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Agriculture and Home Economics

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Cornell University

Cornell University Library
QK 94.L54 1868a

A general system of botany, descriptive
3 1924 001 400 484

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Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001400484

DESCKIPTIVE AND ANALYTICAL

BOTANY.

LONDON : PRISTED BY

BP0TTI8W00DE AND CO., NEW-STHEBT SQUAEB

AND PARLIAMENT STREET

A GENERAL

SYSTEM OF BOTANY

DESCRIPTIVE AND ANALYTICAL.

IN TWO PARTS.

PART I.— OUTLINES OF OEGANOGEAPHY, ANATOMY, AND PHYSIOLOGY,
PAET II.— DESCRIPTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ORDERS.

^^ Emm^ LE MAOUT,

DOCTOn OP MEDICINE ;

BY

J-T DEOAISNE,

MEMBER OF THE IKSTTTnTB OF FRANCE;

MEMBER OF THE SOCI£t£: FHILODIATHIQUE OF PARIS. PROFESSOR OF CCLTtVATIOH, JARDIN DBS FLADTSS, PARIS.

WITH 5500 FIGURES BY if STEINHEIL AND A. mOCEEUX.

TBANSLATED FBOM THE OEIGINAL BY

MRS. HOOKER.

THE OBDBBS AREA.NGED AFTER THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN THE UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLS OF

GREAT BRITAIN, ITS COLONIES, AMERICA, AND INDIA; 'WITH ADDITIONS, AN APPENDIX

ON THE NATURAL METHOD, AND A SYNOPSIS OP THE ORDERS, BY

^-- J. D. HOOKER, C.B.,

F.K.S. L.S. & G.S., 'M.D., D.C.L, Oxon., LL.D. Cantab.

DIEECTOK OF THE ROT AT, BOTANICAL GABDF,NS, KKW ;
COBRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.

LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1873.

(B

AH rights reserved.

380287

CQRNELV

VF

■iOl

LIBRARY^

TO THE MEM BY OF

THE JUSSIEUS,

AND to

THE DISTINGtriSHED EXPOUNDER OF THEIE DOC'TEINES,

M. ADOLPHE BRONGNIART,

MEMBEK OF THE INSTITUTE OF FKANCE ; PEOFESSOE OF BOTANY AT THE JAEDIN DBS PLANTES.

EDITOE'S PEEFACE

o>i«o

This English reproduction of Le Maout and Decaisne's work differs from
the original published in Paris in 1868, first and mainly in the Natural Orders
of Flowering Plants being arranged more nearly in the sequence followed in
England and its dependencies, in the United States, and over the greater part
of the Continent : — a course necessary to adapt it to the use of schools,
universities, and the keepers of herbariums, botanical museums and gardens,
in all English-speaking countries. This sequence, which is that originally
proposed by De CandoUe, and adopted with modifications by himself and
by most classifiers, is further, in the opinion of the Editor, on the whole,
the best linear arrangement hitherto devised.

D

The sequence of the Orders followed in the original is that of the late
accomplished Professor Adrien de Jussieu, son of Antoine-Laurent de
jussieu, the establisher of the Natural Orders of Plants upon the principles
his uncle Bernard had devised. This sequence has been but partially
adopted, even in Paris, where, although the lectures on the Natural Orders
given at the Jardin des Plantes are conducted in accordance with it, the
plants in the garden itself are arranged according to that of Professor
Adolphe Brongniart (see p. 165).

To ren-der this part of the work complete, and to facilitate its use, I
have added in an Appendix — what is a great desideratum in the original
a Conspectus of the Orders arranged under groups (cohorts), accord-
ing to their af&nities, in so far as this is practicable in a linear series.
These groups are analogous to the ' alliances ' devised by Lindley for his

Vlll

EDITOE'S PEEFACE.

' Vegetable Kingdom,' though, widely differing from them ; they more nearly
approach the ' groups ' of Asa Gray's ' Introduction to Botany,' and are
identical with the ' cohorts ' of Mr. Bentham's and my '^ Genera Plantarum '
in so far as these have been pubUshed, namely, to the end of Polypetalce.
The remaining Dicotyledonous Orders are grouped approximately by Mr.
Bentham and myself, and are subject to rectification as we advance with our
analyses of the genera for that work ; for it must be borne in mind that
no Natural Order or higher group can be accurately limited till all the genera
belonging to itself and its allied groups have been thoroughly investigated,
compared, and contrasted. For the grouping of the Monocotyledons I am
alone responsible.

The next considerable deviation from the original consists in the intro-
duction of various omitted Orders, and of much additional matter under the
others, especially the tribes, sub-tribes, etc., of the large Orders, and in the
increased numbers of genera (the selection of which is necessarily to some
extent arbitrary) which 'have been cited. This will render the English
edition more useful to voyagers and travellers, and to dwellers in America,
India and the Colonies, whose requirements in this respect have been
especially regarded.

