ancient con- nection of this part of Africa with the ocean was not by the west, as Joseph Thomson surmised, but by the north, through the _ Great Rift valley of Dr Gregory, and he strongly advocates the careful examination of Lake Rudolf as the crucial test of his i THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE 257 ad theory. It is to be hoped that he or some one equally compe- tent will have an opportunity of carrying out an investigation likely to provide results of the highest importance. CLIMATE OF THE COUNTRY But there are other special problems connected with this. the most backward and the most repellent of continents, which de- mand serious investigation—problems essentially geographical. One of the most important of these, from the point of view of the development of Africa, is the problem of acclimatization. The matter is of such prime importance that a committee of the Asso- ciation has been at work for some years collecting data as to the climate of tropical Africa. In a general way we know that that climate is hot and the rainfall scanty ; indeed, even the geogra- _phers of the ancient world believed that Central Africa was unin- habitable on account of its heat; but science requires more than generalities, and therefore we look forward to the exact results which are being collected by the committee referred to with much hope. Wecan only go to work experimentally until we know precisely what we have to deal with. It will help us greatly to solve the problem of acclimatization when we have the exact fac- tors that go to constitute the climate of tropical Africa. At pres- ent there is no doubt that the weight of competent opinion—that is, opinion of those who have had actual experience of African climate and of those who have made a special study of the effects of that climate on the human constitution—is that, though white men, if they take due precautions, may live and do certain kinds of work in tropical Africa, it will never be possible to colonize that part of the world with people from the temperate zone. ‘This is the lesson taught by generations of experience of Kuropeans in India. So far, also, sad experience has shown that white people can- not hope to settle in Central Africa as they have settled in Can- ada and the United States and in Australia, and make it a nur- sery and a home for new generations. Even in such favorable situations as Blantyre, a lofty region on the south of Lake Nyasa, children cannot be reared beyond a certain age; they must be sent home to England, otherwise they will degenerate physically and morally. No country-can ever become the true home of a people if the children have to be sent away to be reared. Still, it is true our experience in Africa is limited. It has been main- tained that it might be possible to adapt Europeans to tropical 258 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE Africa by a gradual process of migration: Transplant southern Europeans to north Africa; after a generation or tivo remove their progeny further south, and so on, edging the succeeding genera- tion further and further into the heart of the continent. The ex- periment—a long one it would be—might be tried ; but it is to be feared that the ultimate result would be a race deprived of all those characteristics which have made Europe what it is. HIDDEN ENEMIES An able young Italian physician, Dr Sambon, has recently faced this important problem, and has not hesitated to come to conclusions quite opposed to those generally accepted. His posi- tion is that it has taken us centuries in Europe to discover our hidden enemies, the microbes of the various diseases to which northern humanity is a prey, and to meet them and conquer them. In Africa we have a totally different set of enemies to meet, from lions and snakes down to the invisible organisms that produce those forms of malaria, anzemia, and other diseases characteristic of tropical countries. He admits that these are more or less due to heat, to the nature of the soil, and other trop- ical conditions, but that if once we knew their precise nature and modes of working we should be in a position to meet them and conquer them. It may be so, but this is a result that could only be reached after generations of experience and investigation, and even Dr Sambon admits that the ultimate product of European acclimatization in Africa would be something quite different from the European progenitors. What is wanted is a series of care- fully conducted experiments. I have referred to the Blantyre highlands. In British East Africa there are plateaus of much greater altitude, and in other parts of Central Africa there are large areas of 4.000 feet and over above sea level. The world may become so full that we may be forced to try to utilize these lofty tropical regions as homes for white people when Canada and Australia and the United States become over populated. As one of my predecessors in this chair (Mr Ravenstein) tried to show at the Leeds meeting some years ago, the population of the world will have more than doubled in a century, and about 180 years hence will have quadrupled. At any rate, here is a problem of prime importance for the geog- rapher of the coming century to attack. With so many ener- getic and intelligent white men all over Africa, it should not be difficult to obtain the data which might help toward its solution. THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S St RFACE 259 NORTH AMERICA I have dwelt thus long on Africa, because it will really be one of the great geographical. problems of the coming century. Had it been as suitable as America or Australia, we may be sure it would not have remained so long neglected and despised by the European peoples as it has done. Unfortunately for Afr ica, just as it had been circumnavigated, and just as Europeans were be- ginning to settle upon its central portion and trying to make their way into the interior, Columbus and Cabot discovered a new world—a world as well adapted as Europe for the energies of the white races. That discovery postponed the legitimate develop- ment of Africa for four centuries. Nothing could be more marked than the progress which America has made since its rediscovery 400 years ago, and the stagnation of Africa, which has been known to Europe since long before the beginning of history. During these 400 years North America at least has been very thoroughly explored. The two great tations which divide North America between them have their Government surveys, which are rapidly mapping the whole continent and investigating its geology, phys- ical geography, and natural resources. I need hardly tell an audience like this of the admirable work done by the survey of Canada under Sir William Logan, Dr Selwyn, and his successor, Dr George Dawson; nor should it be forgotten that under the lands department much excellent to- pographical work has been carried out by Captain Deville and his predecessors. Still, though much has been done, much re- mains to be done. There are large areas which have not as yet been roughly mapped. Within quite recent years we have had new regions opened up to us by the work of Dawson and Ogilvie on the Yukon, Dr Bell in the region to the south of Hudson bay, by the brothers Tyrrell in the barren lands on the west of the same bay, by O’Sullivan beyond the sources of the Ottaw a, and by Low in Labrador. But it is not so long since that Dr Dawson, in reviewing what remains to be done in the Dominion in the way of even pioneer exploration, pointed out that something like a million square miles still remained to be mapped. Apart from the uninhabit- able regions in the north, there are, as Dr Dawson pointed out, considerable areas which might be turned to profitable agricult- ural and mining account of which we know little, such areas as these which have been recently mapped out on the south of Hud- 260 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE son bay by Dr Bell and beyond the Ottawa by Mr O’Sullivan. Although the eastern and western provinces have been very fully surveyed, there is a considerable area between the two lying be- tween Lake Superior and Hudson bay which seems to have been so far almost untouched. A very great deal has been done for the survey of the rivers and lakes of Canada. I need hardly say that in Canada, as elsewhere in America, there is ample scope for the study of many problems in physical geography—past and present glaciation and the work of glaciers, the origin and régime of lake basins, the erosion of river beds, the oscillation of coast lines. Happily, both in Canada and the United States there are many men competent and eager to work out problems of this class, and in the reports of the various surveys, in the transactions of American learned societies, in scientific periodicals, and in sepa- rate publications, a wealth of data has already been accumulated of immense value to the geographer. UNITED STATES Every geologist and geographer knows the important work which has been accomplished by the various surveys of the United States, as well as by the various State surveys. The United States Coast Survey has been at work for more than half a century, mapping not only the coast but all the navigable rivers. The Lake Survey has been doing a similar service for the shores of the Great Lakes of North America. But it is the work of the Geological Survey which is best known to geogra- phers—a survey which is really topographical as well as geolog- ical, and which, under such men as Hayden, King, and Powell, has produced a series of magnificent maps, diagrams, and mem- oirs of the highest scientific value and interest. Recently this survey has been placed on a more systematic basis, so that now a scheme for the topographical survey of the whole of the terri- tory of the United States is being carried out. Extensive areas in various parts of the States have been already surveyed on different scales. It is to be hoped that in the future, as in the _ past, the able men who are employed on this survey work will have opportunities of working out the physiography of particu- lar districts, the past and present geography of which is of ad- vancing scientific interest. Of the complete exploration and mapping of the North American continent we need have no ap- prehension ; it is only a question of time, and it is to be hoped that neither of the governments responsible will allow political stent THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE 261 exigencies to interfere with what is really a work of national importance. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA It is when we come to Central and South America that we find ample room for the unofficial explorer. In Mexico and the Cen- tral American States there are considerable areas of which we have little or only the vaguest knowledge. In South America there is really more room now for the pioneer explorer than there is in Central Africa. In recent years the Argentine Repub- lic has shown laudable zeal in exploring and mapping its im- mense territories, while a certain amount of good work has also been done by Brazil and Chile. Most of our knowledge of South America is due to the enterprise of Europeans and of North Amer- ican explorers. Along the great river courses our knowledge is fairly satisfactory, but the immense areas, often densely clad with forests, lying between the rivers are almost unknown. In Pata- gonia, though a good deal has recently been done by the Argen- tine government, still in the country between Punta Arenas and the Rio Negro we have much to learn, while on the West Coast range, with its innumerable fjord-like inlets, its islands and peninsulas, there is a fine field for the geologist and physical geographer. Indeed, throughout the whole range of the Andes systematic exploration is wanted, exploration of the character of the excellent work accomplished by Whymper in the region around Chimborazo. There is an enormous area lying to the east of the northern Andes and including their eastern slopes, embracing the eastern half of Ecuador and Colombia, southern Venezuela, and much of the country lying between that and northern Bolivia, includ- ing many of the upper tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco, of which our knowledge is of the scantiest. Even the country lying between the Rio Negro and the Atlantic is but little known. There are other great areas in Brazil and in the northern Chaco which have only been partially described, such as the region whence the streams forming the Tapajos and the Paraguay take their rise, in Mato Grosso. A survey and detailed geographical and topographical description of the whole basin of Lake Titi- caca is a desideratum. In short, in South America there is a wider and richer field for exploration than in any other continent. But no mere rush through these little-known regions will suffice. The explorer 262 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE must be able not only to use his sextant and his theodolite, his compass, and his chronometer. Any expeditions entering these regions ought to be able to bring back satisfactory information on the geology of the country traversed, and of its fauna and flora, past and present. Already the revelations which have been made of the past geography of South America and of the life that flourished there in former epochs are of the highest interest. Moreover, we have here the remains of extinct civilizations to deal with, and although much has been done in this direction, much remains to be done, and in the extensive region already referred to the physique, the traditions, and the customs of the natives will repay careful investigation. AUSTRALIA The southern continent of Australia is in the hands of men of the same origin as those who have developed to such a wonder- ful extent the resources of Canada and the United States, and therefore we look for equally satisfactory results so far as the characteristics of that continent permit. The five colonies which divide among them the three million square miles of the conti- nent have each of them efficient government surveys, which are rapidly mapping their features and investigating their geology ; but Australia has a trying economic problem to solve. In none of the colonies is the water supply quite adequate; in all are stretches of desert country of greater or less extent. The center and western half of the continent are covered by a desert more waterless and more repellent than even the Sahara; so far as our present knowledge goes, one-third of the continent is uninhabit- able. This desert area has been crossed by explorers, at the.ex- pense of great sufferings, in various directions, each with the same dreary tale of almost featureless sandy desert, covered here and there with spinifex and scrub, worse than useless. There are hundreds of thousands of square miles still unknown, but there is no reason to believe that these areas possess any features that differ essentially from those which have been found along the routes that have been explored. There have been one or two well-equipped scientific expedi- tions in recent years that have collected valuable data with re- gard to the physical characteristics, the geology and biology of the continent; and it is in this direction that geography should ook for the richest results in the future. There remains much to be done before we can arrive at satisfactory conclusions as to THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE 263 the physical history of what is in some respects the most remark- able land area on the globe. Though the surface water supply is so scanty, there is reason to believe that underneath the sur- face there is an immense store of water. In one or two places in Australia, especially in western Queensland and in New South Wales, this supply has been tapped with satisfactory results: millions of gallons a day have been obtained by sinking ee Whether irrigation can ever be introduced on an extensive scale into Australia depends upon the extent and accessibility of the underground water supply, and that is one of the geographical problems of the future in Australia. New Zealand has been fairly well surveyed, though a good deal remains to be done before its magnificent mountain and glacier system is completely known. In the great island of New Guinea both the British and the Ger- mans are opening up the interiors of their territories to our know!- edge, but the western and much larger portion of the island pre- sents a large field for any explorer who cares to venture into its interior. POLAR EXPLORATION The marvelous success which has attended Dr Nansen’s daring adventure into the Arctic seas has revived a widespread interest in polar exploration. Nansen may be said to have almost solved the North Pole problem—so far, at least, as the Old World side of the Pole is concerned. That some one will reach the Pole at no distant date is certain; Nansen has shown the way, and the legitimate curiosity of humanity will not rest satisfied till the goal be reached. But Arctic exploration does not end with the attainment: of the Pole. Europe has done her share on her own side of the Pole; what about the side which forms the hinter- land of North America, and especially of Canada? To the north” of Europe and Asia we have the scattered groups of islands, Spits- bergen, Franz Josef Land, Nova Zembla, and the New Siberian islands. To the north of America we have an immense archi- pelago, the actual extent of which is unknown. Nansen and other Arctic authorities maintain that the next thing to be done is to complete exploration on the American side—to attempt to do for that half of the North Polar region what Nansen has done for the other half. It may be that the islands which fringe the northern shores of the new world are continued far to the north ; if so, they would form convenient stages for the work of a well- equipped expedition. It may be that they do not go much far- 264 THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE ther than we find them on our maps. Whatever be the case, it is important, in the interests of science, that this section of the polar area be examined; that as high a latitude as possible be attained; that soundings be made to discover whether the deep ocean extends all round the Pole. It is stated that the gallant Lieutenant Peary has organized a scheme of exploring this area which would take several years to accomplish. Let us hope that he will be able to carry out his scheme. Meantime, should Canada look on with indifference ? She has attained the standing of a great and prosperous nation. She has shown the most commendable zeal in the exploration of her own immense territory. She has her educational, scien- tific, and literary institutions which will compare favorably with those of other countries; her press is of a high order, and she has made the beginnings of a literature and an art of her own. In these respects she is walking in the steps of the mother coun- try. But has Canada not reached a stage when she is in a posi- tion to follow the maternal example still further? What has more contributed to render the name of Great Britain illustrious than those enterprises which for centuries she has sent out from her own shores, not a few of them solely in the interests of sci- ence? Such enterprises elevate a nation and form its glory and its pride. Surely Canada has ambitions beyond mere material prosperity ; and what better beginning could be made than the equipment of an expedition for the exploration of the seas that lie between her and the Pole? I venture to throw out these suggestions for the consideration of those who have at heart the honor and glory of the great Canadian Dominion. THE ANTARCTIC REGIONS Not only has an interest in Arctic exploration been revived, but in Europe at least an even greater interest has grown up in the exploration of the region around the opposite Pole of the earth of which our knowledge is so scanty. Since Sir James C. Ross’ expedition, which was sent out in the year 1839, almost nothing has been done for Antarctic research. We have here to deal with conditions different from those which surround the North Pole. Instead of an almost landless ocean, it is believed by those who have given special attention to the subject that a continent about the size of Australia covers the South Polar re- gion. But we do not know for certain, and surely, in the interests of our science, it is time we had a fairly adequate idea of what THE UNMAPPED AREAS ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE 265 are the real conditions. We want to know what is the extent of that land, what are its glacial conditions, what is the character of its geology, what evidence exists as to its physical and bio- logical conditions in past ages? We know there is one lofty, active voleano. Are there any others? Moreover, the science of terrestrial magnetism is seriously impeded in its progress because the data in this department from the Antarctic are so scanty. The seas around this continent require to be investi- gated both as to their depth, their temperature, and their life. We have here, in short, the most extensive unexplored area on the surface of the globe. - For the last three or four years the Royal Geographical Society, backed by other British societies, has been attempting to move the home government to equip an adequate expedition to com- plete the work begun by Ross sixty years ago, and to supplement the great work of the Challenger ; but though sympathy has been expressed for Antarctic exploration, and though vague promises have been given of support, the government is afraid to enter upon an enterprise which might involve the services of a few naval officers and men. We need not criticise this attitude ; but the Royal Geographical Society has determined not to let the matter rest here. It is now seeking to obtain the support of pub- lic-spirited men for an Antarctic expedition under its own au- spices. It is felt that Antarctic exploration is peculiarly the work of England, and that if an expedition is undertaken it will receive substantial support from the great Australasian colonies, which have so much to gain from a knowledge of the physical condition of a region lying at their own doors and probably hav- ing a serious influence on their climatological conditions. Here, then, is one of the greatest geographical problems of the future, the solution of which should be entered upon without further delay. It may be mentioned that a small and well-equipped Belgian expedition has already started, mainly to carry out deep- sea search around the South Pole area, and that strenuous eflorts are being made in Germany to obtain the funds for an expedition on a much larger scale. OCEANOGRAPHY But our science has to‘deal not only with the lands of the globe; its sphere is the whole of the surface of the earth and all that is thereon, so far at least as distribution is concerned. The department of oceanography is a comparatively new creation ; in- 18 266 THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION deed, it may be said to have come definitely into being with the famous voyage of the Challenger. There had been expeditions for ocean investigation before that, but on a very limited scale. It has only been through the results obtained by the Challenger, supplemented by those of expeditions that have examined more limited areas, that we have been able to obtain an approximate conception of the conditions which prevail throughout the va- rious ocean depths—conditions of movement, of temperature, of salinity, of life. We have only a general idea of the contours of the ocean bed, and of the composition of the sediment which covers that bed. The extent of the knowledge thus acquired may be gauged from the fact that it occupies a considerable space in the fifty quarto volumes—the Challenger publications—which it took Dr John Murray twenty years to bring out. What islands are to the ocean, lakes are to the land. Itis only recently that these interesting geographical features have received the attention they deserve. Rivers are of not less geographical interest than lakes, and these have also recently been the subject of special investigation by physical geographers. I have already referred to Professor Davis’ study of a special English river system. The work in the En- glish lake district by Mr Marr, spoken of in connection with Dr Mill’s investigations, was mainly on the hydrology of the region. Both in Germany and in Russia special attention is being given to this subject, while in America there is an enormous literature on the Mississippi alone, mainly, no doubt, from the practical standpoint, while the result of much valuable work on the St Lawrence is buried in Canadian official publications. THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION By G. W. LirTLEHALEs, U. S. Hydrographic Office Transoceanic navigation, with all that it has been to the com- merce of the world and the development of the civilization of the nineteenth century, rests upon the magnetic needle of the mari- ner’s compass. None but those who may estimate the effect of the sudden loss of the earth’s magnetism will ever fully know the extent of the influence of the compass in human affairs. THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION 267 Throughout the history of ocean navigation it has remained pre- eminent among nautical instruments; and today, by the side of the chronometer and sextant, it is scarcely less important than it was when it constituted the navigator’s sole equipme nt. The later instruments have contributed to precision in the use of the compass and to precise navigation in general, but they have in no sense supplanted it or greatly affected the degree of its funda- mental importance. Up to the era of iron ships the management of the mariner’s compass was as simple as the surveyor’s, being influenced by the earth’s magnetism alone; but with the growth of the application of steam propulsion to modern ships and the employment of iron and steel in their construction it was found that every ship her- self becomes a great magnet like the earth is, although of lesser intensity. It has long been known that the earth acts upon the magnetic needle somewhat as a bar magnet does, and that it has definite poles of magnetic strength and a magnetic field surrounding it which may be represented in general by lines of magnetic in- tensity issuing from one pole and proceeding to the other by eurved paths to which a freely suspended magnetic needle will everywhere set itself tangent. For more than a century it has been customary among geomagneticians to represent the elements of the direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetism as mani- fested at its surface by lines conceived to be drawn upon the surface of the globe. The lines passing through all places where the angle between the plane of the astronomical meridian and tthe vertical plane passing through a freely suspended magnetic needle is the same are called lines of equal magnetic declination or, among mariners and surveyors, lines of equal variation of the compass. These lines issue from one magnetic pole and pass by curved paths to the other and through the geographical poles of the earth. The lines which are conceived to be drawn through all places where the angle between the direction of a freely sus- pended needle and the plane of the horizon is the same are called lines of equal magnetic inclination or dip. They gird the earth in circumferences parallel to the magnetic equator, somewhat the same as the parallels of latitude with reference to the geo- graphical equator. The ‘magnetic equator is the line px: assing through every point at which the freely suspe snded needle lies in a horizontal plane. As we travel from the magnetic equator to- ward the northern magnetic pole the needle inclines more and 268 THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION more, the north end tending dow nwards until the pole is reached, when the needle assumes a vertical direction. As we travel toward the southern magnetic pole the same takes place with the south end of the needle. Similar results may be obtained by carrying a small needle through the magnetic field ofa. bar-magnet. At the neutral band it will be parallel to the bar, while, as either end is approached, the dip toward the Pole becomes more and more; and as with the bar-magnet, which has a magnetic field that varies in inten- sity from point to point, so with the earth, whose magnetic field is powerful near the Poles and steadily moderates in strength as the magnetic equator is approached. There is thus a third set of lines passing through all points where the magnetic intensity is the same. These are known as isodynamic lines or lines of equal magnetic intensity. In general contour they follow the lines of equal inclination or dip. These different systems of lines representing the magnetic ele- ments have not on the earth that symmetry and regularity which they would present around a steel bar; but, on the contrary, they often pursue serpentine courses with many a bend and loop; and since the values of the magnetic elements are not fixed either as to time or locality, they shift their positions hourly, daily, monthly, yearly, and through centuries. These changes are all believed to be periodic and, with the exception of the secular change, are of such small amplitude that they do not affect the use of the compass on the seas where commerce is carried on. So that for purposes of navigation, the terrestrial magnetic lines may be drawn so as to hold good for several years from a given epoch. ; A freely suspended magnetic needle dipping, as it does, every- ~ where except on the magnetic equator, is of no value to guide a ship. The compass needle must be horizontal. This condition is attained in practice by putting a small sliding counterpoise on the needle to overcome the downward pull of the earth’s mag- netism, or by floating the compass-card in a mixture of water and alcohol. It is, therefore, only the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism that gives steadiness to the needle of the compass and influences its direction. If a wooden ship, with no metal other than the copper in her frame, were to sail around the world, her compass would experi- ence only those magnetic phases that result from the influence of the earth’s magnetism—more or less steadiness, according to THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION ong the varying amount of the horizontal component of the intensity of the terrestrial magnetic field, and a variation of the compass of larger or smaller amount according to geographical position — the ship herself would exert no influence whatever. Sut, in modern navigation, instead of guiding a vessel having no mag- _ netic influence whatever over the globe—a great magnet whose magnetic elements are known—the mariner’s compass is em- ployed in guiding a steel vessel, which is a great magnet, whose magnetic elements are ever varying and capricious, over the globe, a greater magnet. Ifa bar-magnet be brought into a horizontal position under a compass-needle that has assumed a steady position under the influence of the earth’s magnetism, the compass-needle will im- mediately move and assume a position which is the resultant of the joint action of the earth and the bar-magnet; and with every change in the azimuth or inclination of the bar-magnet the com- pass-needle will assume a new resultant position. This is anal- ogous to the joint action of the magnetism of the earth and the iron ship on the mariner’s compass, only the influence of the ship is vastly complicated by the existence, along with her per- manent magnetic elements, of the ever-varying magnetic effects resulting from the inductive action upon the “soft” iron of the ship, of the fields of the earth’s magnetism, and the ship’s per- manent magnetism. If a cylinder of pure wrought iron that has not been hammered and is entirely free from magnetism be held vertically in our latitude the upper end instantly becomes a south and the lower a north pole. If it be reversed, the magnetism also reverses, so that the upper and lower ends are still as they were before—a south anda north pole, respectively. When itis held horizontally in the meridian the end toward the north becomes a north pole, while that toward the south becomes a south pole; and when it is revolved slowly or rapidly in azimuth, the foci of magnetic polarity move with the fidelity of a shadow, until when the cyl- inder points east and west, all the side facing the north is per- vaded by north magnetism, and all facing the south by south magnetism. Again, let us conceive the hull of a ship to be like the cylinder of pure wrought-iron and as susceptible of mag- netic induction in being steered over its ever-changing courses as the cylinder is when turned into different positions. ‘Then, as the ship steers north, in the northern magnetic hemisphere, the bow will become the center of north polarity and the stern 270 THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION that of south polarity. As she gradually changes course to the eastward, so will the north focus shift to the port bow, the south focus to the starboard quarter, and the neutral line dividing them, which while the ship headed north was athwartship, will now become a diagonal from starboard bow to port quarter. When the ship heads east all the starboard side is pervaded with south polarity, the port with north, and the neutral line takes a gen- eral fore-and-aft direction. Continuing to change course to the southward, the poles and neutral line continue their motion in the opposite direction, until at the south the conditions at north are repeated, but this time it is the stern that is a north pole, while the bow is a south pole. At west the conditions at east prevail, only that it is now the starboard side that has north polarity and the port side south polarity. And this transient induction in both the cylinder and the ideal ship is solely due to the effect of the earth’s magnetic field in which they move. Leaving now the ideal or “soft” iron ship and passing to the consideration of the actual ship, which is built of many beams and frames that have been bent, hammered, and twisted in fash- ioning them for the construction, we find that the structure, al- _ though still containing many “soft” iron pieces that become mag- nets when lying in the magnetic meridian and lose their magnetic qualities when turned at right angles to that plane, has acquired characteristics that make it as permanent. and well defined a magnet as the steel bar, with poles and neutral line as in the bar, but located according to the direction, with reference to the magnetic meridian, in which the ship’s keel lay during the course of her construction. An iron ship, with her frames, plating, decks, beams, stanch- ions, shafts, engines, smoke-pipes, yards, and masts, is not a sim- ple magnet like a steel bar, but a network of magnets having the characteristics of a simple magnet growing out of many and di- verse and reactionary influences within the hull. However complex the network of magnets may be, yet, for purposes of analytical investigation to reach results to enable the mariner to allow for the influence of the ship’s magnetism upon the compass, its effect may be considered as taking place in three coordinate axes, namely, fore-and-aft, athwartship, and vertically downward, with the pivot of the compass needle as the origin- Almost al] the structural iron of a ship is symmetrically ar- ranged with reference to the vertical plane through the keel, so that for any piece on the starboard side another is generally > a ee rae 1) aS eel THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION 97 found similarly disposed on the port side: and the problem is simplified to pairs of parallel forces, each pair h ant parallel to one of the ciordinate axes. The effect of every magnetic particle, whether of permanent or induced magnetism. may be reduced to this condition. If the sum total of all the magnetic forces parallel to each ciordinate axis be transferred to it, and the whole be conceived to be concentrated upon the north point of the compass-needle, the entire magnetic power of the ship may be compared to that of three imaginary com- pound-magnets—one laid horizontally in the axis of X; the second, also horizontally, in the axis of Y, and the third, verti- cally, in the axis of Z. By steaming around a circle in the open sea and observing the compass bearing of the sun with the ship’s head on equidistant compass courses, and also, at the same _ times, the astronomical bearings of the sun, the magnetic effect of the ship—that is, of the three imaginary compound-magnets in the axes of X, Y, and Z—which causes the needle to deflect from the magnetic meridian by different angles at the different headings, can be immediately found, if the variation of the com- pass due to the geographical locality is known. As the ship makes a complete circle in azimuth, the north end of the needle is drawn sometimes to the right hand of the magnetic meridian and sometimes to the left hand; in the former case the deflec- tion is called east deviation and in the latter west deviation. A table of these deflections, serially arranged, is called a table of deviations of the compass. The harmonic analysis of such a table of deviations consists in representing each of the element- ary magnets, whose effects contribute to make up the imaginary compound-magnets, as a separate disturbing cause whose effect upon the compass needle may be represented by a constant multiplied by a simple harmonic function of the compass-azi- muth of the ship’s head. Adding together the effects of the different disturbing causes, thus represented, and placing them equal to the deviation observed on a certain heading of the ship, a conditional equation may be formed for each of the headings upon which the deviation was observed. From such a series of conditional equations normal equations may be found by the method of least squares, and from them the harmonic constants which represent the elementary disturb- ing magnets. hus it is that from the effect an intelligent com- prehension of the cause may be gained. With these coefficients a navigator may compute beforehand aving its result- 72 THE COMPASS IN MODERN NAVIGATION bo the value of the deviation to which his compass will be subject on any heading of the ship; but in making long cruises and passing into different magnetic latitudes they require unceasing attention, because some of them represent the effects of the in- duction of the earth’s magnetic field upon the “ soft ” iron of the ship, and as the ship sails the ocean she passes through ever- varying fields of terrestrial magnetism. Her own magnetism is also undergoing continual, though small, changes due to the wrenching and straining of the ship by the action of the sea. Yet, by examining thoroughly into the harmonic coefficients and by considering the known values of the elements of the earth’s magnetism, a careful navigator may predict a table of deviations for his ship and compass in any part of the world. He will then understand and be prepared for such changes in the ship’s magnetism as arise from the heeling of the ship, from change in geographical position, and from alteration in the course after the ship has remained for a long time on one heading, and he may navigate his vessel with the confidence and security that he would have in a wooden ship, for he can at any time correct - the course steered by the compass so that the magnetic course actually made good may be laid down upon the chart or used in the calculation of the ship’s reckoning, he can correct bearings of the land by the amount of deviation due to the direction of the ship’s head at the time they were taken, and if he wishes to shape a course for a port, having found by calculation or from the chart the correct magnetic course to be made good, he can so apply the deviation as to obtain the compass course to be steered. In many modern ships the deviations are largely reduced by introducing magnets into positions near the compass to compen- sate for the effects of the ship’s magnetism. The analysis of the table of deviations shows that the polar forces acting in the ship may be represented by imaginary magnets, and it is, therefore, certain from well known laws of magnetic action that the effects of these disturbing forces may be neutralized by introducing real magnets whose forces have the same magnitudes but act in the opposite directions. The proceedings of the British Association at Toronto were admirably reported by the local press, the daily reports of the Globe, together with a finely illustrated supplement, aggregating nearly 150 columns, or the equivalent of an octavo volume of . 900 pages of long primer. “A GOOD MONTH —AND THE LAST ONE THIS YEAR— IN WHICH /ELLOWSTONE <> PARK. Ke On aa for the NORTHERN PACIFIC'S WONDERLAND ’97, By F. W. HODGE, — BuREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ; i Down the Volga, from Nini Novgorod to By PROF. FREDERIC W. TAYLOR, ine 3 . i ; 7. 1C nal eovcrapl 0 aAphic £ Z te | : ; i ¢ : pee Magazine ie AN ILLUSTRATE ay ; mA . r ; r, Editor: JOHN HYDE ‘ Associate Editors ; ‘W J McGEE HENRY GANNETT c. HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE os CONTENTS ‘ 7 yh ee \ PAGE YTED MESA. With map and illustrations. F. W. HODGE. 273 ‘ STREET RAILWAYS. 284 f CAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED. STATES. ’ GARDINER G. HUBBARD AND MARCUS BAKBR. 285 } GRAPHIC WORK OF THE U S. COAST AND GHODETIC 4 +f. C. MENDENHALL AND OTTO H TITTMANN. 294 | ES DAILY ATMOSPHERIC SURVEY. BSN, WILLIS L. MOORB. 299 — | : Pears, ! 304 Ay 4 WASHINGTON - PupuasieD BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Agents in the Unirep Srares anv Canada / AMERICAN News Company, 39 And 41 CHAMBERS OTREES, New York | , Paris:. Beenranos, 37 Avexve De 1'Orena ; 9 ae ¢ “ . “ ‘ 7 y d 25 Cents $2.50 a Year . Bae Post-oflicé in Wastington, D.C., as see snd-class Mail Matter ; “a ; > ee Reese “Yeetin a Dia. “-MAROUS BAKER ne a Sew Tenaga i WILLIAM H. DALL G. K. GILBERT: RECORDING SnomeraRy it EVERETT HAYDEN i SCE BLOUNG Ca A Oe RUAN) COM LLIB i = 6 Cea ee can am DAVID DODAM we A eee inn, The National alae Society, the et of which is the ince of soompi knowledge, has eae memb ate of 1,400. Its Ch eine) as ‘sespectfully solicited VOL. VIIl, 1897, PL. 32 NAT. GEOG. MAG. THE ENCHANTED MESA— THE GREAT SOUTHWESTERN CLEFT AND TALUS HEAP THE National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII OCTOBER, 1897 No. 10 THE ENCHANTED MESA By F. W. Hoper, Bureau of American Ethnology _ The pueblo of Acoma, in western central New Mexico, is the oldest settlement within the limits of our domain. Many of the walls that still stand on that beetling pefiol were seen by Coro- nado during his marvelous journey in 1540, and even then they were centuries old. The valley of Acoma has been described as “ the Garden of the Gods multiplied by ten, and with ten equal but other won- ders thrown in; plus a human interest, an archeological value, an atmosphere of romance and mystery ;” and the comparison has not been overdrawn. Stretching away for miles lies a beau- tiful level plain clothed in grama and bound on every side by mesas of variegated sandstone rising precipitously from 300 to 400 feet, and relieved by minarets and pinnacles and domes and many other features of nature’s architecture. About their bases miniature forests of pifion and cedar are found, pruned of their dead limbs by native wood-gatherers. Northwestward, Mount Taylor, the loftiest peak in New Mexico, rears its verdant head, and 20 miles away to the westward the great frowning pine- fringed Mesa Prieta, with the beautiful vale of Cebollita at its feet, forms a fitting foreground to every dying sun. But none of these great rock-tables is so precipitous, so awe- inspiring,.and seemingly so out of place as the majestic isolated Katzimo or Enchanted Mesa, which rises 430 feet from the middle of the plain as if too proud to keep company with its fellows; and this was one of the many wonderful homesites of the 19 274 THE ENCHANTED MESA Acomas during their wanderings from the mystic Shipipu in the far north to their present lofty dwelling place. Native tradition, as distinguished from myth, when uninflu- enced by Caucasian contact, may usually be relied on even to the extent of disproving or verifying that which purports to be historical testimony. The Acoma Indians have handed down from shaman to novitiate, from father to son, in true prescrip- torial fashion for many generations, the story that Katzimo was once the home of their ancestors, but during a great convulsion of nature, at a time when most of the inhabitants were at work in their fields below, an immense rocky mass became freed from the friable wall of the cliff, destroying the only trail to the sum- mit and leaving a few old women to perish on the inaccessible height. What more, then, could be necessary to enwrap the place forever after in the mystery, of enchantment? This tradition was recorded in its native purity some twelve years ago by Mr Charles F. Lummis, who has done so much to stimulate popular interest in this most interesting corner of our country, and the same story was repeated by Acoma lips to the present writer while conducting a reconnaissance of the pueblos in the autumn of 1895. During this visit, desiring to test the verity of the tradition, a trip was made to the base of Katzimo, where a careful examination of the talus (especially where it is piled high about the foot of the great southwestern cleft (Pl. 32, 33) up which the ancient pathway was reputed to have wound its course) was rewarded by the finding of numerous fragments of pottery of very ancient type, some of which were decorated in a vitreous glaze, an art now lost to Pueblo potters. The talus at this point rises to a height of 224 feet above the plain, and there- fore slightly more than half-way up the mesa side. It is com- posed largely of earth, which could have been deposited there in no other way whatsoever than by washing from the summit during periods of storm through many centuries. An examina- tion of the trail to a point within 60 feet of the top exhibited traces of what were evidently the hand and foot holes that had once aided in the ascent of the ancient trail, as at Acoma today. Even then the indications of the former occupancy of the En- chanted Mesa were regarded as sufficient and that another one of many native traditions had been verified by archeologic proof. Enchanted Mesa has become celebrated during the last sum- mer through the reports of the expedition of Prof. William Libbey, of Princeton, who, after several days of effort, succeeded in scal- NAT. GEOG. MAG. THE GREAT SANDSTONE CLEFT OF THE MESA Through this cleft the traditional trail passed, and distinct traces of it are t on each side of the vertical fissure to the right of the upper | ee —— THE ENCHANTED MESA 275 ing the height, in the latter part of July, by means of a life-say- ing equipment. It would seem that Professor Libbey neglected to search for relics in the talus, that he devoted no attention to the great southwestern cleft or cove up which the trail was reputed to have passed, and that after spending some three hours on the narrow southern extension of the mesa top, awaiting the arrival of a ladder from Acoma to conduct him across a fissure, he employed the remaining two hours in a reconnaissance of the wider and more interesting part of the height, finding noth- ing that would indicate even a former visit by human beings.* ‘While engaged in archeologic work in Arizona and later in Cebollita valley in western central New Mexico, some 20 miles westward from Acoma pueblo, I was directed to visit Katzimo once more in order to determine what additional data of an arche- ological nature might be gathered by an examination of the summit. The knowledge gained by the previous visit made it apparent that a light equipment only would be necessary to ac- complish the task. Procuring an extension ladder, comprising six 6-foot sections, some 300 feet of half-inch rope, and a pole- pick, together with a number of bolts, drills, ete., which after- ward were found to be needless, I proceeded to Laguna, the newest, yet the most rapidly decaying, of all the pueblos, on the Santa Fé Pacific railroad. Here I was fortunate in enlisting the services of Major George H. Pradt, who has served as a United States deputy surveyor in that section for nearly 30 years; Mr A. C. Vroman, of Pasadena, California, a few of whose excellent photographs are here reproduced, and Mr H.C. Hayt, of Chicago. Much of the success of the little expedition is due to the untiring aid of these gentlemen, and for many creature comforts I am indebted to the Messrs Marmon, whose beautiful little home at Laguna has delighted the heart of many a weary waytfarer in that sunny land. Leaving the railroad September 1, we proceeded with two farm wagons, each drawn by a very small black mule and a large white horse, driven by two sturdy Laguna boys. The road trends westward for about seven miles, then turns southward through a rather wide valley scarred with arroyas and lined with * Had the explorer crossed to the northern part of the mesa by means of a bench a few feet below the summit of the rocky southern tongue, it would not have been neces- sary for him to spend most of his time so fruitlessly in awaiting the arrival of means to cross the fissure. The ladder was found as Professor Libbey had left it, but was taken down by one of the Indians, who followed the bench mentioned, in order to secure the rope for his own use. The ladder is the short one shown in PI. 33, the photograph having been made during the descent. 276 THE ENCHANTED MESA fantastically carved sandstone cliffs. The summit of Mesa En- cantada is visible for several miles ere the vale of Acoma is reached, and as one enters the valley proper he cannot fail to appreciate the wisdom displayed by the natives in the selection of the beautiful, grassy, mesa-dotted plain that has been their home for so many generations. The next day was spent in the village witnessing that curious anomaly of paganism intermixed with christianity, known as the Fiesta de San Estevan. On the morning of the 3d an early start was made for Mesa Encantada, which lies three miles northeast- ward from the pueblo, just within the eastern boundary of the Acoma grant, in latitude 34° 54’ N., longitude 107° 34’ W. The remainder of the forenoon was employed in making camp in the little grove of cedars at the base of the cleft near the south- western corner of the height, in unpacking apparatus, and in de- termining the altitude of the mesa above the western plain. The observations of Major Pradt show that the elevation of the foot of the great talus slope above the plain is at this point 33 feet, the apex of the talus 224 feet above the plain, and the top of the highest pinnacle on the summit of the mesa overlooking the cleft 431 feet* above the same datum. (PI. 32.) The start from camp was madeatnoon. The ascent of the talus, in which the potsherds had been observed in such considerable quantities two years previously, was made in a few minutes, the ladders, ropes, and photographic and surveying instruments being carried with some effort, since climbing, heavily laden, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, in a broiling sun, is no trifling labor; but the real work began when the beginning of the rocky slope of the cleft was reached. One member of the party, taking the lead, dragged the end of arope to a convenient landing place, where a dwarf pifion finds sufficient nourishment from the storm-water and sand from above to eke out a precarious existence. Fastening the rope to the tree, the outfit was hauled up, and the other ~ members of the party found a ready means of ascent. The next landing was several feet above, at the base of a rather steep pitch of about twelve feet. This wall, although somewhat difficult to scale, may be climbed with greater or less safety by the aid of several small holes in its face. These holes were doubtless made artificially, but as the narrow pathway at this point is now a drain- *These elevations were determined trigonometrically by means of an engineers’ transit, using a base-line of 660 feet measured opposite the cleft, the observations from the northern end of the line giving 430 feet and from the southern end 432 feet; mean, 431 feet. 5 Ot THE ENCHANTED MESA 277 age course during periods of storm, the soft sandstone has become so much eroded that they have apparently lost their former shape. The cliff at this point was readily surmounted with the aid of two sections of the ladder, a rope being carried over the slope above and secured to a large bowlder in the corner of a conve- nient terrace some 60 feet below the summit. This was the point which I reached during the 1895 visit. At that time I spent several minutes on this ledge, making diligent FIG. I—ENCHANTED MESA FROM THE SOUTH search on the walls of the cove for evidences of pictographs, but finding none. This does not signify that none ever existed, for both here and elsewhere about the cliffs great blocks of stone have fallen away so recently that their edges have not yet had time to round by erosion, and the now exposed faces of their former abiding places on the cliff wall are yet unstained by weathering. (See Fig. 1.) 