The twenty-four Orders omitted in the original, and supplied here, are
chiefly small ones ; but some, as xx., xxxiv., lvii., lxxiv., xcii., clxvii., and
ccxxi., are either of considerable extent, or of importance under other points
of view. They are as follow : —

XX.

XXIV.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

LVII.

LIX.

LXV.

LXXII.

LXXIV."

XCII.

CII.

ex.

CLXVII.

Canellace.^.
vochtsiaceje.

DiPTEEOCAKPBiE.

CHL^NACEiE.

BUESEEAOEiE.

ChAILLETIACEj5).

STACKHOrrSIBiB.

Sabiace^.
connaeacb.^.
Ehizophoeejs.
Samydace^.

FlCOIDE^.

Ceescentie^.

CLXXXIX.

Heenandib^.

CCIV.

Peb-^acej];.

ccv.

Geissolome^.

CCVI.

LACISTEMACEyE.

CCXV.

Geubbiace.^.

CCXXI.

PODOSTEMACB^.

MONOOOTTLEDONS.

VII.

Apostasiace^.

XVI.

Tbiueide^.

XLIL

Eoxbueghiaoe.^

XLV.

EAPATEEyE.

XLIX.

Mayacb.<e.

EDITOE'S PEEFACE. ix

, The number of Orders adopted in this work greatly exceeds that which
will be adopted by Mr. Bentham and myself in the ' Genera Plantarum,' or
than is accepted by Professor Asa Gray, and most modern systematists :
many of them are not in our opinion entitled to that rank, being rather
to be regarded as tribes or aberrant genera of larger Orders. A multiplica-
tion of these is, however, in a woi'k of this description far from a great evil :
it enables tbe student to form a clearer idea of the essential characters of
the more important Orders, from which the lesser are departures ; and it
affords the opportunity of illustrating more copiously many structural and
physiological matters of high importance. It will be observed that the
authors have been scrupulously careful in indicating the very slender pre-
tensions that many of these lesser groups have to ordinal rank, and in
pointing out their affinities.

In dealing with the Introduction to Botany, p. 1, the Translator has
had much difficulty. In point of style, a literal translation of the original
was inadmissible ; its copiousness of expression and repetitions of adjective
terms, however suited to French, are obstacles to English students, who
associate clearness with a concise, rather than with a more diffuse method
of exposition. The Translator has therefore condensed the matter of this
part of the work — it is to be hoped, without loss of sense or substance ; and
the space gained has been devoted to those additions to the Systematic
portion which are enumerated above.

It will be obvious to the English reader, that it has not been the aim of
the Authors to give an exhaustive history of the Natural Orders : what they
have given is a clear and precise structural and morphological account of each,
with a sketch of its affinities, geographical distribution, and principal uses in
medicine and the arts ; and in this, I think, they have succeeded to a degree
not attained in any previous work of the kind. On the extent and utiHty of
the Illustrations there is no need to dwell ; but it is only my duty to one of
the Authors to state (which does not appear in the original) that their great
value is due to the use made of my friend M. Decaisne's unique collection of
analytical drawings, the fruits of his life-long botanical labours, and which
for scientific accuracy and artistic excellence have never been surpassed.

X EDITOE'S PEEFAOE.

Nearly thirty years have elapsed since I first had the privilege of inspecting
those portfolios, the contents of which have, with a rare liberality, been ever
since placed at my disposal when desired.

Few or no allusions are made under the Natural Orders to histological
characters ; to the diflferentiation and development of the organs ; to the
phenomena of fertilization; to the functions of nutrition, circulation, and
respiration ; nor to the structural characters of Fossil Types, which, in the
case of a few Orders (chiefly Cycadeoe and Lycopodiacece), are of great signi-
ficance in reference to these and their allies. To have introduced all these
subjects to any useful purpose was beyond the scope of this work. A
companion- volume devoted to them — that is, one completing the Life-history
of the Natural Orders — is the great desideratum of Botanical Science.

It remains for the Editor and Translator to thank the Authors for their
confidence, both in entrusting them with the task, and in liberally per-
mitting the re -arrangement of the Orders according to the Editor's judgment
of the requirements of those for whose use the English version is made.

Jos. D, Hooker.

RoTAL Gardens, Eew :
December 1872.

PBEFACE

0>I«0

The First Part of this work, together with the woodcuts illustrating the
Natural Orders, is a reprint of the 'Atlas EMmentaire de la Botanique,' edited
by one of the Authors some years ago, and which has been favourably re-
ceived by the scientific public. This, however, being devoted to European
Orders, and confined to brief systematic descriptions only of these, could not
illustrate the affinities of all the known types of the Vegetable Kingdom.
To supply this deficiency, we have here added nearly all the exotic Orders,
with detailed descriptions of their affinities and uses ; so as to give such a
general view of the Vegetable Kingdom as may be advantageously consulted
by students and professed botanists.