278 THE ENCHANTED MESA The bowlder previously alluded to rests in a corner of the ter- race below a long crack that extends the entire height of the 30 feet of wall (Pl. 33), just as it had appeared to me before, and I well remember viewing the chasm while seated on it. I note these circumstances, since one of the first things that met my gaze on reaching this point during our late climb was a collection of four oak sticks, lying beside the bowlder, that I am sure were not there during my previous climb. They were about 2} feet in length, an inch thick, and had been freshly pointed at each end with a sharp tool, evidently a hatchet. Their occurrence here suggested a careful investigation of the fissure above, which re- sulted in the finding of a regular series of pecked holes, appar- ently very ancient, for their edges had been so eroded that they are now visible only on close examination. So shallow, indeed, had the holes been worn that Lat once saw that while the pointed sticks afforded an indication of the former use of the holes, it would have been impossible for the latter to have been employed as a means of scaling the wall in modern times. I therefore con- cluded that the sticks had recently been left there by one who desired to gain access to the summit, but had failed in the at- tempt. This conclusion was confirmed immediately afterward when I found, almost beneath the bowlder, a sherd of typical modern Acoma pottery and an unfeathered prayer-stick, and a few moments later Mr Hayt dug from the moist sand in the corner other fragments of the same vessel, evidently the remains of asacrifice, which, had it been accessible, would doubtless have been deposited on thesummit. It should here be said that the difference in ancient and modern Acoma ceramics is far greater than between modern Acoma and Zufi ware, for example, and it requires no very intimate acquaintance to enable anybody to readily distinguish the one variety from the other in the latter types. rath ae After making this interesting find we proceeded to fit together the entire ladder in order to scale the 30 feet of sheer wall now before us. Selecting the middle of the eastern face of the cove as the most convenient and least hazardous point of ascent, the ladder was adjusted and carefully raised, section by section, until it reached the lower part of the sloping terrace above. Two holes were then pecked in the soft sandstone floor to prevent the now almost vertical ladder from slipping forward down the chasm. Again a member of the party went forward, drawing with him a rope fastened about the waist, the remaining three Iooy A901 BY} S19a0d Ajaivq [IOS sdvjAns JO WY ay, ‘“eo1droaid ayy 1aA0 poyseM usaq Smavy YJiva ay} ‘Y9O1 91vq 9y} UO Mees aq ABU SIBpad Pvap [P1dAIS PUL ‘d|qIUAI0SIp A]IPBaI SI JSaM puB jsva adojs ayy, HLNOS DNIMOO SLINWAS S3HL 4O LYVd ISALLV14d SHL $8 “Id ‘L681 ‘IIIA “10A ‘OVW ‘904d “LVN THE ENCHANTED MESA 279 (the Indians stayed below) holding the ladder as rigidly as pos- sible; yet it swayed and creaked and bent like a reed until the top was reached, and it required no little care to step from an upper rung to the dizzy sloping ledge without forcing the ladder from its insecure bearing. The shelf was gained in safety, how- ever ; the rope was tied to a rung and made fast around a large block of stone on the terrace to the left. The others ascended, one by one, each with the rope tied around his chest and drawn about the rock by the leader as a measure of precaution. Then the equipage, wrapped in blankets, was fastened to the end of a rope thrown to the two Indians below and drawn up, piece by piece. The remainder of the ascent was made without difficulty. The time consumed by the entire climb was somewhat over two hours. If the view from the valley at Acoma is beautiful, that from the summit of Katzimo is sublime. Mesa Prieta was sullen still, and the pink mesas, haughty in their grandeur from the plain, now seemed to realize their insignificance in the hght of the glories beyond. Placid little pools, born of the storm the day before, lay glinting like diamonds on an emerald field, while old Mount Taylor tried in vain to lift his lofty head above the clouds that festooned the northern horizon. The summit of Encantada has been swept and carved and swept again by the winds and rains of centuries since the ances- tors of the simple Acomas climbed the ladder-trail of which we ' found the traces. The pinnacled floor has not always appeared as it is today, for it was once thickly mantled by the sherd-strewn soil that now forms a goodly part of the great talus heaps below. The walls of the dwellings, undoubtedly of the sun-baked mud- balls that Castafieda describes, must have been erected on this soil stratum, for the native finds in earth, when he has it, a bet- ter footing for his walls than he does on bare rock, and one may readily see that the film of soil that still remains occurs in places that would have afforded the best sites for dwellings. (PI. 34.) The day before was a day of storm; it even rained hard enough to drive an Indian from his religion, and yet not a cup- ful of water found a resting place on the entire mesa surface save in a few “ potholes” eroded in the sandstone. The water had poured over the brink in a hundred cataracts, each contributing of the summit’s substance to the detritus round about the base as in every storm for untold ages. There is little wonder, then, that I despaired of finding even ’ 280 THE ENCHANTED MESA a single relic when we had reached the top of the trail and looked about at the destruction wrought; and yet we had been on the summit only a few minutes when Major Pradt found a sherd of pottery of very ancient type, much crackled by weathering. This fragment is of plain gray ware, quite coarse in texture, with a dégraissant of white sand. Beginning at the eastern side we immediately began to explore the rim of the escarpment, in a short time encountering the rude monument which had been observed by Professor Libbey, who | ] FIG. 2—AN ARTIFICIAL MONUMENT ON THE SUMMIT expresses the opinion that it may have found its origin in ero- sion; but it seems to me, as I think it will appear to any one who will examine the accompanying illustration (Fig. 2), that only a glance is necessary to determine beyond all doubt that the pile could not have been erected save by the hand of man. The structure stands on a natural floor of sandstone at the edge of the eastern cliff, and consists of a narrow slab some 30 inches in length held erect by smaller slabs and bowlders about the base, the stratification of the upright slab being vertical, that of the supporting stones horizontal. It would have been impossible for the structure to have originated by any but artificial means. _——— THE ENCHANTED MESA 281 The reconnaissance of the eastern rim was continued north- ward and of the western edge southward, but no further evi- dences of aboriginal occupancy were observed. The sun was lowering, so that we were compelled to suspend the investigation in order to make preparation for our night’s camp. After sup- per, Mr Vroman and Mr Hayt built a huge fire, for the evening air at this altitude is very chilly. We passed the night in ques- tionable comfort and were out of our blankets at dawn. After a hasty breakfast, we immediately began a survey of the mes: * | FIG. 3—THE ENCHANTED MESA FROM THE SOUTHEAST rim, and while thus engaged were somewhat surprised to find three Acomas among us. They were scarcely friendly at first ; indeed, according to the story of our two Lagunas, who had spent the night in the camp below, they had seen our fire and had come with the avowed intention of compelling us to de- scend, even if they had to threaten to cut down our ladder. A little explanation, however, coupled with the information that we kept our coffee and sugar in a crevice beyond the camp fire, soon appeased any wrath that may have been concealed in their bosoms and induced communicativeness. These three natives were Luciano Cristoval, teniente of the 282 THE ENCHANTED MESA tribe and a medicine priest; Luis Pino and Santiago Savard, principales, After careful inquiry in regard to the tradition of the former occupancy of Katzimo, Luciano informed us that “the elders” had lived there so long ago and the storms in his country were so destructive that we could now hardly expect to find any remains on the surface of the mesa. When we told him and his companions that a potsherd had already been found, they became deeply interested and manifested no little anxiety to find other evidences of the lofty homesite of their ancestors. I think there can be no doubt that this was the first visit of any of the present Acomas to the mesa top. They evinced much curiosity in the place, and were greatly surprised when we took them to the stone monument, of which they could give no satis- factory explanation. It is needless to say that the natives did not intimate that the pile was due to natural causes. As already stated, the Indians were deeply interested in find- ing further evidence of ‘occupancy, and I encouraged them to search for relics. They had proceeded only a few yards, accom- panied by Major Pradt, when the teniente found a fragment of ancient pottery quite similar to the sherd picked up the evening before. A few moments later several more fragments were found (two of them of different kinds of indented ware), as well as a portion of a shell bracelet still bearing evidence of con- siderable wear, anda large arrowpoint. Soon after the keen-eyed Luciano discovered near the northern rim of the mesa the blade end of a white stone ax, on the edge of which several small notches had been made. The exposed side of this implement was thoroughly bleached and crackled, while the side in contact with the ground was stained and still damp when the finder handed it tome. After descending the mesa the same Indian exhibited the blade end of another ax which showed a portion of the groove and which was notched similarly to the other. He had found it on the summit, or rather on a ledge a few feet below the summit. Both Mr Hayt and myself tried to purchase it, but the Indian refused to part with the specimen, as he was a medicine priest and desired to keep it for ceremonial use. Like the other imple- ment, this ax was thoroughly bleached on one side by weather- ing, the unexposed side being stained through contact with the lichen-covered ground. : We descended the mesa about noon of the second day (Sep- tember 4), having spent about 20 hours on the summit. During this time I employed every opportunity in making a critical THE ENCHANTED MESA 283 Zi DVN \ a ANH AN ATA NS DNATA a T=" a ee Fe s| ENCHANTED MESA ; FS | NEW MEXICO Surveyed in 1897 BY GEORGE H.PRADT Scale 200 J SS — FIG. 4—MAP OF THE MESA SUMMIT a ee ey a a ee / 254 THE ENCHANTED MESA study of the general features of the top of Katzimo throughout the 2,500 feet of its length (see Fig. 4), devoting special consid- eration to the topography of the site, the erosion, the earthy de- posits, the drainage, and the great cedars that stand gaunt and bare or lie prone and decaying because their means of subsistence have been so long washed away, and I was forced to the conclu- sion that had house-walls, whether of stone or adobe, ever existed on the summit at a reasonably remote period, there is no possi- bility that any trace of them could have remained to this day. The abundance of ancient relics in the talus, the distinct remains of the ladder-trail, the specimens found on the summit coupled with the destruction wrought by nature, the tradition itself—all testify to the former habitation of the.site. To the Acomas Katzimo is still enchanted, and as a subject in the study of mysticism the man of science must yet regard it. The lore of a millennium is not undone by a few hours of iconoclasm. ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS According to the Western Electrician, there were, on January 1, 1897, 15,250 miles of street-car track in the United States, of which 13,580 miles, or 89 per cent, were operated by electricity, 1,010 miles, or 6.6 per cent, by horses, 515 miles, or 3.4 per cent, by cable, and 145 miles, or 1 per cent, by steam dummy. The adoption of electricity as a motive power has completely revo- lutionized the methods of city and suburban transportation. Between January 1, 1888, and January 1, 1897, the number of horse cars in use decreased from 21,736 to 3,664, while the num- ber of electric cars increased from 172 to 37,097. In 1888 horse cars represented 86 per cent and electric cars seven-tenths of one per cent of the total car equipment. At the beginning of the present year 79 street cars out of every 100 were propelled by electricity and only seven out of 100 by horses. A eval ie MODIFICATION OF THE GREAT LAKES BY EARTH MOVEMENT—AN ERRATUM We regret to state that two of the figures illustrating Mr Gil- bert’s article in the September number are transposed. The narrow figure on page 240 belongs on page 241, and the square figure at the top of page 241 belongs on page 240. As the fig- ures stand, they are associated with the wrong titles. GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES* By GARDINER G. Hupparp, LL. D., President of the National Geographic Society, AND Marcus BAKER, U. S. Geological Survey The United States, now a little more than a century old, com- prises an area of 8,600,000 square miles, an area a little greater than that of Canada and a little less than that of Europe. From easternmost Maine to westernmost Alaska it stretches through 120 degrees of longitude, or about one-third of the earth’s cir- cumference. Thus, in midsummer, sunrise in eastern Maine occurs 20 minutes before sunset in westernmost Alaska. From southernmost Florida, reaching to the verge of the torrid zone, it stretches northward to northernmost Alaska, more than 300 miles within the Arctic circle, while in altitude it ranges from 200 or more feet below sea level in the deserts of southern Cali- fornia to heights of more than 18,000 feet in Alaska. Beginning with the close of the war for independence, 114 years ago, as 18 distinct and independent states stretching along the Atlantic seaboard from New Hampshire to Georgia, we have first a loose confederation of states which, speedily breaking down, was replaced by the present constitutional union of the people, bound together in 45 sovereign states and 5 territories. In 1790 the 15 states had an area of about 350,000 square miles and a population of a little less than 4,000,000. A century later its area was nearly eleven times as great and its population about seventeen times as great, or between 65 and 70 millions. Discovery of what is now the United States began just four centuries ago this very year, when the Bristol merchant Cabot, the first white man (after the Norsemen) to set foot on the Amer- ican continent, antedating Columbus by fourteen months, landed on the bleak coast of Labrador, and then cruised southward as far as Virginia. This, like all discoveries, was only a beginning, *An address before the Geographical Section of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, at Toronto, August 23, 1897. 285 286 GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES which pointed the way to and stimulated other discoveries. These are still unfinished, and within the limits of the United States some tracts still exist which have never been seen by the white man. Of other tracts, though seen and long vaguely known, our knowledge is still dim and shadowy. For a century after Cabot small advance was made in our knowledge of the continent formally taken possession of by him in the name of his sovereign lord, King Henry VII. Thé out- line of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts were crudely delineated, but of the Pacific coast north of California our maps until about 1750 were either blank or filled with fabled lands or monsters. Bering’s voyage of 1741 yielded the first definite knowledge of northwestern America, but it was not until nearly 40 years later, in 1778, that Cook, the great English navigator, gave to the world the general outlines of Alaska as we now know them. ‘The gen- eral features of the coast of western North America obtained by Cook were some 16 years later vastly improved, from southern California to Kadiak, by another English navigator, the equal if not the superior of Cook, whom every American student delights to honor, Capt. George Vancouver. . _ The period of the war for independence in the last quarter of the last century was one of great.geographic activity and stimu- lated the production of maps of the revolted colonies. The numerous and excellent, for their time, maps by the English geographer, Jefferys, may be taken as the best exponent of Amer- ican geography one hundred years ago. They show fairly well the Atlantic coast line from the maritime provinces of Canada to Georgia, and so much of the interior as was the scene of hostil- ities; but west of the Appalachian mountain chain the delinea- tion was conjectural. The existence of the Great Lakes, of the mighty Mississippi, and of the fertile valley drained by it were barely known. Such was the world’s geographic knowledge of what is now the United States when those states united in 1789. The knowledge subsequently acquired is the work of the United States, the in- dividual states, private persons, and corporations. The General Land Office.—One of the earliest agencies by which geographic knowledge was increased was the General Land Office. The general government found itself in 1783 possessed of a re- gion called the Northwest Territory, lying beyond the mountains. Into this region settlers came about the beginning of the century. That they might acquire title to land for their homes, the gov- oe wey ‘ 3 ? i ’ GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES 287 ernment early devised a system of land partition. Surveyors were sent into the wilderness to subdivide the land for purposes of record and sale or gift. The land was divided into square tracts six miles on each side, called towns or townships, and their corners marked, sometimes by ax marks on trees called blazes, and sometimes by artificial marks. ( | Shortest Line St. Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest ; ; GHICAGO | a aan aN a aN as aS / ~ ~Y ’ DS a a a ad 4 : GREAT as es a las faa ee come ial > a — ee ee Se See, ** Maple Leaf Route ’”’ RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to 7 F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. A ‘TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. Premier Cypewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. ALY SJE) lhe No) oO ES SOS OS I Ih al The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U. S, A. NAVA AAA AV AVA AAA AVA AVA DEER RRRRBARRAAAAARRRARAN > DAARDRARREDRARRDRADDARAAAAAARARARAE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 1416 F Street. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF KEEPING THE SCORE ,IN DUPLICATE WHIST, COMPASS WHIST, STRAIGHT WHIST AND EUCHRE, Since Duplicate and Com- r - pass Whist have come into Cosmos Duplicate W hist Score fashion there has been an unprecedented revival of in- terest in the game, due to the fact that mere /uck is to a large extent eliminated by : COMPasSS WHIsT a comparison of the scores made in the play of the same SE ORE OPPONENTS : DUPLICATE WHiIsT hands by different players. The one thing needed to perfect the new method has been a convenient device by means of which the score made on the first round can be concealed until after the replay of the hands, as a knowledge of the first score often enables a good player to make a decisive gain, and matches are lost aud won on just such little chances. Win oi piwin 6. A Washington player has at length invented and put upon the market at a very low price a little device which admirably answers the purpose, and at the same time serves as a pretty and useful table ornament, marker, and pencil rest. It is called the ‘‘Cosmos COUNTER,”’ and consists of a little polished wood tablet with a metal key- board that can be clamped down on the score in such a way as to bring 24 little metal plates over the 24 spaces in the ‘“‘score”’ column of the card, for use in concealing each first score as soon as recorded and until the hand is replayed (in duplicate whist) or the entire series fin- ished (in compass whist). WN Whist players will at once see the advantage of this new method of keeping the score, as it effectually prevents their op- ponents at the same or another table from taking advantage, either by accident or design, of a knowledge of what the hand is capable. The trouble with duplicate whist, especially, is that the replay is liable to be in- fluenced by memory of the cards and score, and anything that helps to confuse such recollec- tion is a great gain to fair play. ais 10 :@ The ‘‘Cosmos Score Card,” prepared for use with the counter, shows several new fea- tures, such as a heading for both Duplicate and Compass Whist and (on the reverse) for Straight Whist, Euchre, &c., thus ena- bling the same counter and score to be used for any game of cards. NO Cosmos Counters, with tablet of quartered oak, maple, or birch, and metal in either gold or silver finish, 50 cts. apiece ; 6 for $2.75; 12 for $5; by mail, 4 cts. apiece extra. Cosmos Score Cards, 25 cts. per package of 50; 12 packages for $2.50; by mail free of postage. Ask to see samples at any stationer’s, or order direct from the General Agents. E. MORRISON PAPER CO., 1009 Penna. Avenue, Washington, D. C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - L. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - ) BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N.S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - cs Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller ; THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert a Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York 7 Cincinnati : Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians ITH the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second volume. ‘The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘he geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support, Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Riicker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo. Future numbers will contain : ‘¢The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ By Dr. J. A. FLEMING. ‘‘ The Electrification of the Atmosphere,”’ By Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. ‘‘ The Height of the Aurora,’’ By Pror. CHYHEVELAND ABBE. ‘‘The Distribution of Magnetic Observatories,’’ (Illustrated), By Pror. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, etc., etc. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Nine shillings, nine marks, or eleven francs. Address : TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE WV . EOPLE like to read about the great * we oat . S AS \N \ and wonderful country of the < \ Southwest ; of its quaint and curious “ A charming book covering these \ \ i : yall a a facts is issued by the N SS towns, its ancient civilizations, its % N \ ‘ °§ | PASSENGER DEPARTMENT N . natural marvels. They like to get ac- OF THE \ $ RS SS . curate information about California 4 Southern Pacific Railway, S N we ne. z ia, N Nand the Pacific Coast. * and will be sent to any one, postpaid, NY \ This is because on receipt of TEN CENTS. \ \ most people want to some day see these 4 \ S Sc9 NX \ ing é \ . things for themselves... ......- A \ \. OO, .%, ©. ©, ©, © ©, OO. OO. OF e Fe Oe He Fe He Os sO. He 1, Oe 10 n e oe 6% he g® x \ \ POOP OM HOMO ON PMG HOU OU OAF Me Salsa? 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General Passenger Agent, % | The paper used is FINE PLATE < \ Southern Pacific, Se : N \ New Orleans, * F/APER, and every typographical de- \. \N andsending 10 cts. to defray postage. % tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ . ef ipas © \ * our people saw on just such a trip as \ N 4 N- \ “ F Ne \N * you would like to make. . |. 2 sam \ \ ° N- SN. Y tl BRE) (BE BLE FE Ly RL wy ‘ Wy wy vee “Yy 4 “4 ty “ “ % " te 4 p y y y 4 \ F s wks? 8, aa ~~ How a Donkey Found a Mine. HE history of mine discoveries in the West is full of strange and amusing incidents. Many of the most celebrated mines or _§ ledges have been found by accident. Someof these accidental dis- ) coveries are laughable in the extreme. One of them occurred in ) )) se connection with the discovery of one of the richest mines in the ’ Coeur d’Aléne country in Idaho. In this case a common donkey, or oe jackass, or ‘‘burro,’’ as one chooses to term it, was credited with the 3 finding of the mine. | ; The Northern Pacific Railway’s finely illustrated tourist book, Wonderland ’97, has a chapter on mining in the West, in which the incident alluded to is given. It shows how, from slight or trivial things, great results may flow. There are also articies on Yellowstone _¢ Park, Alaska, Cattle Raising, etc. By sending Six Cents in postage q : stamps to CHAS. S. FEE, Gen. Pass. Agent, St. Paul, Minn., any one y can obtain a copy of this book. It is full of historical fact and descrip- » tive narrative, and valuable as a school text-book. : LOLOLOOLOLOPL_v_OOOOOOOLOLOOOE_OoOOOOOOI IO ~~ TTT NN NOT EE SEE EE EEE SEE SDD ODD A PDA PSA pie IVE Fe — ee once a —_ — , - SOUTHERN RAILW. GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- : junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all — the commercial centers of the South and Southwest .. .— a DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED. TR - BETWEEN . Aichi toni and N. Ashwiies via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxy Chattanooga. ‘ag Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jack Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K, Washinston and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knox Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. 3 Additional Trains for local travelers... . « -« ; The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TE Winter Resorts of Ten - MEXICO and CALIF RN : —AND THE BEST—— Le Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Sorings—* The al of tn Sk, ; Write for Map Folders. R. W. POLLOCK, General Agent, 271 prasewae New ORE Ci J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 106 KE. German Street, Balti L. S. BROWN, General Agent Passenger Department, Washin javele WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. _ { . H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. ‘ . A. BENSCO TER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. Hs TAY LOR, Assistant General OBSIE 22hc* SE Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, ‘Traffic Manager. ; We A. ae General pasdenee a Age OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, eh The Records of the Insurance Doweeienee of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life ‘ Has a Larger Premium Income - -_ - More Insurance in Force - - -.- = A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - Writes More New Business’ - - - And Pays. More to Policy-holders -. THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY, It has paid to Policy-holders since | its organization, in 1843, ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R, GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Trea ISAAC F, LLOYD, Second Vice-President. c ‘ e. Zé a aad AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY ORAS ua | ; 7 | 4 Be 3 eek Editor: JOHN HYDE ‘ a i ne _ Associate Editors ’ w. GREELY — W J McGEE ! HENRY GANNETT C, HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE iss 4 , | ? \ CONTENTS ee s\/ i PAGE ONIA, J. B. HATCHER, 305 ith map and illustrations, f CHER’S WORK IN PATAGONIA. 319 SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA. W. A. DICKBY. 322 Withmap. NTER WEATHER RECORD FROM THE KLONDIKE REGION. ¥ ‘a . . E. W. NELSON. 3270 "Tae é : * - : ‘ ’ SSIAN CENSUS OF 1897. . 335 ju Tea aie ecm WASHINGTON ; "PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Fé e, % y “4 AGENTS IN THE Unirep States AND CANADA ‘ THE AmertoaN News Company, 39 anp 41 Campers Srrerr, New York , re Paris; Brenranos, 37 Avenve pe 1/OPEna ; | ‘i $2.50 a Year ¥ a “MARCUS BAKER — WILLIAM H. DALL @. K, GILBERT . ) Pecaanive Snorerany Ro a - EVERETT HAYDEN oe ee ee eae Oe) To ee CHARLES JOBHRT 9 5 H, PeBLOUNT wri ee BY V-COVILLE c DAVID T. DAY members pay. ee an entrance fee. of 52. 00 on 1 election, Magazine is sent regularly to all ee both active and AIY WMH *{ [ Ag YPvssojoyYy YD WOAT VINODV.LVd ‘SVYSTTICNOO ‘YSAIN YSAVW 4O GVSH ‘YsIOVID YSAVIN GS “Id ‘2681 “IIA “10A "OVI “DOAD “LVN —-—-_”- National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII NOVEMBER, 1897 No. 11 PATAGONIA By J. B. HatcuHer, Of Princeton University Patagonia (from the Spanish patagon, a large or clumsy foot) is the name commonly applied to that portion of South Amer- ica lying between Rio Negro on the north and the Strait of Ma- gellan on the south, and embraced by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It thus has an extent from north to south of about 1,000 miles and a maximum breadth of nearly 500 miles. The name dates from 1520, when Magellan, on his voyage around the world, observing near his winter quarters at San Julian certain large human footsteps (patagones) gave that name to the country. Although Spanish settlements were founded at San Felipe and at other places in Patagonia as early as 1579, more than forty years before the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock, yet it is still a very sparsely settled and little known country, espe- cially throughout the interior of the central region. With the exception of the settlements along Rio Negro and the Welsh colonies on the river Chubut, there are no important settlements in the interior, and in the country lying to the south of the lat- ter stream the entire settlements are confined to a few sheep farms scattered along the eastern coast from Port Desire to Sandy Point (Punta Arenas) in the Strait of Magellan. On the western coast there are a few unimportant settlements at Otway Station and Skiring Water in the extreme south ; while on the north most of the settlements are confined to Chiloe and the other larger islands. The western coast of the mainland and most of the interior is inhabited only by roving bands of Indians, which 21 306 PATAGONIA in the former region include closely related tribes of Canoe or Channel Indians who live almost entirely in small open boats of native design, constructed with considerable skill from large pieces of bark, either from the antarctic deciduous beech (Fagus antarctica) or from the evergreen beech (F. betuloides), sewn to- gether with sinew or flexible whalebone. ‘The latter is thrown up in considerable quantities along the shores of this coast. At present the Indians are usually clothed with bits of cheap calico fashioned into rude garments, that of the women resembling loose skirts suspended from the shoulders and usually extending somewhat below the knees. While for the most part the men and women are at present clothed with some sort of cloth, usually obtained by barter from the whites, yet examples are not entirely wanting of individuals still clinging, through choice or necessity, to that more primitive state in which a narrow girth about the loins is deemed sufficient, with sometimes the addition of a piece of seal skin held above by a single thong passing around the neck and over the shoulders, and below by another about the body, so that it may be readily shifted to any desired position according to the direction of the wind. These Indians feed al- most exclusively upon shell-fish which they are able to pick up along the shore, while the remains of an occasional seal or sea- otter cast up by the waves, or the same animals taken alive with their spears, serve to vary their diet. Perhaps in no other peo- ple in the world are the actual necessities of life reduced to so few as among the Channel Indians of this region. With no constant habitation, they move about from one sheltered cove to another, so that their occupation of any particular place is entirely dependent upon, first, the abundance of the mollusks upon which they live, and, second (when these are well-nigh ex- hausted), upon the condition of the weather. On a few earthen sods in the bottom of their canoes they keep constantly burning a small fire, which always seems just on the point of going out ; and over this they all bend when not engaged in collecting the animals for food, which they usually eat uncooked and without other preliminary preparation. For their shelter on land, not- withstanding the inclement weather that prevails almost continu- ously, they erect exceedingly inefficient and primitive structures consisting of only a few branches of trees, the lower ends of which are stuck in the ground in an almost complete circle, while the upper ends are carelessly thatched together, thus forming a sort of low, conical “ wickiup ” with an.opening on one side. These, PATAGONIA 307 together with their canoes, two small paddles with which the latter are propelled, one or two spears or harpoons made of bone for the capture of seals, and one or more rather well formed yes- sels made of rushes and usually of the capacity of about a gallon (used in gathering shell-fish), fulfill all their domestic require- ments. Notwithstanding the exceedingly primitive manner in which they live, it is evident from the great accumulation of shell heaps in many places periodically occupied by them that they have inhabited this region for a considerable period, during which little if any alteration has taken place in their habits and customs. TEHUELCHE BOY OF I6 YEARS From a Photograph by J. B. Hatcher The Indian tribes east of the Cordilleras are of Tehueiche or Araucanian stock, and in general appearance, habits, and cus- toms they are quite different from and far superior to those of the western coast. Perhapsas a race no people in the world are better developed physically than are the Tehuelches of southern and eastern Patagonia. While their size has been considerably exaggerated by many of the earlier travelers, yet the fact remains that they are a large and physically well-developed race. The men have an average height of about five feet ten inches and the women of about five feet six inches. In both sexes the body is 308 PATAGONIA well formed, and while the features are without doubt far less striking than are those of certain of our tribes of Indians, yet their countenances are usually such as to inspire confidence in their peaceful intentions and to allay feelings of uneasiness in the mind of the traveler who may be unwillingly thrown among them. In the construction of their ‘‘toldos” or tents they have advanced one step at least over that shown by many nomadic tribes living in North America or elsewhere, in that while having no permanent residences, they are nevertheless not entirely de- pendent upon the resources of the immediate vicinity in which they happen to locate for materials with which to construct their shelters, for they always carry with them a covering usually made of skins stitched firmly together in such a manner as to fit more or less precisely a framework of poles also carried for the pur- pose. With some tribes of North American Indians these easily transportable habitations are known as “‘tipis,” the frame of which consists of a series of long poles arranged in a large circle at the base and meeting above, where they interlock in such manner as to afford mutual support, and on the outside of which the covering, formerly made of skins but now usually made of canvas, is stretched, thus forming a perfect cone when closed. In all such habitations among our North American Indians, so far as | am aware, this entire inclosure is unobstructed by par- titions, and no attempt is made to divide the interior into separate compartments so as to afford a certain degree of privacy to indi- vidual members of the family. The toldos or tents of the Tehuelches are each usually com- posed of the skins of about fifty adult guanacos sewed together in sections, which, when fitted together, are so designed as to form the top, one side, and both ends of a huge box, one side of which is much higher than the other and is left open. The framework of this box consists of three parallel rows of poles, forked above, planted in the ground at a distance of about four feet from each other in the direction of the length of the box and six feet in the opposite direction. The poles forming the first row or that on the open side of the toldo are usually about seven feet in height, in the next row, running through the middle of the interior, they are about five feet high, while three feet suffices for the series at the rear. In the forks-of these uprights poles are laid, and over the whole the skin covering is stretched. These toldos are usually about twenty feet long by twelve feet in width. That portion of the interior between the two higher series of up- PATAGONIA 309 rights may be considered as the living room, while in the rear small partitions extend from each of the posts in the third row to the opposite one in the middle row, thus dividing this spade into a series of sleeping compartments from four to six feet in width, and sufficient to accommodate one or two persons. I think this condition of affairs should be regarded as a decided advance over that found in other tribes with transportable hab- itations, and that it has had a decidedly beneficial influence upon the social relations of the Tehuelches I do not doubt. That we have here represented three stages in that development which has TEHUELCHE FAMILY AND TOLDO From a Photograph by J. B. Hatcher led up to the nineteenth century dwelling with all modern con- veniences can hardly be doubted. Most primitive of the three is that of the Channel Indian,who once in each week or two through- out his entire life spends perhaps half an hour in gathering the branches to construct the rude “ wickiup ” which forms his ideal of a domestic habitation. The Tehuelches of southern Patagonia are almost entirely un- acquainted with the use of firearms, but they have an abundance of horses and dogs, by the aid of which, together with their bolle- 310 > PATAGONIA doros (bolas) they are able to capture guanacos and ostriches more than sufficient to supply them with food. From the skins of these, together with those of other animals, they construct the coverings for their toldos, make their clothing and bedding, and have sufficient left with which to manufacture the beautiful fur ‘““capos” or mantles so highly prized by the Europeans. For the latter they consequently find a ready sale, from the proceeds of which they derive a revenue ample for the purchase of con- siderable quantities of ‘‘ wachaki,” which those better qualified than myself to judge consider as very bad whisky. Perhaps to some there will be a satisfaction in the reflection that “ bad whisky, sooner or later, makes good Indians.” The surface of Patagonia is naturally divided by physiographic features into two regions—an eastern comparatively level plains region and an extremely mountainous western region. The latter extends in a narrow strip throughout the entire length of Patagonia and exhibits everywhere intensely rugged mountains, clad at their bases with luxuriant forests, while their summits are forever covered with great fields of snow and ice, which form glaciers often descending far below timber-line and constituting the sources of many of the numerous mountain torrents empty- ing into the Pacific, as well as most of the larger rivers of the eastern region, which after emerging from the mountains follow deeply eroded valleys in the plains and discharge their waters into the Atlantic. Politically Patagonia is divided into essentially the same dis- tricts as physiographically. The western or mountainous region belongs to Chile and is mostly included in the territory of Ma- gellan, with the seat of government at Punta Arenas. The east- ern or plains region belongs to Argentina and consists of the terri- tories of Santa Cruz, Chubut, Rio Negro, and a part of Neuquen. To the absence of exact knowledge regarding the real physical features of this region is due the vexatious boundary dispute at present existing between Argentina and Chile. Formerly the loftier ranges of the Cordilleras were supposed to form the nat- ural watershed of this entire region, and in the earlier boundary treaties negotiated between the two countries it was stated that a line connecting the highest peaks which divide the waters of the Pacific from those of the Atlantic should constitute the na- tional boundary line. It has since been ascertained that: in many instances, at least, streams flowing into the Pacific cut en- tirely through the Cordilleras, and in some cases have their PATAGONIA 3 ape Fairweather Boundary belw.Argentina and Chile... 3 Sialen = | dsland Re ule by Steamer \ 75 MAP OF PATAGONIA. ILLUSTRATING EXPLORATIONS OF J. B. HATCHER, 1896-"97 312 PATAGONIA sources well out on the plains; so that, were former boundary treaties interpreted literally, much territory supposed to be of considerable value mineralogically and extensive tracts of rich erazing lands, all now held by Argentina, would revert to Chile. Not only has there never been any attempt at a topographic survey of the country, but throughout vast areas over the plains region of central Patagonia the watercourses as located on all the government and current charts are merely conjectural, while in the region between Lake San Martin and the territory of Neuquen no authentic map showing the locations of the princi- pal streams flowing toward either the Atlantic or the Pacific has ever been attempted. That part of this region which was visited and traversed by the writer and his assistant, Mr O. A. Peterson, during recent explorations in behalf of Princeton University and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and especially noticed in this paper, lies between the headwaters of Rio Chico and Rio Santa Cruz and the Strait of Magellan. The principal overland route will be found located on the map. From different points along this route shorter excursions were made in all directions. The plains region of Patagonia may be considered as consist- ing of a series of benches or steps which appear as successive elevations on the surface as one proceeds from the Atlantic coast overland toward the Cordilleras. The precipitous bluffs of the coast, rising in places to a height of nearly five hundred feet, form the first step in the series, and from this the succeeding benches gradually increase in elevation until along the base of the mountains an altitude, according to Darwin, of 3,000 feet is attained. The escarpments constituting the limits of each of these succeeding benches form irregular but somewhat parallel lines, which conform not only to the general direction of the present coast-line, but also to the courses of the great transverse valleys at the bottom of which flow the larger rivers of eastern Patagonia. This series of benches or steps may be seen not only as one proceeds from the coast toward the interior of Patagonia, but also on either the one or the other side, sometimes on both, of all the greater watercourses of this region distant from the coast and near the mountains. They doubtless represent suc- ceeding bluffs formed along the coast, and mark successive stages in the final elevation of this region which took place toward the close of the Pliocene period. The occurrence of this series of benches along the sides of the river valleys of this region is SIERRA VENTANA, SOUTH SIDE OF RIO CHICO DE SANTA CRUZ, PATAGONIA From a Photograph by J. B. Hatcher PATAGONIA 3138 additional evidence in favor of my view * that the great trans- verse valleys of Patagonia were in existence prior to the last submergence of this region in the Pliocene, and during which submergence the marine Cape Fairweather beds were deposited. During the elevation that caused the close of this submergence there was distributed over this region the great Bowlder or Shingle formation (Tehuelche formation of Ameghino) of Pata- gonia. These benches along the watercourses are not merely river terraces formed of alluvial materials, but are composed of the original strata constituting the Santa Cruz, Supra-Patagonian, and Patagonian beds, as shown in numerous exposures. They are often many miles in width, and I think show conclusively that throughout certain periods during the elevation of this re- gion these valleys ‘ormed deep embayments into which extended the waters of the Atlantic. Some of the more important of these valleys may even have formed straits connecting the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, as has been claimed by Darwin. Another prominent feature over the Patagonian plains is the occurrence of numerous volcanic cones, appearing usually in groups and at places remote from the Cordilleras. These craters, although now extinct, have been active during comparatively re- cent times, as is evidenced by the numerous small lava streams to be found in many places, and which are seen to have flowed directly from some one of these craters down over the sides and into the valleys of the present smaller watercourses, where they have adapted themselves to the curves of the valleys and the inequalities in the surface of the bottoms of the latter, and do not extend into strata forming the sides of the valleys. Such lava streams of comparatively recent origin always present an irregular, hummocky surface, with numerous caverns, and are composed almost always of very vesicular material. A splendid example of such a lava stream may be seen in a small canon on the southern side of the Rio Chico of the Gallegos river about two miles below Palli Aike, near the point where the present na- tional boundary line crosses the Chico. Probably these small volcanoes were active throughout a considerable period in Ter- tiary times, and largely furnished the materials of the Santa Cruz beds. That they were active during the depositions of the Santa Cruz beds is evidenced by the occurrence of lavas included be- tween successive strata of those beds, which, owing to the ab- sence of disturbance in the latter, can hardly be considered as intrusive. *See “On the Geology of Southern Patagonia,” Am. Jour, Sei., Nov., 1897, pp. 327—t4. 314 PATAGONIA These extinct volcanoes are scattered over the plains in a not entirely irregular manner. As before stated, they occur in groups, there being usually from three or four to as many as a dozen in each group within a radius of perhaps five miles. These crater areas occur at irregular intervals on the plains of Patagonia from near Cape Virgin at the eastern entrance to the Strait of Magellan to as far north as the country visited by us, at least, and most likely for a considerably greater distance. For the most part, they are found over an area extending parallel with the Cordil- leras and distant from eighty to one hundred and twenty miles from them. In places they rise but a few feet above the surface of the surrounding country, and some of these may not be craters; but simply elevations in the surface of the lava due to a heaping up of the materials resulting from the intersection of two or more streams while flowing. In many cases they rise several hundred feet above the surrounding country, have immense craters or bowls on their summits, and present unmistakable evidences of having been active volcanoes within comparatively recent times. Whether these craters should be considered as lateral cones dependent upon the greater voleanoes of the Cordilleras and as having derived their molten materials from the same reservoir, or as an independent system the materials of which were derived from a distinct reservoir, it is difficult to say. From the sim- ilarity of the basalts known to occur in the two regions, however, I should be inclined to the former view. Between this series of, volcanoes and the Cordilleras, especially in the region lying south of Santa Cruz river, there are wide, open plains, entirely unob- structed by either extinct voleanoes or lava. fields. Another interesting feature prominent in the topography of Patagonia, especially in that part of the country lying east of the crater region, is the occurrence of numerous shallow salt lagoons at the bottoms of .great depressions, or rather excavations, from 100 to 300 feet or more in depth, scattered over the surface of the plains. I have described these lakes and discussed their origin in a previous paper already cited on the geology of the region. At a distance of ten or twenty miles from the Cordilleras the shingle or bowlder formation increases greatly in thickness and is composed of much coarser materials. Near the base of the mountains the materials constituting this formation are not dis- tributed in a uniform manner over the surface, so that the latter loses its level, plain-like appearance, and presents numerous small, rounded hillocks composed of heterogeneous masses of a PATAGONIA 315 angular stones, rounded bowlders, and finer clays and sands. These materials were evidently deposited as terminal moraines in late Pliocene or early Quaternary times. Such deposits are especially noticeable in all the larger valleys near the Cordilleras, where they are frequently of great thickness, and, left as barriers by the receding glaciers, they now aid in confining considerable bodies of fresh water, which as lakes extend in a more or less continuous chain all along the base of the mountains. Among the more important of these are lakes Argentina, Viedma, San Martin,and Buenos Aires. All these lakes extend far back into SALMO ERET BORE MOUNT LEVIATHAN: SOUTH COAST OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO From a Photograph by J. B. Hatcher the otherwise almost inaccessible recesses of the Cordilleras, where they are fed by numerous glaciers. None of the lakes have been thoroughly explored and mapped, and their exact size and shape are as yet undetermined. There are no more rugged mountains anywhere in the world than are the Cordilleras of Patagonia. They rise directly from the plains on the east and the sea on the west to a height in some places of more than 10,000 feet, and present myriads of in- accessible peaks without so much as a single practicable pass, so 316 PATAGONIA far as has yet been discovered, for more than a thousand miles. On the west they are invaded by a labyrinth of bays, channels, sounds, and inland watercourses which for beauty and intricacy are unsurpassed and probably unequaled on any other coast. The intensely rugged nature of these mountains and of the Pacific coast is doubtless largely due to the comparatively recent age of the former, for from the highly inclined position of the Miocene strata (Supra-Patagonian beds) all along the eastern base of the mountains it is evident that while the actual birth of the latter may have taken place during Mesozoic times, yet their greatest development was not accomplished until the Miocene, and hence they now present numerous sharp peaks, bold lines, and rigid angles, which the eroding elements in nature have not yet had sufficient time to soften; yet it cannot be said that they do not harmonize well with their surroundings, for only that which is rugged in the extreme could comport with the perpetual storms which forever rage about the summits and the terrific onslaughts of waves that constantly attack the bases. Nature always produces most perfect harmony; and as these lofty peaks are lowered and their sharp angles rounded by erosion, just so will the causes of the truly terrible storms that now prevail here be removed and equally harmonious conditions preserved, per- haps even more pleasing, if not so startling, increasing in beauty, like the splendid canvas or mural painting, as the brighter and more vivid colors are gradually softened with age. According to its flora, Patagonia may be divided into three regions, characterized not so much by differences in species rep- resented (for one of these regions may be fairly considered as furnishing all the species of plants found in the other two) as by the quantity and quality of the vegetation. The first of these may be designated as the eastern coast region, and consists of a narrow belt of fairly good grazing lands, extending along the. coast from the Strait of Magellan to Port Desire. All the avail- able land is here taken up by sheep farmers, mostly from the Falkland islands and Scotland, with a few English, Germans, French, Spaniards, and native Argentinians and Chilinos. The second region consists of almost barren high pampas and usually equally barren river valleys. It extends from the western border of the first region to the base of the Cordilleras, and is entirely uninhabited, so that while the vegetation is indeed exceedingly scanty it nevertheless suffices for the support of considerable bands of the guanaco and the rhea, the so-called ostrich of South AIYHDEL “J *[ 4Q YIVASOJOYY VD MOAT SVdWvd 3SHL JO MBIA IWOldAL— WHV4s dSSHS NVINODVIVd V :4yXIv HAND LE “Id ‘2681 “INIA “10A “OVW “90RD “LVN PATAGONIA 517 America. The third rezion is that of the Cordilleras, and is far richer than the other two, both as to species and in the total amount of vegetation. Throughout the first two regions trees are unknown, the vegeta- tion consisting entirely of grasses, herbs, and a few small shrubs, never attaining a height of more than a few feet. Among the more common of these shrubs are two small resinous evergreens with a decided odor of pitch. They belong to different families, and are distinguished by the inhabitants according to the color > of the foliage as “‘ mate verde” and “ mate negra ;”’ they form. the “ South American tea,” which is largely used in Patagonia and elsewhere. A species of Berberis (‘‘ Calafate”) with bright yellow flowers and dark-purple, rather tart, edible fruit is com- mon everywhere, while along the watercourses far in the interior the incense bush and a species of leguminous shrub, often attain- ing a height of five or six feet, are not uncommon. The dead trunks and branches of these shrubs provide sufficient fuel for the traveler in Patagonia. In the Cordilleras forests abound, consisting for the most part of two species of beech (Fagus antarctica and F. betuloides), the winter’s bark (Drimys winter’), and toward the north a few species of conifers. On the eastern slopes of the mountains the vegeta- tion is not nearly so varied as:on the western, and in many places over vast areas only one species of tree is to be found, viz., Fagus antarctica, the deciduous beech. This condition prevails espe- cially about the headwaters of Rio Chico and Rio Santa Cruz, and on all the upper tributaries of Mayer river, a stream of no mean size which we discovered in this region flowing to the Pa- cific, and named in honor of General Edelmiro Mayer, the late governor of the territory of Santa Cruz. Throughout all the forests of the Cordilleras mosses, hepaticas, ferns, and lichens occur in the greatest profusion. The stones, trunks of fallen trees, the bases of those still standing, and even the ground itself, are often covered to a depth of several inches with these plants, forming a soft carpet of rich colors exceedingly pleasing to the eye, and surpassing in beauty any exhibition of foliage plants, if I may so call them, that I have ever seen. The faunas of the plains and mountain regions differ more widely than do the floras, for in each are found species wanting in the other. The most striking and most abundant mammals met with over the plains are the guanaco (Auchenia huanacus) and two species of dogs, sometimes erroneously called foxes 318 PATAGONIA (Canis azare and C. magellanicus). The former speciés is much the smaller, is of a light gray color with a black spot at the base of the tail, and is quite tame and exceedingly common every- where on the plains. The second and much larger species is rather shy, and is found only in the mountains. The puma or mountain lion (Felis concolor) is abundant, while a smaller cat, perhaps some species of lynx, isnot uncommon. A smal] skunk (Mephitis patagonica) was formerly abundant, but a few years - since they were almost exterminated in one winter over a large area along the southern coast by some disease, apparently con- tagious, among them. Their skulls and skeletons are now to be picked up in great numbers, and occasionally a live specimen is still met with. Only one species of armadillo is at all common in the region visited by us, and it does not extend south of Santa Cruzriver. Deerare absent on the plains, but one species is fairly abundant in the mountains. It is about the size of our Virginia deer, of a rich dark-gold color, the males armed with a pair of two-pronged horns. I killed about fifteen of these animals and saw several others, but never observed one with more than two points on each horn. We nowhere observed the larger species of deer said to be abundant in the Cordilleras farther northward. Rodents are extremely abundant, especially in the valleys and along the bluffs of the rivers and smaller streams in the vicinity of the mountains, where the entire earth for a depth of nearly two feet is literally undermined over areas of many square miles in extent, with subterranean passages which greatly impede the traveler, whose horse drops in at every step half-way to the knee, . In some regions so abundant are these burrowing rodents, espe- cially in the sides of the bluffs, that they become real and not inconsiderable agents of erosion. ‘That they have aided consid- erably in producing many of the present topographic features I do not in the least doubt, not so much by the actual removal of material as by the production of a condition throughout the sur- face of the soil and rock such as to render it more easy of being removed by recurring rains. Among those rodents contributing most to the facility with which the bluffs are here being eroded are various species of mice, and especially two species of Ctenomys, whose ability and propensity for burrowing can scarcely be over- estimated. Formerly rodents were very abundant all along the coast, but since the introduction of sheep some ten years ago they have disappeared almost entirely from the coast region, and the larger species are now rarely seen there. HATCHER’S WORK IN PATAGONIA 319 There is a considerable variety of birds in Patagonia. Water- fowl are especially abundant, as are also birds of prey. I pre- sume that the number of hawks and vultures is scarcely exceeded in any district of equal area elsewhere in the world. Several species of plover, grouse, and snipe are to be found on the pam- pas, while thrushes, wrens, and sparrows are well represented. Condors are plentiful, not only in the Cordilleras, but also along the more precipitous river bluffs and in the lofty “ barrancas ” of the coast of the Atlantic as far northward as Port Desire. The rhea, or so-called ostrich, is abundant on the plains, and is oc- casionally met with in the mountains. Beautifully colored red and black flamingoes and swans are among the more striking inland wading and swimming birds. In the Cordilleras a small green paroquet is very abundant. Several species of fly-catchers are plentiful, while two woodpeckers and two or three thrushes arecommon. A jacksnipe occurs about the open streams and parks, and five species of owl were taken. Of fresh-water fishes there does not appear to bea great variety, but we succeeded in finding some of the streams fairly well stocked with two or three species of splendid edible varieties. Sand liz- ards are seen in great numbers, and present many different colors and vary considerably in shape, especially in the length of the tail. Frogs are present, though rare, but we never saw a snake of any description. Of insects, the Coleoptera seemed best repre- sented. Butterflies were represented by but few species, those usually of the less conspicuous varieties. Dragon-flies are rare. There are considerable varieties of ants, but bees, wasps, and other Hymenoptera are not abundant. HATCHER’S WORK IN PATAGONIA On February 29, 1896, Mr J. B. Hatcher, of Princeton, em- barked for Buenos Aires, primarily to collect vertebrate fossils and recent organisms in Patagonia for Princeton University, in- cidentally to obtain photographs and other data pertaining to the aborigines for the Bureau of American Ethnology. He bore letters from both institutions, those from the latter securing him official recognition in Argentina; and during his stay he received every courtesy, as well as most material assistance, from the gov- ernment of this rapidly growing republic. The success of his work was largely due to these official facilities and to the good 320 HATCHERS WORK IN PATAGONIA offices of ex-Minister Estanislao Zeballos, one of the few hon- orary members of the National Geographic Society. From Buenos Aires Mr Hatcher proceeded to Gallegos, the seat of government of the province of Santa Cruz, a future empire of half the area of all Germany, with a population of only about 1,600, including 300 Indians. Outfitting here with a light tent, five horses, anda small cart, Mr Hatcher, accompanied by a sin- gle assistant (Mr O. A. Peterson, of Princeton), traversed the coast to Punta Arenas, making extenrsive collections in paleontclogy and natural history. Punta Arenas, long an unimportant sta- tion, became the center of immigration a few years ago in conse- quence of discoveries of gold; itis now the capital of the Chilean territory of Magellan, with a population ofabout 3,400; the entire territory supports a population of some 6,000, including about 800 Indians. Returning to Gallegos, Mr Hatcher and his com- panion set out toward the Cordillera (or southern Andes) on De- cember 1, 1896, and from that date until April 6, 1897, they saw no human beings save themselves. They journeyed first west- ward and then northwestward to Rio Santa Cruz, one of the prin- cipal rivers of Patagonia. Finding this too large for fording, they - followed its banks to the great body of fresh water (Lake Argen- tina) in which it heads; there they were so fortunate as to finda boat, abandoned by English explorers several years before, which they appropriated and repaired, and in which they ferried their cart and baggage over the stream, swimming their horses behind. Journeying northward near the base of the Cordillera, they dis- covered, among other new geographic features, a river fully equal to the Santa Cruz in volume, occupying a most unexpected posi- tion. It heads in the pampas east of the Cordillera, but flows westward through a profound gorge and undoubtedly falls into the Pacific at some undetermined portion of the rugged Chilean coast. It is fed by glaciers, often of noble magnitude ; it is swift and tumultuous, so that it was found impracticable to cross it, or indeed to trace its course, with the facilities at command, more than a part of the way through the cafion in which it traverses the Cordillera. Several weeks were spent in work about this por- tion of the Cordilleran front. They were not without the inci- dents common to exploration of uninhabited countries. Some- times these were of serious character. In one case Mr Hatcher, while separated from his companion, was accidentally struck on the head by the metallic bit of his horse’s bridle and so seriously wounded that the horse escaped, leaving him alone and helpless ——— ee SS —— HATCHER’S WORK IN PATAGONIA 321 on the pampas for two days and two nights. He recovered suf- ficiently to rejoin his companion, but the wound and exposure produced erysipelas, by which he was incapacitated for weeks, The difficulty of travel was greatly enhanced by the nearly uni- form foulness of the weather; cold, drizzling rains and dense fogs are characteristic of Patagonia, with temperature but little above the freezing point for months at a time. Fortunately game was easily taken, and supplied the chief part of the camp fare. Returning from the trip into the interior, Mr Hatcher, with his companion, made a voyage through the Strait of Magellan and about Tierra del Fuego, in the course of which many new observations were made on the natural history, geology, paleon- tology, and ethnology of the region. The various routes traversed are indicated on Mr Hatcher’s map, through which an idea of the extent of the journeys may be gained. He returned to Princeton in July, 1897. As indicated by his article, Mr Hatcher’s energies were by no means limited to the collection of specimens ; indeed, he utilized his opportunities for geographic, geologic, and ethnologic study in a notably successful manner. The geographic results are stated summarily, though with excess of modesty, in the para- graphs prepared for this magazine, while the preliminary results of the geologic and paleontologic researches appear in several articles in the American Journal of Science and the American Geologist. Certain features ofsouthern South America brought out through Mr Hatcher’s observations are especially significant to students of geographic development. One of the characteristics of the region is the dearth of soil; another is the paucity of the flora, both in individuals and species, and the fact that the flora of the pampas is evidently derived from that of the Cordillera; still an- other is the presence of saline lakes, of residuary character, scat- tered over the pampas. These features indicate conclusively that the Patagonian pampas have but recently been raised from ocean bottom to form dry land. Certain other features give hardly less decisive indication of the manner of lifting. The Pacific coast passes from a lofty archipelago into a fiord-marked sierra, the configuration, on the whole, suggesting recent subsi- dence ; the great Cordillera is trenched by the gorges of rivers (notably the newly discovered Rio Mayer), which have evidently retrogressed through the range so completely that water-parting and mountain-crest no longer coincide; while there is a line of 22 322 THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA fresh-water lakes skirting the eastern mountain front, which, albeit perhaps partly held in place by morainic dams, undoubt- edly owe their preservation to the sluggishness of the rivers flow- ing toward the Atlantic—and all these features, as well as some others, indicate that the lifting was greater along the eastern margin of the continent, so as to produce a general warping or westward tilting. The history of the evolution of this conti- nental terminus has been complex, as shown by the geologic suc- cession brought out through Mr Hatcher's observations; there have been several oscillations of greater or less extent; doubt- less at times the Patagonian Cordillera formed a great archipelago like the present Tierra del Fuego, and the course of Mayer river may have been a strait like the present Magellan; yet the minor episodes but combined to make up the general history of uplifting and westward tilting. Mr Hatcher has just sailed for Punta Arenas to continue his explorations and surveys. WJM. THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA By W. A. DickEy The Sushitna,* though an almost unknown river, is one of the largest in Alaska, carrying more water than Copper river, though the latter is somewhat longer. It has a delta at its mouth, be- yond which extensive mud flats reach far out into Cook inlet. The river is divided into many channels and spread out over the mud flats, rendering steamboat navigation difficult. The tides at this point in Cook inlet rise over 30 feet, yet, notwithstanding this great rise, they have but little effect in checking the swift current of the river, so little as to be unnoticeable a few miles up the stream. The tide flats surrounding the mouth are bare at low water for a distance of nearly ten miles, and are very dan- gerous to pass. In the treacherous glacial mud a rowboat is liable to sink, and to be held so firmly that the incoming tide, which rises with incredible rapidity, will fail to float it. The mouth of the river is nearly opposite Turnagain arm, a branch of Cook inlet, which is a great breeder of storms. It is therefore exposed to sudden squalls, which may catch the unfor- tunate boatman where there is neither landing place nor shelter. * Sushitna means the great muddy river, and is descriptive. * — THE SUSHITNA RIVER; ALASKA We had an especially unpleasant ex perience this spring, spending a cold night in April on these flats, unable to enter the riyer or to approach near tq the mouth, being prevented by great fields of anchor ice, which extended more than a mile from any camp- ing place on shore. About 15 miles up the river the first land above overflow is reached, a tangle of willows and cottonwood giving place to the customary upland growth of the country, which consists of scattered groves of spruce and birch. ; MT M¢ KINLEY : kok wim &. 3 aes own = “y %, (2 wef P| we ON eX Bie MT SUSHITNA MAP OF THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA An idea of the volume of water the river carries can be had from its size near the trading station, which is some miles above the influence of tide. Just above the station the river, for the first time hemmed into a single channel, cuts through a rock dyke which crosses its valley diagonally. Here the stream is 1,200 yards in width and is very deep and swift, soundings in- dicating a depth of over 100 feet. Immediately above this rock dyke the river forks, and it is impossible to tell from the appear- ance of the two streams which carries the more water, although 324 THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA the northern. branch is generally called the main river, and is the one which we ascended. The Kuskokwim Indians come down the western branch to trade. They say there is an easy passage from the Kuskokwim into this branch of the Sushitna, which would indicate a low range of mountains as forming the watershed between these two” valleys, instead of the high, unbroken range indicated on the government charts of previous years. If this so-called Alaskan range exists, it must be much farther west than is indicated on the charts, for I have been where I could see at least 100 miles west of Sushitna river, and could see no indications of such a range in that direction. A vast, almost level country, covered with forests of spruce and birch, with here and there great swamps, extended to the west as far as I could see with a rather poor pair of field-glasses. It is true that early in June (1897) I could see patches of snow to the west, which would indicate the presence of mountains, but they are not at all high, as in the previous year the snow was all gone in July. The Indians report a large lake on this western branch, and say that the stream forks six days’ journey from its mouth. The other branch has a generally northern direction, though very crooked. Only once in 100 miles above the junction is the river confined to a single channel, and there only where hemmed in by high bluffs on both sides. Many islands and channels, great masses of driftwood, and countless snags characterize this portion of the river, while caving banks, falling trees, and the swift current make the journey both difficult and dangerous. Nowhere could we make any headway except by poling or tow- ing, crossing and recrossing the labyrinth of channels to escape dangerous places. One-third of the boats that have ascended the Sushitna any distance have been lost, either by being swept under the drift and sunk or smashed by caving banks or falling trees. Luckily, however, only one life was lost during the last season, that of a Mr Parsons, of Seattle. The low mountains that lie between the Midnooskie (Knik) and the Sushitna rivers were apparently about 12 to 20 miles back from the river, and three smali branches enter the Sushitna from that side. While ascending this portion of the river we had many glori- ous views of Mt McKinley and an unnamed companion south- west of the higher peak. Mt McKinley is in this valley as ubiquitous as the Washington monument in the city of Wash- * THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA 325 ington. Everywhere you go in clear weather you can see its glorious summit dominating the northern landscape. There is no question in my mind that it is a very high peak, as we could see three distinct ranges of mountains between our point of ob- servation and its camel-hump summit, which towered thousands of feet above all the other mountains. ‘Two of the three ranges are covered with eternal snow and must be of considerable alti- tude, though appearing low in comparison with lofty McKinley. The last range in front of this great peak is very broken and irregular. We could see cliffs that showed fronts of several thousand feet of perpendicular walls, and on all sides were gla- ciers and snowfields. I have talked with about thirty persons who have seen this great peak from the Sushitna valley in the past two seasons, and they all agree that it is the highest moun- ‘tain they have ever seen. One party, who had been in the ‘vicinity of the St Elias range, thought it looked higher than any _of the mountains of that group. The Indians of Cook inlet have always called this the Bulshaia (great) mountain, it so manifestly dominates all the other moun- tains in that portion of Alaska. It appears to me higher than any of the peaks of the Fairweather group, near which we were becalmed on a clear day on our return voyage. I had also a chance to compare its height and distance with that of Mt Iliamna one clear day when we were camped on an island at the mouth of the river. Field-glasses brought out the detail on Mt Iliamna, but made no change in the cloud-like ap- pearance of Mt McKinley. ITliamna is 12,096 feet high, and was, according to the government chart, 100 miles distant from our point of observation. Notwithstanding its greater distance, Mt McKinley showed a greater angle of elevation above the horizon, and is certainly a much higher mountain. There are four high peaks in the cluster about Mt McKinley, all unnamed at present. About 90 miles above the lower forks the river again branches into three large streams. The western fork seems to occupy the main valley, though I am of the opinion that the middle fork is the longer and at certain seasons of the year carries the most water. In the hot days of June, July, and August the western “branch, fed by the great snowfields and glaciers of the ranges about Mt McKinley, is a roaring torrent, a flowing sea of mud, so much earthy matter does it carry in solution. Parties who have ascended this branch say that about 60 miles up it forks into two nearly equal streams. The southwestern branch they a 326 THE SUSHITNA RIVER, ALASKA followed along distance, and found it ran all the way in the low, flat country skirting the foothills of the great range. ‘They as- cended a hill, and far to the west could see what they took to be the headwaters of the Kuskokwim, or some other stream, flowing in the opposite direction, with no marked divide between the two rivers. The branch we followed was the middle fork, which soon en- tered a narrow valley between low hills, which gradually became higher and higher until we came to a cafion about 60 miles above the forks, through which it was impossible to take our boats. We had supposed from what we could gather from the Indians that there was a waterfall in the cafion, but such does not seem to be the case,though for a distance of about a mile there are very rough rapids in which no boat could live. The walls of the cafion are nearly 1,000 feet high, and in some places are perpendicular. The water, confined in a very narrow channel, looks like a white rib- bon at the base of the great walls. We ascended the mountains on both sides and obtained splendid views of the great cluster of peaks about Mt McKinley, which bore a little north of west. _ The Copper River, or Midnooskie, Indians, who inhabit the upper waters of the river, all agree that the main source of Cop- per river is near the headwaters of this branch of the Sushitna and not far from the Tanana. As the government charts place the main source of Copper river north of the Wrangel group of mountains, I have carefully looked up Lieut. Allen’s report, and find that his narrative would agree with the statement of the In- aians. When Lieut. Allen reached the mouth of the Chitsletchnia river he was in doubt as to which was the main river, as the forks were apparently nearly equal in size. He followed the branch now known as the main river, not because it was the larger, but because he was informed that nearby there were Indians living on it from whom he could obtain food, of which his party were in sore need. He goes on to say that the stream diminished in size rapidly as he ascended it, and soon became less than 100 yards in width. The main source is, probably, as indicated by the Indians, south of the Tanana and near the Sushitna. Lieut. Allen, in his report, falls into the error of confusing the Sushitna with the Midnooskie or Knik river, down which the Midnoo- skie Indians from the Copper river come each year to trade at the Knik station. They ascend the Tazlina branch of Copper river, cross a low divide, and come down the Midnooskie instead of the Sushitna, as Lieut. Allen erroneously conjectured. The a A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE — 327 Tanana Indians last winter came down the Sushitna to trade. They area very warlike tribe and are accused by the Midnooskies of being cannibals. ; The interior of the country has but little game. For many days we saw not a living animal except birds, and but few fish, though salmon run in August and candle-fish in June. We saw more bear than any other large game, but did not kill any. There are colors of fine gold everywhere, but we found no coarse gold, and the signs of gold diminished upstream. . A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM THE KLONDIKE REGION By KE. W. NE son, Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture During the years 1880 and 1881 the Alaska Commercial Com- pany had a fur-trading station on the upper Yukon, in British territory, at no great distance below the mouth of the Klondike, where Dawson City is now located. This station was called Fort Reliance, and was in charge of Mr L. N. McQuesten. It was afterward abandoned and is now in ruins. Mr McQuesten was one of the original prospectors in this region, and his discoveries led to the founding of Circle City and indirectly to the marvelous development that is now taking place in that region. When Mr McQuesten came to St Michael in the spring of 1880 with his winter’s gathering of furs I gave him a Signal Service standard minimum thermometer, and he undertook to make a series of daily observations for me at Fort Reliance during his stay there in the fall and winter of 1880-’81. When he returned to St Michael in the spring of 1881 he brought me the subjoined record. It covers the period from the early fall to the opening of navigation on the upper Yukon in spring, and is of peculiar interest at present as showing some of the meteorologic condi- tions in the area which is now attracting world-wide attention on account of the unprecedented richness of its recently discovered placer mines. It is in this district that some thousands of men are wintering with a reported scarcity of provisions that may result in appalling suffering before navigation opens in spring. It will be noted in the record that the Yukon froze over during the night of November 2. On the 14th of the following May the 328 A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE ice first started on the river and ran for an hour and then stopped. From this it will be noted that the river was covered with a prac- tically unbroken sheet of ice for a little over six months. On May 17, at 4 a. m., the ice began running again, and was still plentiful on the 19th, but was nearly gone on the 20th. The final entry of this interesting record, made on May 23, is as fol- lows: “Start for St Michael tomorrow.” During my residence at St Michael, from June, 1877, to June, 1881, I learned from the Yukon traders that the ice breaks first in the upper river, and the general breaking up proceeds thence down to the delta, several days intervening between the opening of navigation above and the clearing of the great river below. The fur traders of the upper Yukon usually started as soon as the river became pretty well freed from floating ice, and were joined on their way by the traders stationed lower down. The little flotilla of barges usually reached the river mouth at about the same time. By this time the river delta would be free, and if the sea ice had opened out from shore the boats would pro- ceed northward along the coast to St Michael, 60 miles away. The date for the ice to break away from the coast between the Yukon mouth and St Michael varies greatly and may occur at any time between May 31 and July 1. It usually takes place before June 10. The river boats frequently arrived at St Michael before it was possible for vessels to pass the barrier of pack-ice offshore. In Mr McQuesten’s record the first wild geese were noted on March 31. This is a month before they used to appear along the coast and is a good indication of the more rapid advance of spring on the upper river. _ The following summary of these observations brings out some interesting points, but it is probably not ordinarily the case that January should be warmer than either December or February, as it was that season. Commencing with the long nights that come on in October, the temperature sank steadily, and in De- cember was noted the greatest cold of the winter (—67° on the 20th). In January occurred a strange’ and prolonged upward oscillation of the temperature that probably does not generally occur. Following this during February there was another period of intense cold, which lasted until March 1. In this latter month the effect of the returning sun became strikingly evident. The widest range of temperature in any month (88°) was during March. The thermometer used was a Fahrenheit. A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE 329 7 Monthly Summary of Observations of Temperature, Fort Reliance, N. W. T., Winter of d 1880-81 ; | Monthly means. Month. g z : | E 2 So = : = a. . = ° 3 A ra 5 oo w i~ x “- = 1880. BUPIEEIOL Ser ob vn acc ahs wes see es 53 20 3 46.7 43.7 36.9 Li ER a See ee 42 |— 10 10.5 25.3 21 17.1 INOW OL eee eee 40 | — 27 4.9 12:2 10 8.6 Nain eres hee es eee 8 | — 67 | — 34.6 | — 29.3 | — 29.4 | — 30.2 1881. (Os 2 a _ 22|—41|— 91)/— 5.5 |/— 54/— 6.6 REG, ON ee — 2|—58 | — 37.8 | — 22.2 | — 26.3 | — 30.2 INIGIRTIN, 2 Se ae |} 45 |—438 — 5.5 12.3 10 4.3 0) ls 2G SRS Cer 50 Solar 249) 2422 39.9 32. 67) ad Sa os SS 58 10 32.5 45.3 42.4 35.9 * Beginning September 4. + Ending May 23. RECORD OF DAILY OBSERVATIONS 7 F S § Date. Bs ; g a — Wind. Remarks. a s I~ Ss my S | 1880 Sept. 4 24 30 49 48 rule bhessiecs oaks Cloudy. 5 22 28 50 49 OO rINKE Eas act. tae Clear. 6 36 38 50 49 ANOS OR ee Clear. if 34 38 45 40 bil SiS ocak Ge ee Fair. 8 32 48 50 45 AO aN Wie een Fair. i) ol 36 46 42 SA ie eerie Cloudy. 10 23 28 49 45 SUA NES ad eee Clear. ih 24 35 52 48 ST SW... .] Clear; 12 36 48 48 45 AORN A Wie ces Cloudy. i 33 37 47 40 SE eke kl spss chore Clear. 14 29 oD 44 36 COATS ba Reais oe Clear. 15 28 33 53 50 SR ss Selhc aie cues Light clouds. 16 29 35 52 49 40 |S. E.... .-}| Light clouds. 17 24 28 50 45 Bry lise ie we aie | Clear. 18 29 34 45 43 at Wiese iH wie) oer ese Clear. 19 28 BY) 50 48 SAL Mies oie, ktava Clear. 20 25 30 49 46 Sy Cd etal Ue eee se | Light clouds. 21 25 33 46 43. API Wea shone Cloudy; rained in the afternoon. ae 26 30 44 42 Bote. sac cdlvlerns Clear. 23 26 34 50 48 WO See Sen Cloudy. 24 49 42 51 47 A iit «kas | Cloudy. 25 32 35 44 42 TOS WW sina 0 9 | Cloudy; rained all day. 330 A WINTER mM (an) Date. S a FI A a ay Sab ee 1880. Sept. 26 32 34 43 40 27 24 28 40 35 28 20 25 34 38 29 32 By) 40 39 30 28 3l 42 38 Octal 20 30 40 38 2 27 33 42 39 3 24 28 40 38 4 19 21 36 34 3) 18 21 37 30 6 19 23 40 35 7 25 2) 39 36 8 12 15 30 27 9 10 14 33 32 10 28 33 40 38 11 30 32 39 35 12 11 14 27 30 13 20 22 (?) 25 14 8 12 25 15 15 2 4 18 12 16 7 18 25 23 17 12 15 26 20 18 10 13 29 20 i 11 15 30 22 20 14 18 20 20 21;— 6/— 2 12;— 1 22|— 7 1 138 |— 3 ORY Een 3 ey be) 24 4 9 12 8g 25 4 6 13 10 26 6 8 14 12 27 5) 7 15 13 28 1 2 5 3 29 |— 1 i 4 2 300 ;— 4/— 1 8 3 ol |— 2 2 18 15 Woven 0 11 18 14 2/—11|/—10|/— 5 1 3 2 3 10 10 4 8 11 25 22 d5|— 3] ° 9 10 5 6/— 6|— 5 4 8 7 |—23 |—15 |— 5 |— 20 8 |— 27 | —25 | —10 | —15 9 |— 26 | —23 |—15 |—15 H no © FRRFONDOI®MS — WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE Wind. Remarks. IN Wis sees Clear. IN} Seeeta esse Clear. NBA i eiaees Cloudy; rained all day. Se Hitec v0 Light clouds. eS an Clear. Birdies ccs Clear; cloudy in the evening. Si eee Clear; cloudy; rained in the afternoon. 1 Dieters Clear. Calm..... Clear Calan..7% 22: Clear. NW eae Light clouds. , INAV ees aces Light clouds. Calm ase Clear. IN Wea: Clear. INQWiasincese Cloudy ; showery. ING ae aor Clear. Calis See 3. Clear IN Seis aioe Clear Calm Clear Calms is: Clear. NAW aasens: Cloudy ; snowed all day. WV ite Uitte Light clouds. VEE ahr Sint Light clouds. Wie ee ae Light clouds. INE Wire Cloudy ; snow showers all day. Calm Clear. Calmeene Clear. See eran Cloudy ; snowed in the afternoon. Soi cea eee Cloudy ; snow showers. Sealer aes Snow showers. SUB tsa ee Light showers of snow. SUB ie ie Cloudy. Calm...... Clear. Calm,..... Clear. Calm...... Clear. SSW ean Clear; cloudy in the evening. SAWivet see Snowed in the forenoon; at 2 p. m. clear. Calimiyn nace Clear; S. W. wind at 4 p- m.; the river froze over last night. SanWWicedes tee Cloudy; snow showers. SAW at Cloudy; snow showers. IN Site ence Clear. SPAWieecess Cloudy. Calm...... Clear. @almayee ses Clear. Calm...... Clear; N. wind in the afternoon. ea a Date. 1880. Nov. 10 Dec. 11 12 28 29 ow rFOoOenmnnN SOorkWNr OS ao A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE 331 He OLbo bo ID COWD SRO — bo 13 bot bo 35 — 48 =o — 48 — 18 — 26 — dl — vo — 34 — 36 — 3d — 21 — 22 — 30 — 25 — 30 — 38 — 38 — 60 — 66 — 42 | — 30 —19 —3l — 49 no — 20 — 48 | Calm N eee eee se eens wena ,ee ene Calm. ny. Calm Calin Calm Remarks. Light clouds. Light clouds. | Cloudy; light showers | of rain. | Cloudy. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds; snowed lightly in afternoon. Clear. Clear to 9 a. m. Cloudy ; snowed lightly in the afternoon. Cloudy. Cloudy; light showers of snow. Cloudy; snowing lightly. Cloudy; snowing lightly. Light showers of snow. Light showers of snow. Clear ; 1 p. m., calm. Clear to 9a. m.; N. W. wind; cloudy. | Cloudy ; snowed lightly all day. Rained all afternoon. Clear ; 1 p. m., calm Clear; 10a.m.,N.E.wind. Cloudy. Clear. | Clear. | Clear. | Clear; 10 a. m., light N. wind. Clear. Clear. Clear; 2 p. m., N. wind. Snowing lightly. Clear; 9 a. m., N. wind; | | Clear; 10 a. m., N. wind. | Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Light clouds. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear in N. W. Date. Feb. A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE | font) SOLO do He Ot a mMDeewcw ocr 13 Wind. Remarks. Dhan oe Clear. NSPE tals otese Light clouds. NG SB chee Light clouds. INSU SA tee oe Light clouds. ING t okey Cloudy; snowed in the afternoon. Sau: See Cloudy. Sie Weeks. eine Cloudy ; snowed lightly in the afternoon. ING Wha cs Light clouds. NEW. ete Light clouds. eV sees Cloudy. NA k thea Clear. SAW eueatae Cloudy; snowed in the afternoon. a Wigaiges oot Cloudy ; snowed lightly all day. SUR RG ugiee Light clouds. INGA ita cee Clear: 2 p.m., E. wind. INES site Clear. @alimererc- Clear. SoeE) aerateae Light clouds. Dorie tea Cloudy ; snowing lightly in the afternoon. Pee Ope aeices Cloudy; 2 p. m., calm and clear. Spulshoiianied: Cloudy SH Bigcaais. a Cloudy Shy] diame Cloudy. SHibienncas Cloudy ; snowed lightly all day. Si AWeeae Light clouds. SatWek wee Light clouds. SsAWitacase Cloudy; snowed nearly all day. Calmyen Clear. @alimee 4. Clear; 2 p.m.,S. E.wind ; cloudy. eB! Soran oa Cloudy. Sh dae soe Cloudy; snowed in the afternoon, — Si Bis eee Cloudy. Wink oie Clear. Light N....} Clear. Calmijen- Clear. Calla eae Clear. Light N....| Clear. Light N....} Clear. Light N....| Clear. Light N....} Clear Soi Cloudy ; snowed lightly all day. Calimeaenee Clear. INS VV sre rete Cloudy. A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE iz Date. = io) 4 1881. Feb. 8 |—10 9 | — 40 10 | — 46 11 |—49 12 |—5l 13 |—48 14 |— 47 15 |— 21 16 |—19 17% |= 23 18 |— 2 19 |— 48 20 | -—- 49 21 |— 47 22°|—46 23 | —- 47 24 |—50 25 | — 49 26 |—58 27 |— 57 28 |— 37 Mar. 1 |—43 2 |— 36 3 | —- 20 4\/— 6 5 |—10 6 |— 30 7|—19 8 |— 26 9|— 9 10 |— 6 11 |— 6 12 |— 24 13 | — 37 14 |— 10 15 |— 1 16 |— 15 17 |—17 18 |} — 1 19 |—10 20 16 21 |— 2 Peat 23 |— 2 24 9 25 |—10 26 |—15 27 |\— 16 ee) Wind. Light N.... Light N.... Si eee eee wee wee ste 2 eee © le a\ele.e = 6 © eee ee eet nee Py afar’, « eye see e ewes *ehele ei sree 309 Remarks. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Light clouds. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear; 2 p. m., light N. wind. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. a Clear. Clear. Clear. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds; snowed lightly in afternoon. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Light clouds. Light clouds. Cloudy. Clear. Cloudy; snowed nearly all day. Snowed in the forenoon; clear at 2 p. m. Cloudy. Cloudy. Cloudy; snow showers all day. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear; cloudy in evening. the A WINTER WEATHER RECORD FROM KLONDIKE 334 e | ¢ g | = Date. : R g ir : = : : a. ie! le eee a 1881. Mar. 28 9 10 Ue, 25 24 29 10 10 36 40 20 30 24 25 38 37 35 31 30 34 45 40 30 April 1 20 22 47 43 40 2 3 31 48 44 30 3 26 28 44 42 eae 4 35 38 43 40 37 5 18 mal 44 40 30 6 12 13 37 36 34 a 23 30 36 30 23 8 2 13 33 32 28 9 10 11 35 33 24 10 11 13 | 38 35 26 11 8 11 35 34 24 12 14 15 38 37 34 13 26 30 43 40 26 14 15 16 42 40 27 15 18 21 47 45 36 palG Wey) a 49 48 35 17 25 27 47 46 40 18 33 40 50 49 41 19 25 30 49 48 39 20 19 26 50 49 44 21 33 40 50 47 41 22 31 2p 42 39 3l 23 28 30 40 aif 30 24 19 24 39 38 36 25 31 34 40 39 32 26 25 28 Al Br | oo Be 27 28 30 38 35 29 ues 25 Dai 39 35 28 29 15 19 40 39 27 30 20 27 42 40 32 May 1 19 23 40 39 35 2 31 36 43 41 33 3 25) 31 36 30 25 4 15 25 38 30 30 5 20 25 354. 830 24. 6 10 12 31 28 23 7 20 23 39 38 35 8 22 27 45 46 37 9 26 3 45 43 34. 10 20 25 50 49 39 Wind. Light N.W. Light N.W. Light N.W. Light N.W. Light N.W. Sink vies Remarks. Cloudy. Cloudy; rained all the . afternoon. Cloudy. Clear. Clear ; afternoon cloudy. Clear. Snowed in the forenoon; light showers of snow in the afternoon. Cloudy; clear in the evening. Clear. Clear; 3 p. m., N. W. wind and cloudy. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Clear. Light clouds. Clear. Clear. Clear; geese were seen today. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds. Light clouds. Cloudy. Cloudy. Clear. Clear. Showers of snow and rain during the day. Clear. Clear. Clear. . Cloudy in the afternoon. Morning clear; snowed in the afternoon. Showers of snow in the afternoon. Clear. Cloudy in the afternoon. Clear. Clear. Cloudy. Cloudy ; light showers of rain in the afternoon. Cloudy; showery all day. Light clouds. THE RUSSIAN CENSUS OF 1897 the river this after- noon, ran 1 hour, and ats) 2 Es = = | Date. | sid at) Wind. Remarks. Peet So) 6 |S | 1881. | May 11 33 39 54 48 | 39}S8. W.:.... Cloudy in the afternoon. 12 34 38 50 45 of | DoW: ces. | Cloudy; showery all the | | forenoon; clear in the afternoon. 13 28 35 50 AE PAO ESE W oS Fins Cloudy. 14 30 36 54 46 | eal ROIA esisne ss Clear; the ice started in | stopped. 15 25 34 55 54; 45] S...........] Light clouds. 16 38 43 58 0 ae A i Seer Light clouds; the ice started again at 4 a. m. 17 40 45 42 46 BO) Biss teal Showery all day; plenty of ice still passing in the river. pale 35 40 45 cs RSS Od CHS SE Rained nearly all day; clear at 6 p.m. 19 30 36 54 DOL) et S. Wy. owes Cloudy in the afternoon ; there is still plenty of . drift ice in the river. 20 33 37 50 45, 43)S.W.. .. | Cloudy; showery in the afternoon ; the river is almost clear of ice. 21 36 40 50 46 AAS TSW ase asics Rained all the afternoon. 22 35 38 43 40 BGS Nt ee to. Clear. 23 28 31 40 39 210}.) (SIE oe Clear; start for St Mi- chael tomorrow. THE RUSSIAN CENSUS OF 1897 Until the present year the population of the whole Russian Empire has never been definitely known. Instead of a census the Russian government has depended in the past on partial enumerations, known under the name of “ Revisions,” of which there have been ten, five in the eighteenth century and five in the nineteenth century. The “ Revision” of 1851 gave a popu- lation of 67,380,645, and that of 1885, which was not considered entirely trustworthy, aggregated 108,819,332. According to the census of 1897 the population of the Russian Empire is 129,211,113. The distribution in various parts of the ° Empire is as follows: European Russia, 94,188,750; Poland, 9,442,590: the Caucasus, 9,723,553; Siberia, 5,731,782; Turkes- tan and the Transcaspian region, 4,175,101; the Steppes, 3,415,- 174; Finland, 2,527,801; Russian subjects in Bokhara and Khiva, 6,412. The most densely populated regions are Poland, 192.6 396 THE RUSSIAN CENSUS OF 1897 inhabitants per square mile; the Caucasus, 55.7, and European Russia, 50.6. Siberia contains only one person to each square mile, and the Steppes eight persons. Mr John Karel, Consul-General of the United States at St Pe- tersburg, points out the peculiar distribution of the population of European Russia. He says: The distribution of the 94,000,000 inhabitants in European Russia de- pends principally upon the natural and economic conditions of the plain of Russia, which is cut diagonally from Podolia and Bessarabia to the government of Viatka by the chernoziom (black earth) region. This region comprises less than 658,740 square miles, but if the non-chernoziom governments, in which is included the Moscow industrial district, be added thereto, it contains more than 746,572 square miles, 7. e., two-fifths of the whole plain of European Russia, which, according to the census, is inhabited by 63,000,000 people, or by two-thirds of the whole an tion of European Russia. The most compact population is centered on the narrow strip formed by the governments of Podolia, the chernoziom part of Volyn, the larger part of Kiev and Poltava, the chernoziom part of Chernigov, the non- steppe chernoziom parts of Kharkov and Voronezsh, and the chernoziom parts of Orel, Tamboy, Riazan, and Tula. The present tendency of population to drift to the cities, less marked in Russia than in Europe generally, is shown by the fact that there are no fewer than 125 cities in which the population exceeds 25,000. The 20 most populous cities are as follows: St Petersburg, 1,267,023 ; Moscow, 988,610; Warsaw, 614,752; Odes- sa, 404,651; Lodz, 314,780; Riga, 282,948 ; Kiev, 248,750; Khar- kov, 170,682; Tiflis, 159,862; Vilna, 159,568 ; Tashkent, 156,506 ; Saratov, 133,116; Kazan, 131,508; Ekaterinoslav, 121,216; Ros- toff-on-Don, 119,889; Astrakhan, 113,075 ; Baku, 112,253; Tula, 111,048 ; Kishinev, 108,506 ; Nijni-Novgorod, 98,5038. A. WG: The surprisingly early availability of the Russian census returns is due to the employment of the Hollerith tabulating machine, first used for census purposes by the United States government in 1890. Out of 2,403,750 Germans who left their native land between 1871 and 1896 about 96 per cent emigrated to the United States. Failing to divert the tide of emigration toward the German colonies in Africa, the govern- ment is now seeking to direct it toward certain parts of South America, in preference to the United States, where the peculiarities, language, and customs of the Germans are lost by assimilation and emigrants become competitors with the artisans and agriculturists of the mother country. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Pa al Fags Lat LF MOP ai ae ae N . ¢ CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the East and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. iS) OF course you expect to go there this winter. Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads viathe . . Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including Mt. Hood and [t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [It. St. Helens, rt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. NCCC TCC CTP ECS TEPC P LLL LISTS. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE => SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS . BETWEEN... Washington and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knoxville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K. C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... ... .« The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts of » ». « MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —-AND THE BEST— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs— The Land of the Sky.’’ Write for Map Folders. A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 106 KE. German Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, "General Agent Passenger Department, Washington, DIG: Jose WINGFIELD, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCO’ TER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Reunt W. H. TAYLOE, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the Worid. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - 2 - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - = - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business~. - - : - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since . its Ansaid sree 1843, | - - $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second. Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE EeaSTPAUL gost lus MI NMEAPOLIS Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . Wy BEG | oe i . ‘arg pieroR™™ FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars, Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' © E: £. LOMA; Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND OY. PAUL RAILWAY - RUNS .. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chitace: St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. 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WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE eS Brace fae en > MAMMOTH ORY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT © @ Sc OF ~7e @ © WOODWARD & LOTHROP © eeoeeooeeooeesceseeesooese: Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are Baye on mae The attention of those who BE unas purchasing \ BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in any number of pieces desired. : HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in style and 4( es oY: design: Three or more pieces 5 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . ° WASHINGTON, D. C. Bo rOOOOS> NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | ) | ; ; t Shortest Line St. Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO 2 GREAT “. 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This journal is now in its /ez¢h year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- oGY, FoOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocioLoGy, HIsToRY, SOMATOLOGY, PsyCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PuHiILoLocy. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription: list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Szdscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. A bibliography of the anthropologic literature of the world is one of its futures. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Dlustrated. Published Monthly—Two Dollars a Year. Volume XI Begins with January, 1898. “Appress: | THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, 1804 Columbia Road, Washington, D. C. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 189%. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico.,........... ... $3.50 a year Po other: Subscribersomi-the Postal Waniontees -eece sehr eee teers 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Nineteen volumes are completed; the twentieth began with the number for July, 1897. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. 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Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - . - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - Se Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller ; THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM An International Quarterly Journal Edited by L. A. BAUER With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians ‘(ges the March, 1897, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, Atmospheric Electricity, etc., entered on its second volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘he geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Eschenhagen, Littlehales, Rticker, Schmidt, Schuster, and de Tillo. Future numbers will contain: ‘¢ The Earth, a Great Magnet,’’ By Dr. J. A. FLEMING. ‘¢ The Electrification of the Atmosphere,”’ By Pror. ALEXANDER MCADIE. ‘‘The Height of the Aurora,’’ By Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE. ‘¢ The Distribution of Magnetic Observatories,’’ (Illustrated), By Pror. MAX ESCHENHAGEN, etc, etc. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 200 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars; single numbers, fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Nine shillings, nine marks, or eleven francs. Address : ‘ TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE = \ : X NS 4 Ne NY \ EOPLE like to read about the great ¥& Ae ae \ \ and wonderful country of the 4 \ SX i y % NS \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious A charming book covering these \ f x a aay } % a facts is issued by the N N towns, its ancient civilizations, its % N \ : g Sy PASSENGER DEPARTMENT N S 4 ee EN . natural marvels. They like to get ac- % OF THE \ NY > Ss NS . . e e ~%9 ege . SS ~ curate information about California 4 Southern Pacific Railway, ~ \ + < \ +e Hate #, and will be sent to anyone, postpaid, \ and the Pacific Coast. This is because ef on receipt of TEN CENTS. \ SW “ SX \ most people want to some day see these 4 \ SS eo NY \ things for themselves..........- % \ \ 5 ; ‘ 4 4 N \ 4 \ NS SX \ Ww SX SN N NS NS \ Soaseokecgecgergeaseaseose ose geeseesensease see sree eae sie see sse Ore OO ueen ea ease are nseyseeses sea easeHeeseores® N WN % < SN \ % % N \ oe oe \ SS x we N \ gS ; X N ~ THE BOOK IS ENTITLED % N \ Ke SS N vo P< WN \ oe $ 6 h h St i d ~ ; \ SS OO % NX \ S | roug ory an = < Ws +, \7 SS %e DG NX \N ote ee N . RA S > > 2 % N N ae t t S % \ : 2 Oo ounSEe CaS, + N fe ee S x Ra % \ N oe nS N NN as * N \ e o X S . Sees esegeatenseareateateeetecseeteetentoatontontosecgesseeseeteetoatoatoatengeegeceeseeteeteetoafoageagesgege N N N N SS SS \ sheoeatetentestenestete fosteatstontestoteatstontetocoatotoatetondntectntestontetor N ae . \ N oe N \ oA oat = AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ \ Bo UN \ " y \ SS eo \ % SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, © \ You can get a copy by writing to % N N * WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIO \ < S. F. B. MORSE, + USTRATION SS $9 5 < General Passenger Agent, % The paper used is FINE PLATE N N Southern Pacific, 4 : NN \ New @rlesas en PAPER, and every typographical de- \ \ : ‘, ve Ns Atos 3 SX N and sending 10 cts. to defray postage. & tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ S S \N : e% : ; \ \ *¢ four people saw on just such a trip as N . ot : \ \ * you would like to make.......+ W . BS N oe iY n My Mw Wy yy 4 4 “MY 4 ” Wit ty “4 “ i 4 w 4 Ms 4 ty 4 4 4 4 \\ 7 “yy O > | i} if 1O) A Z| oe - a“ aa OF ‘course you expect to go there this winter. Let me whisper something in your ear, Be sure that ...the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including Tt. Hood and [t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. Vaasa. TPP PPUPEPVPLEL IVEY. - é 1 Burlington ~ Aoute BEST LINE CHIGAGO on ST. Louis ysJODD & 2) yRheck Pr TA SPAM DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTO MINNEAPO 7 7 . Ae es Editor: JOHN HYDE Associate Editors GR WwW J McGEE HENRY GANNETT ‘| HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORB CONTENTS PAGE ASHINGTON AQUEDUCT AND CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. strations. D. D. GAILLARD. 337 IN ER +REBNE HUBBARD. 345 TION C OF THE POTOMAC RIVER. FP. H NEWELL. 346 TA OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. BE. L. CORTHELL. 351 NNEX ! * HENRY GANNETT. 354 ; pemeyars AND PROF. WJ McGEB. With portraits. 358 RECENT “GEOGRAPHIC EVENTS. 359 hic Literature, p. 362; Proceedings of the National Geographic Society. 365; Geographic Notes, p. 367. % WASHINGTON _ PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY é > Acests inetue Univep Staves anp CANnapa Amertcay News Company, 39 anp 41 CHAMBERS STREET, New York sitet Paris: BRENTANOS, 37 AVENUE DE L’OPERA $2.50 a Year athe Post-office im Fn esaamgal D.C., as Second-class Mail Matter. ee i? Lo - THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMENT To fill the vacancy in the presidency caused by the lamented death of Mr Gardiner G. Hubbard, General A. W. Greely, U.S. A., has been designated by the Board of Managers as © Acting-President. At some personal inconvenience General ~ Greely has acceded to the request of the Board, but has inti- mated that his official and other duties will render it impossible for him to serve the Society in this capacity for more than a * short time. : The Board of Managers have accepted the resignation of Mr Everett Hayden as Recording Secretary, Mr Hayden still remaining a member of the Board. To fill this vacancy Mr FF. Newell, a former secretary, has been designated, it being the intention of the Board to employ as Assistant Secretary some person who is qualified not only to perform the clerical duties of the position, but also to relieve the editors of the Magazine by acting as business manager of that publication. | The Society’s office has been removed to Room 55, Ohio” National Bank Building, on the northwest corner of Twelfth and G Streets N.W. (In these more commodious quarters it is expected to so arrange the Society’s Library as to make it available to visiting members and their friends. The transac- tion of business will be facilitated by the addressing of mail to the undersigned at the above address, Pot NB We ‘ Secretary 77 aUualIG {0 JUIMIIUDAD PIUPIIG JO JUPMLIIUDLP Y ay. AOf UOMDIIOSS FY UDILIAIM BP AY] fO JUAPISald-GUlI 24] LOf UOLIDIIOSS PY YSizl1g ayy {0 ]MapIsa.|, Y/ 17D. lj ! F 97 | P: 279 i 7 Di F YSLHIAG 9Y7 | PISINT ASaS9W f M “S0OUd SNVAS NHOP HIS 88 “Id ‘2681 ‘IIIA “10A “OVW “SOAD “LVN National Geographic Magazine Vou. VIII DECEMBER, 1897 No. 12 THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT AND CABIN JOHN BRIDGE * By D. D. GaILiArp, Captain, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army The idea of supplying the city of Washington with water at some day was contemporaneous with the planning of the city, and numerous examinations and surveys were made by Major L’Enfant, the engineer and architect of the Government, under the direction of General Washington, of the Potomac river, the Kastern branch, Rock creek, and numerous springs and small streams, as possible sources of future supply. The first definite plan to be found among the records of the Washington Aqueduct Office is given in a report made in Janu- ary, 1851, by Brevet Lieut. Col. George W. Hughes, Corps of Topographical Engineers, to Colonel J. J. Abert, Chief of Topo- graphical Engineers, in compliance with an act of Congress, ap- proved September 30, 1850, appropriating $500 “ to enable the War Department to make such examinations and surveys as may be necessary to determine the best and most available mode of supplying the city of Washington with pure water and to prepare a plan and estimate of the probable cost of the same, ‘to be reported to Congress at its next session.” After an investigation of the subject Colonel Hughes proposed to obtain the necessary supply from Rock creek by damming the stream about six miles above the city and bringing the water into a receiving reservoir through a conduit of oval cross- section having an estimated capacity of $8,000,000 gallons in 24 hours. * Read before the National Geographic Society, October 2, 1897. tw wo 338 THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT It is interesting at this point to compare the estimate of the supply needed for the city in 1851 with that actually furnished | in 1897—but 46 years later. The population of Washington and Georgetown was then about 48,000; now it is over 278,000 ; then 30 gallons was considered by Colonel Hughes a high esti- mate for the average daily per capita consumption; during the past month the average daily consumption for every inhabitant of the District of Columbia was 173 gallons; then the total esti- mated maximum consumption of water was 1,500,000 gallons per day; during the past month it actually exceeded 48,000,000 gallons per day. No action appears to have been taken by Congress toward car- rying out the plan proposed by Colonel Hughes, and the next | step was one which eventually resulted in the construction of the present aqueduct system. ‘The 32d Congress at its first ses- sion appropriated $5,000 to enable the President of the United States to cause to be made the necessary surveys, projects, and estimates for determining the best manner “ of affording to the cities of Washington and Georgetown an unfailing and abundant supply of good and wholesome water.” In accordance with this legislation the necessary surveys were made in the winter of 1852-53 by Lieutenant (afterward General) Montgomery C. Meigs, U. S. Corps of Engineers. who, in his report of February 12, 1853, proposed three plans for obtaining the necessary water supply, submitted estimates of the cost of each, and entered into a broad and far-sighted discussion of the subject of supply- ing the cities with water. In urging the necessity of a suitable supply he states that it was the general custom in Washington at that time to have all “the water for a family brought by the servant-maids from the street pump,” a crude condition of affairs which the average Washingtonian of today will find it hard to believe existed but a little more than 40 years ago. Briefly summed up, the three sources of supply proposed by General Meigs were as follows: (1) From Rock creek, by means of adam and a conduit under natural flow. Estimated mini- mum daily supply, 9,860,000 galions ; estimated cost, $1,258,863. (2) From the Potomac at Little Falls, six miles above George- town, by means of a dam across the river, a canal and pumping machinery to raise the water to the reservoirs. Estimated mini- mum daily supply, 12,000,000 gallons; estimated cost, $1,662,215. (3) From the Potomac, just above the Great Falls, by means of : ; } : THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT 339 a dam, a masonry conduit, two reservoirs, and the necessary bridges. Estimated daily supply, 36,01! 5,400 gallons; estimated cost, $1,921,244. This last estimate was based upon a conduit of seven feet in diameter and a bridge of a different design from that finally built over Cabin John creek. General Meigs recommended an increase in the diameter of the conduit to nine feet, which, with the changed plan of the bridge just mentioned, made the final estimated cost about $2,435,000 and increased the estimated ea- pacity of the conduit to 67,596,400 gallons, a most fortunate change for the citizens of the District of Columbia, for, had the seven-foot conduit been built, the limit of its capacity would have been reached about six years ago. In his report General Meigs urged the adoption of the third plan, calling attention to the fact that the waterworks of this country had been almost invariably designed on an inadequate scale, and that the history of all these works showed that the daily per capita consumption of water was increasing at a rate comparatively rapid. In consequence of this fact and of the rapid growth of population, many of these earlier works proved insufficient within a few years after construction. Too much praise, then, cannot be given to the man who in 18538 planned a conduit with an ultimate daily capacity equal to one and one-half times the amount then furnished to the city of London, nearly four times that furnished to Paris, two and one- half times that furnished to New York, five times that furnished to Philadelphia, and one and one-half times that then furnished to Rome, although in A. D. 101 Rome had a daily supply of 377,000,000 gallons. Be it remembered that General Meigs did this when the combined population of Washington and George- town was but 58,000, which it was estimated would then require for all public and domestic purposes a total supply of but 5,220,000 gallons, about one-fifteenth of the ultimate capacity of the conduit. General Meigs’ recommendation of the enlarged Great Falls plan and his reasons therefor carried such weight that they re- ceived the strong indorsement of General Joseph G. Totten, Chief of Engineers, when he forwarded the report to the Hon. C. M. Conrad, Secretary of War, who submitted it to President Fill- more without comment. The first appropriation for the construction of the aqueduct was made in March, 1853, and the actual work of breaking ground 340 THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT was commenced in November, 1855. In order that the city might receive a supply of water as soon as possible, work was pushed upon the receiving (Dalecarlia) reservoir and the con- duit connecting it with the supply mains, and on January 3, 1859, water from the Dalecarlia reservoir was introduced into the pipes leading to the city. This was not Potomac water, how- ever, but was supplied by the streams emptying into the Dale- earlia reservoir, which streams are now diverted therefrom by the admirable system of protection works completed in 1895 by Colonel George H. Elliot, U.S. Corps of Engineers, retired. This mode of supply continued until the conduit between Great Falls and the Dalecarlia reservoir was completed, in 1865, and on De- cember 5, 1863, Potomac water was introduced into the Dalecarlia reservoir for the first time. Conns island separates the Potomac at Great Falls into two . parts, known as the Maryland and Virginia channels respect- ively. In order to divert water into the mouth of the conduit- feeder at Great Falls a temporary dam of stone and crib work was built across the Maryland channel, 1857 to 1864, which was ~ replaced by a masonry dam completed in 1867. In 1883-’86 the masonry dam was extended across the Virginia channel. In times of very low water in the Potomac this dam, the crest of which was at an elevation of 148 feet above mean tide at the Washington navy yard, did not raise the water to a height suffi- cient to fill the mouth of the conduit at Great Falls, and in 1895-96 the whole dam was raised 2+ feet, so that at low stages of the Potomac the mouth of the conduit is just filled. The Washington aqueduct system as it exists today is, with but few modifications, that originally planned by General Meigs. The water supply is taken from the Potomac river at Great Falls, about 14 miles above the city. At this point a masonry dam eight feet in width on the top and 2,877 feet in length, completed in 1896, extends across the river from the Maryland to the Vir- ginia shore. The water passes from the feeder, under the Ches- apeake and Ohio canal, through the gatehouse and into the conduit, which is circular in cross-section, and for the greater part of its entire length is nine feet in diameter and composed either of rubble masonry plastered or of three rings of brick, but where the soil in which it was built was considered partic- ularly good the inner ring of brick was omitted and the diameter was nine feet nine inches. Where the conduit passes as an un- lined tunnel through rock the excavation was sufficient to contain an inscribed circle 11 feet in diameter. ‘9 GO ‘NOLONIHSWM YV3N ‘W33NO NHOP NIBVO Y3AO 390148 LONGINOV WEEE a! Banos PIN Cop Raa mcd wy lucas step - BTM HEY “QUOLEPUTE VI2UIG — BEM Jaden “Buc, P Paces veaurg - Fpspurdg ‘QuOLP PUY “oeMegG — Wave 21992 HD'29S *aysuvsB Fauind — WAT PUNOGT YTD ‘eL-tlea\ Prraqjsuod yt qodeard “h9Bl P2MSWU09D Lorjyow 14PuU0D L5@l PRBBMawRLS? Wer NAysu09Sy Yin gi — —R- —Y YOU BLL a | eee 0 FY G LL MY sore yedg— — — — — — —~—- — — — — ; ! : = ie & [eS e hi on Z 1 G y eV g GZ 4 Y=» ey $ < ~~ Jy ww FY yy Ry "goqa1ug NHOCNISVYD ea 542 THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT The total length of the conduit and the two by-conduits around the reservoirs is 12 miles, and its slope is nine inches in 5,000 feet. Constructed by General Meigs in connection with the aqueduct system are five bridges, two of which are unique among engineering structures and will be briefly described later. At the distributing reservoir the water passes into four cast- iron mains—48 inches, 36 inches, 30 inches, and 12 inches in diameter respectively. The Dalecarlia reservoir has a storage capacity of about 150,000,000 gallons, is practically without paved slope-walls, and is perfectly protected against pollution from the drainage of the surrounding country. The distributing reservoir has a storage capacity of about 150,850,000 gallons and is divided by a puddled and paved wall (through which is a passageway) into two sections containing 97,600,000 and 58,250,000 gallons respectively. The Georgetown high-service reservoir has a capacity of about 1,500,000 gallons. In addition to the three reservoirs already mentioned, which form a part of the aqueduct system, there is another reservoir, built and controlled by the Commissioners of the District of Co- lumbia, called the Fort Reno reservoir, with a capacity of about 4,500,000 gallons, the reference of its water surface when the reservoir is full being about 420 feet above mean tide at the navy yard. The Dalecarlia and distributing reservoirs supply the pumping station and that part of the District which hes below 100 feet above datum. The areas lying between the levels of 100 and 210 feet above datum are supplied by pumping from the U-street station directly into the distributing mains, the Georgetown high- service reseryoir being held asa reserve supply. The areas hav- ing a greater elevation than 210 feet above datum are supplied from the Fort Reno reservoir. It will be observed, therefore, that the total present storage capacity of all reservoirs is a little less ‘than 307,000,000 gallons, or about six days’ supply. In July, 1897, for the first time in its history the conduit was permitted to discharge its maximum flow, which by current meter observations was found to be 76,500,000 gallons per 24 hours. Today the average daily consumption is about 45,000,000 gallons, or about 60 per cent of the ultimate capacity of the conduit. Ten years ago it was but 35 per cent, or less than 27,000,000 gallons. To avoid misapprehension it should be stated that while the conduit can supply the distributing reservoir with 76,500,000 gallons per day, yet the pipes leading from the reservoir to the THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT 343 city are already overtaxed in supplying the present rate of con- sumption, and no relief will be felt by consumers until some method is provided for bringing an increased quantity of water from the distributing reservoir into the city. General Meigs was in charge of the work upon the Washington aqueduct from the time of the first survey until July, 1860, when he was relieved by Captain H. W. Benham, of the U. 8. Corps of Engineers, who in turn was succeeded by Lieutenant James St. ©, Morton, of the same corps. On February 22, 1861, after an ab- sence of seven months, General Meigs was again placed in charge, and the work was practically completed by him. In June, 1862, owing to the overworked condition of the War Department, the charge of the Washington aqueduct was transferred from that department to the Department of the Interior, where it remained until April, 1867, when it again passed into the care of the War Department, and has remained there ever since. In his report upon the proposed line of the conduit, General Meigs states that seven miles after leaving Great Falls the only serious obstacle in its whole course, the valley of Cabin John branch, is encountered. This valley, he says, might be crossed by pipes, but he states that in his project he has avoided them because “they always occasion a loss of head or else exceed in cost the bridges they replace.” He therefore first proposed to cross the valley by a bridge 482 feet long and 20 feet wide, sup- ported upon six semi-circular arches of 60 feet span, resting upon piers seven feet thick at the top and of various heights, the highest being 523 feet. The estimated cost of this bridge was $72,409. This plan was afterward entirely changed and the present mag- nificent structure, the grandest stone arch in existence, was erected. The total length of the bridge, including abutments, is 450 feet; its width is 20 feet 4 inches, and its height above the bottom of the creek 100 feet. The span of the arch is 220 feet and the rise 57.26 feet. It was begun in 1857 and completed, with the exception of the parapet walls, in 1864, These walls were built in 1872~’73, vehicles having been prevented from getting off the bridge prior to that time by timber guards. All the original plans of the bridge are signed by General Meigs as chief engineer of the Washington aqueduct and by Alfred 1. Rives, assistant en- gineer, Cabin John division. The entire bridge contains 13,288 cubic yards of stone masonry, concrete, and brick-work, and it cost, complete, about $254,000. The cut-stone archi is of Quiney a44 THE WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT (Massachusetts) granite, the abutments are of Montgomery county gneiss, and the rubble arch, spandrils, and parapet are of Seneca sandstone. Contrary to the general impression, the space between the spandril and abutment walls is not solid, but contains several arches, built, as shown in the drawing, to effect a saving in masonry. Materials were transported to the bridge by boat via the Chesapeake and Ohio canal and Cabin John creek, across which a dam was built near the canal, and the pool thus formed was connected with the latter by a lock. - On the south side of the west abutment of the bridge the fol- lowing inscription is cut: Washington Aqueduct, Begun A. D. 1853. President of the U. 8. Franklin Pierce. Secretary of War, Building A. D. 1861. President of the U.8., Abraham Lincoln. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron. This inscription originally contained the name‘of Jefferson Davis, which was cut out in the summer of 1862 by the con- tractor by order of the Secretary of the Interior, Hon. Caleb B. Smith, to whose department the aqueduct had been recently transferred. If forgetfulness of the bare historical fact as to who was Secretary of War at the time was the object sought by the erasure, the result has been a woeful failure, for the inherent curiosity of mankind is such that the erased name is more strongly impressed upon the memory of the visitor than would have been the case had it remained untouched. In concluding the description of the Washington aqueduct and its special structures, it is proper to call attention to another of its bridges, the bridge over Rock creek on Pennsylvania ave- nue, as noted for its bold originality as is Cabin John bridge for its grand proportions. . This bridge is unique among the aqueduct bridges of the world, in that the two 48-inch mains, through which now flows about one-half of the water used by the city, themselves form the arched ribs which support the roadway overhead. The span of this bridge is 200 feet and its rise 20 feet. At the time it was built it was the only one of its kind in the world, and it enjoys, it is believed, this distinction at the present day. It was much commented upon by European engineers, and was illustrated in many ofthe foreign scientific and engineering journals of the time. D MOLT 010 Ye s oO Yano ‘Ad Mond 4q ydv GQ1YOM 3HL NI HOYV ANOLS LSSDYV1 SHL — LONGANOV NOLONIHSVM — 3901Y¥d NHOP Niadvo ‘ GARDINER GREENE HUBBARD It is with the most profound regret that we record the death of Mr Gardiner G. Hubbard, which occurred at his country house, Twin Oaks, near Washington, on Saturday, December 1 1. While the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Washington mourns the loss of a many-sided and broad-minded president, the Smithsonian Institution a most active and saga- cious regent, the Columbian University a generous and indefat- igable trustee, and other educational, patriotic, and benevolent institutions of the national capital a liberal benefactor, a wise counselor, or an earnest colaborer, it is in the National Geographic Society and its work that the most conspicuous gap has been created. The President of this Society from its foundation, Mr Hubbard was enabled by a combination of circumstances as exceptional as it was fortunate to sustain a relation to it that is probably without a parallel in the history of scientific societies. It is no new thing for such societies to enjoy the benefactions of wealthy and generous patrons and the inestimable advantage of the wise counsels of far-seeing and judicial-minded advisers con- currently with the inspiring influence of men of the broadest culture and the most progressive ideas. Rarely if ever before, however, have these qualities and functions been united in one individual, or has there been so singularly varied a capacity for usefulness as was given to Mr Hubbard and as he exercised to its fullest extent. The loss to the National Geographic Society is for this reason an irreparable one, and the ordinary expressions of regret seem cold and conventional. It is impossible, in this number of the Magazine, to attempt a portrayal of Mr Hubbard’s unique personality, or to do justice to the nobility of his character, or render adequate tribute to his unexampled services to the Society. We can only record his deeply lamented death, refer thus briefly to his untiring labors for the advancement of science, and announce that a more ex- tended notice of his life and work will appear in the January number of this journal. A ae + POLLUTION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER, By F. H. Newer, Chief Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey The facts concerning the pollution of the Potomac river are of peculiar concern to the residents of Washington because of the fact that the supply for domestic and municipal use is de- rived mainly from that stream, only a small portion being ob- tained from wells orsprings. This water we know to be polluted, but opinions differ widely as to whether these pollutions are negligible or may be sources of ever-present danger to the com- munity. In order to discuss the subject intelligibly it is necessary to have clearly in mind the situation of the catchment basin of the river, as well as the relative position of the various tributaries and of the principal towns and political divisions. We of course know that the Potomac is one of the principal rivers of the At- lantic slope, receiving the drainage from an area which lies about midway of the eastern side of the United States. It rises in the Alleghany mountains, its drainage basin embracing portions of the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Vir- ginia. At this part of the system the mountains have a general trend a little north of northeast, the narrow valleys between the ridges are nearly parallel, and thus the streams coming from the mountain sides unite in creeks or rivers flowing either north- easterly or southwesterly. Taking the Potomac basin asa whole, by far the greater number of the tributaries flow toward the north- east, the streams coming from the northern part of the basin being relatively small. The main river itself, receiving from ° point to point the tributaries from each side, cuts directly across the mountains, having a southeasterly direction, although in detail its course is quite crooked. The absence of lakes, marshes, and broad valleys renders the tributary streams rapid in their delivery of precipitation upon the basin, the Potomac being subject to sudden floods, and the dry season discharge being very small. For this reason the river as a source of power is not so valuable as might be expected from the size of its drainage area. At the points where the river 346 Se —— POLLUTION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER 347 cuts through the successive mountain ridges the slope is rapid, but there are no falls of considerable magnitude until the stream has passed the Piedmont plateau and reached the border of the softer Cretaceous rocks. Here, at the fall line, it forms a succes- sion of cataracts, a drop of 90 feet occurring within a short dis- tance at the Great Falls. At about this locality the city of Wash- ington has been placed, its situation being governed by the questions of navigation and of water-power. These have been the factors which have contributed largely to the growth and development of important cities along what is known as the Fall line, extending from New York to Georgia. Just before the river takes its plunge over the Great Falls a small portion of its water is diverted into an aqueduct, which, following along the north side of the river, delivers by gravity a supply of water to the reservoirs, which in turn feed the water system for the city. One of the most notable features is that the river receives only a few short streams from the north, the greater portion of the water coming from the south and flowing northeasterly in the nearly parallel narrow valleys between the mountain ridges. The rivers meander through trough-like valleys, cut out mainly in limestone, the bounding ridges being of sandstone or other hard resisting rocks. These ridges rise to heights of 2,000 feet or more and are usually forestelad. The precipitation from these ridges, usually in the form of rain, is partly evaporated or taken up by vegetation, about 50 per cent or a little more flowing down the steep hillsides to the valleys. This run-off water is pure and clear, but upon reaching the lowlands it mingles with the washings from the rich soils and cultivated fields, and becomes, in time of flood at least, turbid and yellow. The lowlands, Bapecially of the wide valleys such as the Shenandoah, are ee rich, and prosperous farms are to be found their entirelength. These have induced the growth of villages and towns, some of which, under the stimulus of small manufacturing industries, are rapidly growing. As arule these are situated upon some stream, since their location has been primarily determined by a water-power mill or ford. The refuse from all these towns is, as a matter of course, discharged into the stream. Potomac river, as the name is commonly applied, results from the union of the North branch, the stream above which Cum- berland, Md., is located, with the South branch, at a point about 12 miles below this city. The North branch and the main 348 POLLUTION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER stream into which it empties form the state boundary between Maryland and West Virginia. The South branch lies wholly within this latter state. At their headwaters these two branches flow in a general northeasterly direction, nearly parallel to each other, the North branch being to the west of the Alleghany front and the South branch to the east. The. total drainage area of the North branch at Cumberland is 891 square miles, or about 8 per cent of the entire catchment area above the city of Wash- ington. The total drainage area of the North branch at its mouth, or where it joins the South branch, is 1,365 square miles, being a trifle smaller than the area drained by the latter. The waters of the North branch of the Potomac, even near its head, are naturally somewhat dark in color, and it is stated by the older inhabitants of the region that it has always been thus, owing probably to the presence of decaying vegetable matter from the forests. This is further increased by the effluents from the saw-mills, tanneries, and coal mines, so that at the old mill- dam near Keyser the polluted water agitated by the fall boils and foams, forming in the early morning a thick layer of whitish- brown froth. In order to obtain a general conception of the amount of pol- lution, it is necessary to know how much water is carried by the river. This, of course, varies from day to day and even hour by hour. These minor fluctuations are slight, and by taking special care during time of flood it is possible to know how much water is delivered by the main stream and its principal tributaries. Without entering into a discussion of how this is accomplished, it is sufficient to state that the results are given in a table show- ing the average daily flow throughout the year in cubic feet per second. . The minimum flow of the river has been considered to be that obtained by Mr William R. Hutton in 1856, 1,068 cubic feet per second. It is probable that during the past fall (1897), owing to the protracted dry weather, the discharge sank to about this amount. At that time the water received into the conduit is stated to have been from 75 to 90 second-feet, or from 7 to 9 per cent of the total volume of the river. It is evident that the quantity of water in the Potomac, espe- cially at times of flood, is very considerable, and that sewage and waste material dumped into it from towns and manufacturing establishments must be greatly diluted, but in times of low water this must necessarily become less so. The quality of the water POLLUTION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER S49 is therefore becoming more and more a matter of concern be- cause of the fact that with the increase of population in the Po- tomac basin the artificial impurities will increase and the amount of water to be taken out at Washington will also be greater, while’ the natural flow of the stream is practically unaffected. As be- fore stated, the impurities are of two kinds, natural and artificial. The natural impurities consist mainly of the finely divided soil washed from the agricultural lands of the valleys, this being for the most part the residual matter left by solution of limestones, It exists in such fine particles that while the water is in motion it is not deposited and may remain in suspension for days, even after the water sample has been put into a closed bottle. The proportion of this mud varies from time to time, being greatest during floods and least during periods of low water, when the supply is received by percolation from underground sources. At such times the water is clear and entirely unobjec-* tionable as far as casual observation is concerned, but the flow in the river is greatly diminished and the proportion of sewage must be notably increased. While the natural impurities are usually so apparent and an- noying to the eye through the dirty color and muddy sediment, the artificial impurities, on the other hand, are not so readily noted. The heavier particles of the waste from the towns and manufacturing establishments arewashed down the stream slowly and are gradually burned up or oxidized or pass into solution in the form of various organic compounds. ‘These, as a rule, do not notably discolor the water, and some of them may even aid in giving a bright, sparkling effect, so that very dilute sewage when exposed to light and air for a few hours may be unobjectionable to the eye, although carrying with it a great load of objectionable substances or minute animal or vegetable life. The pollution of the Washington water supply would be very little if the headwaters of the Potomac could be cut off just below Cumberland, and while the water is very bad at that point, it should be remembered that it is there a comparatively small stream, with a minimum discharge of less than 60 feet per second, while the minimum discharge at Point of Rocks, so far as ob- served, is about 800 second-feet, and the Monocacy and a number of smaller tributaries reach the river between that point and the intake of the waterworks at Great Falls. In times of low water, when, of course, these pollutions bear the largest ratio to the total supply, the Potomac at Cumberland 390 POLLUTION OF THE POTOMAC RIVER probably contributes not more than six per cent of the water carried by the Potomac at Great Falls, and this small percentage traverses about 190 miles of broad river bed, agitated and broken by numerous shoals and diluted by fresh waters bearing more or less oxygen and sediment tending to its purification. While these influences contribute to ameliorate the quality of the water, it cannot be contended that the supply for this city is entirely as it should be. Sufficient has been said to indicate that a considerable amount of filth of all kinds is habitually dumped into the river, and that this is steadily increasing. It is not desirable to describe or characterize this material under any stronger term than sewage, as the details are too disgusting to be given in a public address. It may properly be claimed, howeyer, that no matter how bad the material is at the point where discharged, it becomes neutral- ‘ized or destroyed before the water containing it reaches the Wash- ington aqueduct. The self-purification of rivers is a phrase which has been made the excuse for much carelessness or indifference, but there is no doubt that streams do tend to rid themselves of much of their undesirable load. The conditions along the Potomac are particularly favorable, for the water passes over many broad riffles where it is exposed to ight and air, and many deleterious substances are unques- tionably burned up, while others may possibly be dragged down by the finely divided sediment which is usually present. Thus the chemicals used in the pulp mills, tanneries, and other facto- ries are greatly diluted, and by reaction upon each other and upon the small amount of lime carried in solution probably form harmless compounds. The momentous question therefore is as to the behavior of the small micro-organisms,to which the modern students of disease attribute such potent influence on the human system. Take, for example, the typhoid bacillus, which is said to live even in ice for.a hundred days or more and to develop in soil, retaining its vitality for a year and even increasing from a single cell to 16 million individuals in 24 hours. It may be questioned whether such an organism is rendered harmless in the journey of from two to four days or more from the sewers of towns up the river to the mouth of the aqueduct. We are comforted by the assurance that harmful bacteria are rarely found in Potomac water; but still this may not set us wholly at rest, for negative evidence in such a case proves little. The discussion of the probable danger from sewage must be left THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 35 to experts in other lines, for the work in hand pertains mainly to ascertaining the quantity of supply, its variations, anc ; | its use. The facts which have been put on record are those concerning the source and quantity of water in the river, the location and character of the polluting agencies, and inferentially the degree to which the sewage or waste is diluted by the annual flow of the stream. Until state or national legislation can be secured to regulate such matters, the Potomac, as in the case of all interstate streams, must serve as a sort of sewer into which town and manufactur- ing establishments empty their refuse, and this fact must be borne in mind in all considerations of water supply. The im- provement of water supplies from this source should begin at both ends—that is to say, pollution should be prevented as far as possible and the water supply for a city should be filtered. The state of Massachusetts has set the example in this respect, preventing the pollution of streams by gradually forcing towns to provide suitable sand filters for sewage before allowing it to discharge into certain rivers, and also by providing similar sand filtration for the water which is to be used for municipal pur- poses. The system ofintermittent sand filtration has been found to be efficacious not only in taking out visible particles but in nitrifying and destroying the smaller organisms apparently so potent in matters of public health. fie EGTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER* By E. L. CortHetn, C.E., D.Sc., etc. The Mississippi delta proper extends over 100 miles by the course of the river above the city of New Orleans. The materials composing this great mass of sedimentary deposit have been partly disclosed by numerous artesian wells which have from time to time been driven for the purpose of obtaining, if possi- ble, potable water. The most notable instance, and where prob- ably the most careful observations were made, is the artesian well at Lafayette square, New Orleans. At a depth of 1,042 feet the tool was broken and the work ended, but driftwood was pumped up at the last foot. *Abridgment of paper read before the Geographical Section of the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Toronto, August 24, IS. 352 THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Many interesting facts bearing upon the question of the geo- logical formation of the Mississippi delta were brought to atten- tion two years ago through the investigations and discussions connected with an engineering question which arose between the executors of the late Mr James B. Kads and the War Department as to what is the legal plane of reference for ascertaining the depths and widths of channel which Mr Eads was required by the law of the Federal Congress to maintain between the deep water of the South Pass of the Mississippi river and the Gulf of Mexico. On Belize bayou, which leads out to the Gulf from one of the now unused passes of the river, stands an old Spanish magazine, built over 200 years ago. At the time of building the jetties at the mouth of the South Pass this magazine was in a fair state of preservation. The exterior was intact and there were no cracks which would indicate settlement, the building standing perfectly level, but with the surface of the water stretching across the arch which crowned the entrance door, the sill of which must have been at least ten feet below the water. That was in the year 1877. Nineteen years later a part of the structure had been removed, but enough of the roof and arches remained to show that the subsidence had continued steadily during that period of nine- teen years at about the same rate as during the preceding two hundred years. It may be stated that this rate, both from this instance and from other information, is, at the mouth of the Mississippi, about one-half of one-tenth of a foot per annum. Numerous illustrations going to prove the general subsidence of the delta lands might be stated. Not only are these lands unstable in a vertical direction, but they are often found to be so in alateral direction. It is an interesting engineering as well as physical fact that an accurately measured base line exactly seven hundred feet in length was found, after a lapse of five years, to be 712 feet in length. It has been found impracticable to maintain with sufficient accuracy for reference purposes bench- marks, level heights, and tide gauges. This subject is quite fully discussed in the Report of the Mississippi River Commis- sion for 1894, pages 2794-2797, where the following important statement is made: ‘ Discrepancies in bench-marks and level heights and gauges could only be satisfactorily accounted for by the most plausible explanation of the subsidence of the whole delta, making gauges and bench-marks at the mouth of South Pass unreliable.” This remark is made by Mr J. A. Ockerson, - assistant engineer to the commission. THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 353 On page 2697 of the same report the commission itself con- firms Mr Ockerson’s statement by its own opinion, as follows: “The main object of this resurvey was to elicit some information bearing upon the question of the stability of the land about the mouth of the river. In the report of Assistant Engineer Ocker- son, appended to the report of the secretary, a number of figures and comparisons are given, based upon this survey and prior ones, indicating a progressive depression of the alluvial delta near the mouth of the river.” An interesting diagram, designed to show the changes referred to, assumes that either the tide gauge had gone down or the level of the Gulf had gone up over one foot in twenty years. Numerous pertinent facts might be brought forward to show, in addition to the above, that the lands had gone down and that the Gulf level had not changed. It is a fact well known to people living in the delta of the Mississippi that large tracts of land were long ago abandoned in consequence of overflow by Gulf waters, due to the sinking of the lands. The conditions are very different now from those existing prior to the construction of levees. There are at present no annual accretions of sedimentary matters from the periodical overflows of the river. These accretions formerly were a little more than equal to the annual subsidence of the lands. As to the question of the rising of the Gulf level, careful inves- tigations and inquiries around the entire Gulfcoast from Yucatan to Florida disclose no indications of any such elevations. The factors in forming the great hydraulic conditions of the Gulf op- erate so steadily from year to year and from cycle to cycle that we should naturally expect that, with the exception of small an- nual changes due to wind and tides, the mean surface of the Gulf would remain practically at the same level. The difference in precipitation, fluvial discharge into the Gulf, and evaporation is very slight as compared with the great current forces that make and maintain the Gulf level. From very careful observations, it may be stated that the mean precipitation, river discharge, and evaporation amount, all told, to a little over three cubic miles perday. This volume “ sinks into utter insignificance when com- pared with that produced by the inflowing current of the Yuca- tan channel, which, according to a calculation from Lieutenant Pillsbury’s current observations, hurls the enormous quantity of six hundred and fifty-two cubic miles of water per day into the Gulf.” * *See a paper by A. Lindenkohl, Assistant U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in Science, N.S., Vol. iii, No. 60, February 21, 1896. 24 B04 THE ANNEXATION FEVER The geology of the delta of the Mississippi is an interesting local study. The effect of the withholding by the levees from the great areas of the delta of the annual contributions of sedi- mentary matters, and the steady, though slow, subsidence of these areas, is one which should be taken into account in decid- ing the important question of how to protect the people from the flood waters of the river. No doubt the great benefit to the pres- ent and two or three following generations accruing from a com- plete system of absolutely protective levees, excluding the flood waters entirely from the great areas of the lower delta country, far outweighs the disadvantages to future generations from the subsidence of the Gulf delta lands below the level of the sea and their gradual abandonment due to this cause. While it would be generally conceded that the present generation should not be selfish, yet it is safe to say that the development of the delta country during the twentieth century by a fully protective levee system, at whatever cost to the riparian states and the Federal Government, will be so remarkable that people of the whole United States can well afford, when the time comes, to build a protective levee against the Gulf waters, as the city of New Or- leans has done on a small scale against the sea waters of Lake Pontchartrain, and as Holland has done for centuries and is now about to do on astill larger scale, in removing the sea waters themselves in the great projected reclamation of the lands sub- merged by the Zuyder Zee. Mr Eads once said, in an eloquent speech on the subject of the importance of the Mississippi river and its delta channels to the sea: ‘‘ This giant stream, with its head shrouded in Arctic snows and embracing half a continent in the hundred thousand miles of its curious network, and coursing its majestic way to the southern Gulf through lands so fertile that human ingenuity is overtaxed to harvest their productiveness, has been given by its Immortal Architect into the jealous keeping of this Republic.” THE ANNEXATION FEVER A curious and interesting example of the survival of inherited traits, on a large scale, is seen in the instinct for the acquisition of territory, which is manifested by all nations, savage or civil- ized, in greater or less degree. In the olden time, when the earth was peopled by savages, the acquisition of territory by conquest involved not alone the » THE ANNEXATION FEVER 355 extension over the conquered region of the jurisdiction of the conqueror, but possession in fee. The conquered territory was made as profitable as possible to the conqueror. It may have been looted for his benefit, or it may have been taxed for all it would bear. In whatever way it was done the conquered terri- tory was-‘made a source of profit to the victorious party. That sort of thing passed out of vogue among civilized nations ages ago, and today among such people the acquisition of terri- tory means simply a change of jurisdiction. The laws and the flag of one nation are substituted for those of another. The na- tion acquiring the territory collects taxes, and in turn assumes the duty of protecting the people of the acquired territory from one another and from foreign enemies. The nation is not en- riched by the acquisition. It may or it may not be strengthened, according to the character of the acquisition. But while the results of acquiring territory have thus become radically changed, the desire, the instinct for its acquisition re- mains apparently in full force. Without inquiring whether in any one case it will be an advantage or a disadvantage for a coun- try to extend its limits, ninety-nine out of every hundred of its people urge its extension. In other words, the great mass of the people concerned act merely upon instinct, such instinct being simply the remains from the time when acquisition of territory meant an increase of property. The question whether accessions of territory are desirable or not turns upon many considerations, among them being the char- acter and resources of the proposed accession, its situation and distance, the condition of its people as regards civilization, and the character of the people and of the government of the annex- ing country. The United States, of all nations, should go very slowly in this matter, first, because since it stands at the head of the nations in point of civilization, almost any addition of people to its num- bers will reduce the average civilization, and consequently the strength and industrial capacity of its people. Second, because under its principle of home rule, annexed provinces will be called on to govern themselves in all local matters, while the general government will be held responsible by foreign governments for all hostile acts committed by such annexed states against their citizens; and, third, because all annexations involve responsi- bilities in case of war for which we are unprepared and show little disposition to prepare ourselves. 356 THE ANNEXATION FEVER Viewed critically,our annexations of territory up to and includ- ing the Mexican cessions were wise and have justified the fore- sight of our statesmen. We needed Louisiana to control the Mississippi; the purchase of the Floridas settled a dispute of long standing, removed Spanish power from our midst, and gave us the entire Atlantic and Gulf coasts; the addition of Texas sim- plified our southern boundary, and the Mexican cessions rounded up our area of jurisdiction into compact form. But why we should have purchased Alaska is past finding out. A few of our citizens have profited by the fur and fish trade, but the gov- ernment has been embarrassed and put to much expense on ac- count of this region, and more embarrassment and more expense are certain in the future. The majority of our people wish to annex the Hawaiian islands. For what reason it is difficult to see. Hawaii is 3,000 miles away from our nearest shore. While the governing class is largely made up of our own kin, the vast body of the population is Kanaka, Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese—not by any means a desirable addition to our numbers. The annexation of these islands would greatly increase our responsibilities and corre- spondingly weaken us, without in any way adding to our well- being. It is said that they will furnish us a coaling station in the mid-Pacific. Under whatever jurisdiction these islands may be, our vessels can coal there freely in time of peace. In time of war our vessels will find occupation enough at home without wandering away from the coaling stations on our shores. We are not likely to take the offensive in a war with any first-class power, especially a naval power. It is certain that in case of war with such a power one of our first acts would be to give up all such outlying dependencies, since their defense would be utterly impracticable. ? There is another side, however,to this Hawaiian matter. There is no doubt but that the ruling class in Hawaii would be better off under our jurisdiction than if isolated, or even under English jurisdiction. Shall we, for their good, ignore the manifest dis- advantages to ourselves of this union? It may be doubted if we have reached this stage of altruism. — What has been written of Hawaii applies with much greater force to Cuba, whose annexation has been actively urged, even to the extent of offering to purchase the island from Spain. Why should we want Cuba? An island, separated from us by sea, sparsely populated by an alien, semi-civilized people speaking a . ee THE ANNEXATION FEVER 307 different language, with no experience in self-government, with a history, traditions, and sympathies wholly different from ours: could we hope to make them one with us? Can we afford to dilute our national legislature with a score or more of Spanish Cubans? Can we afford to assume responsibility for the acts of such a home government as the Cubans are likely to set up ? As with Hawaii, there is no question about the advantage to Cuba of such annexation; but in this case even altruism would say nay; for, assuming for the moment that the mission of the United States is to better the condition of mankind, her efficiency for this mission would be too greatly impaired by such an act. There is constantly more or less talk about the annexation of Canada. There is less objection to this than in the case of any other possible addition to our jurisdiction. It would practically eliminate Great Britain from North America, would add a popu- lation which on the whole is no less civilized than the average of our people, and a territory a part of which, at least, is of value as an agricultural region. Having glanced at the merits and demerits of proposed addi- tions to our area and population, it will be instructive to extend our view and glance at the history of other nations in this mat- ter and the results of their acts. Of all nations, Great Britain has shown the greatest greed for land. Her jurisdiction is as wide as the earth. The little island in western Europe governs many millions of square miles, including Canada, Australia, India, Egypt, and South Africa, besides scores of smaller colonies. Wherever the cross of St George waves, good government and safety to persons and property are assured. To enforce her juris- diction over all these dependencies she finds it necesary to main- tain a large standing army and a navy which is by far the largest of all the nations; and yet, in spite of her large standing army and her immense navy, she is one of the weakest of nations, because her responsibilities have been increased in still greater proportion. What has she gained by her policy of acquiring territory? In what way have her people gained more bread and cake? Has her commerce been increased materially ? Her total foreign trade in 1894 was £624,000,000, of which her colonies contributed £166,000,000. The United States alone contributed £119,000,000. Have the annexed regions furnished homes for much of her swarming population? Inall her colonies there are found some 9% millions of people of English descent. In the United States 358 ‘SIR JOHN EVANS AND PROF. W J MCGEE alone are found not less than 403 millions of persons of British descent. Vastly more of her people have gone to the United States than to her colonies. It is not to be supposed that Great Britain is doing all this work for pure philanthropy ; still, in following her acquisitive instinct, she has been, on the whole, one of the greatest agencies for good, by the spread of civilization, that the world has known. Henry GANNETT. SIR JOHN EVANS AND PROF. W J McGEE Whether one of the ultimate results of that decided tendency to the specialization of knowledge and of all scientific investi- gation which constitutes so striking a characteristic of the pres- ent age will be to render it impossible for a man to become eminent in more than one department of intellectual activity remains to be seen. That that time has happily not yet arrived is perfectly clear, both the British and the American Associa- tions for the Advancement of Science having this year been presided over by men who have attained the highest distinction in more than one department of science. By occupation a civil engineer and paper manufacturer, and highly successful in both capacities, Sir John Evans has made go great an impress on the scientific work of his time as a geol- ogist, an antiquary, and an anthropologist, as well as in numis- matics and applied chemistry, that the leading British societies representing these different sciences have all successively hon- ored him with their presidency, a circumstance almost unprece- dented. Attaining at 74 years of age the chair rendered illus- trious by the names of Herschel and Brewster, of Lyell and Murchison, of Huxley and Tyndall, he has only one more scientific distinction to look forward to—the cnet of the: Royal Society. Thirty years the junior of his eminent English compeer, Prof. W J McGee has likewise taken his place in the very front rank of anthropologists after attaining distinction as a geologist. His scientific career began with a detailed survey of an extensive area in Iowa at private cost, in the course of which important prin- ciples were developed. Later, as one of that splendid body of men who have made the United States Geological Survey the wonder and envy of all civilized nations, he spent a decade in SOME RECENT GEOGRAPHIC EVENTS 309 solving the problems of the coastal plain and neighboring dis- tricts, in developing new principles for the classification of for- mations, and in compiling the standard geological maps of the United States and of the State of New York. He established the Potomac, Lafayette, and Columbia formations and traced them and other deposits throughout southeastern United States, his personal mapping of formations and systems covering an area of over 300,000 square miles. In his later work as Ethnologist in charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology he has made additions of the very greatest importance to our knowledge of the aboriginal races of the North American continent, and has greatly enriched anthropological literature, both by his official reports and his numerous contributions to the transactions of scientific societies. No worthier representative of American science could have been found to preside over the American Association during the year of the visit of the British Associa- tion to this continent than Prof. W J McGee. Aa SOME RECENT GEOGRAPHIC EVENTS In the expectation that opportunity would be afforded to make them the subject of special articles, several recent occurrences of considerable geographic interest have so far been allowed to go without mention in this journal. The publication of the con- cluding number of the present volume, however, calls for at least a brief notice of them, if only as a matter of record. These interesting events include the Andrée Balloon Expedi- tion to the North Pole and the de Gerlache Expedition to the Antarctic, the return of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition from Franz Josef Land, of Lieutenant Peary from Greenland, and of Dr Sven Hedin from Central Asia; the successful ascent of Mount St Elias by Prince Luigi of Savoy, and the Mazama Ex- pedition to the summit of Mount Rainier, with the lamented death of Professor Edgar McClure. Herr S. A. Andrée, accompanied by Dr Strindberg and the en- gineer, Herr Fraenckell, ascended in his balloon, the Eagle, ‘rom Danes island, Spitzbergen, on the afternoon of Sunday, July 11, under favorable meteorological conditions. From that day to this nothing has been heard of the adventurous explorer and his two companions. Many eminent geographers have regarded the expedition as an impracticable if not absolutely foolhardy en- 360 SOME RECENT GEOGRAPHIC EVENIS terprise, but Herr Andrée’s fellow-countrymen, at least, have not lost faith in his skill, courage, and endurance. Dr Nils Ekholm, who originally intended to accompany the expedition, but event- ually declined to do so, in the belief that the impermeability of the balloon was not satisfactory, inclines to the opinion that Herr Andrée has descended somewhere between the Pole and Franz Josef Land; that he would endeavor to make his way to the provision depot that had been established in advance, and that . HERR S. A. ANDREE_ no surprise need be felt in the event of no communication being received from him until next summer or fall. Mr Frederick G. Jackson, the leader of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition, says he sees nothing to prevent Andrée, with good luck, from accom- plishing his purpose, but adds, significantly, that it is quite im- possible for any one to say where he is likely to be. For the Antarctic the Belgica sailed from Antwerp on August 16. The ship was fitted out in the best possible manner, and SOME RECENT GEOGRAPHIC EVENTS 361 her crew, which consists. largely of Norwegians, was most care- fully selected. It is expected that the voyage will be completed within two years, but a three-years’ supply of provisions has been taken. The Belgica will go first to the east of Grahams Land in George IV sea, and then winter in Australia. The sec- ond year will be devoted to Victoria Land. The steamer is well equipped for scientific investigations as to marine specimens and submarine deposits. The Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition to the North Polar Re- gions, which left England on July 11, 1894, in the steam-yacht Windward, arrived in the Thames on the 3d of September last, having left Franz Josef Landon August 6. This expedition has solved a most interesting geographical problem, having not only determined the northern coast line of Franz Josef Land, hitherto absolutely unknown, but proved, if not the non-existence of Gillis Land, at least the fact that it does not lie in the longitude that has been assigned it. The three years spent in the Polar Regions by this admirably equipped expedition (the entire cost of which was borne by Mr A. C. Harmsworth, who has since placed the Windward at the service of Lieutenant Peary) have resulted in many important additions, not merely to our knowledge of Arctic geography, but to various other sciences. Lieutenant Peary’s most recent expedition to Greenland is of note chiefly on account of the success that has attended his efforts to bring back with him the Cape York meteorite, 45 tons in weight. That this isa genuine meteorite has in certain quarters been called in question, but the consensus of opinion among the most eminent authorities leaves no room for doubt as to its extraterrestrial origin. The return of Dr Sven Hedin from his four years’ exploration of the less-known portions of Central Asia is a notable occurrence. Dr Hedin left Stockholm in October, 1893, returning to that city, his birthplace, on May 10:last. He made many important dis- coveries, among which were two ancient cities, now buried in the sands, whose paintings and sculptures bear witness to a high de- gree of civilization ata remote period of antiquity. Dr Hedin’s explorations were made at the expense of the King of Sweden and Norway and a few private individuals. The Duke of the Abruzzi (Prince Luigi of Savoy) and his com- panions reached the summit of Mount St Ehas, without accident, on July 31. It took 88 days of hard traveling to reach the foot of the mountain from the point of debarkation, but the actual 362 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE ascent, while exceedingly arduous, was made under most favor- able conditions and many very fine photographs were secured. The expedition of the Mazamas to the summit of Mount Rai- nier—so long looked forward to—was made in the last week of July, but of the large number of persons who started from Ta- coma only a few reached the summit, and the lamentable death of Professor Edgar McClure, who fell over a precipice during the night of July 27-28, cast a gloom over the entire subsequent proceedings. Professor McClure, who occupied the chair of chemistry in the Oregon State University, was an experienced mountain-climber, having scaled all the principal peaks of the Cascade range.