For the sequence of the Orders we have followed the classification of
A. de Jussieu ^ in the valuable article on Taxonomy in the ' Dictionnaire
Universelj' simply inverting the series, so as to commence with the most
highly organized, and end with the Families of lowest organization, whose
history is still obscure.

The reader will observe that we have treated the Monocotyledons and
Cryptogams with greater fulness than the Dicotyledons : this is because the
two first, and especially the Cryptogams, having hitherto been much less fully
studied than the Dicotyledons, required much more careful illustration.

We have also thought it best to detach from the larger groups many
monotypic Orders, so as to give them greater prominence ; following in this

1 In this English edition the Editor has, with bodies of Great Britain, as ■well as of working bo-

the approTal of the authors, adopted that modifl- tanists, herbarium keepers, &c. A sketch of A. de

cation of the elder Jussieu's system known as De Jussieu's sequence of the Families will be found in

OandoUe's, in order to suit the convenience of the the chapter devoted to Taxonomy (p. 167 ; see also

Universities, Medical Schools, and other educational p. 988).

xii PEEFACE.

the example of our predecessors, who have appended the Genera affinia to
the more strictly defined Orders.

Nearly all the illustrative analyses are original, and founded on materials
accumulated during upwards of thirty years ; for all details taken from other
sources the authority is cited.

Whilst thus presenting to our readers a comparative history of the
Orders of Plants, we make no pretensions to having monographed them ; for
such a task twenty volumes would not suffice, and its execution is already
far advanced, thanks to the many first-class works which may be consulted
by those who desire to investigate all the phenomena of the Vegetable King-
dom. We have therefore restricted ourselves, in the departments of Anatomy
and Physiology, to general considerations, and must refer our readers to the
work of Duchartre for a detailed and lucid account of the present state of
these two branches ; and to the ' Genera Plantarum ' of Bentham and Hooker
for all the elements of a complete treatise on Systematic Botany. On the
subject of Geographical Distribution, the remarkable work of A. de Candolle
contains an invaluable repertory of accurate data ; its value being enhanced
by philosophical disquisitions of the highest order.

With regard to the series of portraits of Plants contained in this work,
it is the richest and best arranged which has hitherto appeared ; and we are
confident that the public will appreciate, in these faithful drawings, the
truthful pencils of Messrs. SteinheU and Riocreux.

ABBREVIATIONS.

^ Flowers with stamens and pistils (complete or hermaphrodite).
(J Flowers with stamens only (male or antheriferous).
5 Flowers with pistils only (female or pistilliferous).
00 Indefinite in numher.
m. Magnified.
• Before a genus, signifies that it is commonly to be found in French Botanic Gardens, &c.
Note. — Suh placed before another word means nearly, somewhat, scarcely,. &c.

The words rarely, sometimes, often, mually, &c., preceding a descriptive phrase, do not apply to varia
tions occurring in the same species, but signify that such variations occur in different genera of the Family
under consideration.

Ihe special terms used in the descriptions of Acotyledons are explained in the text as they occur.

INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.

Plants are oi'g'anized living beings, void of feeling and voluntary motion ; they
constitute the Vegetable Kingdom; and Botany, which is the natural history of
the Veyetahh Kingdom, treats of plants, firstly, individually ; secondly, collectively ;
and thirdly, veith regard to their uses to man. The whole subject may be con-
sidered under three principal heads.

The first includes Organography, which treats of the foruj and S3'mmetry of the
organs of plants ; Anatomy, of their interior structure ; Physiology, of their func-
tions; and Glossology, of the technical language employed to describe the organs and
their modifications.

The second includes Taxonomy, the classing of plants according to their
affinities ; Phytography, the description of species ; and Nomenclature, the names
given to species by botanists.

The third includes Agriculture, Horticulture, ArhoricuUure, Medical and Economic
Botany.

1 1 ((((

The tissues of a plant present to the naked eye two very distinct elements,
named j/Jfero-vascM^ar bundles and cellular tissue {parencliyma). The first consists of
tenacious fibres gathered into bundles, or spread out like network, and forming
the more solid portion of the plant; the second is a spongy,
succulent substance filling the spaces between the fibres, being
especially abundant in leaves and fleshy fruits, and constituting
the softer portion of the plant. When magnified, these tissues
present various structures, the components of which, called
elementary organs, will be described in a future chapter.

An ordinary plant consists of a cylindric body (fig. 1), more
or less branched at its two extremities, and bearing laterally
leaves of various forms, which are either scattered or grouped.
The upper portion of this body, the stem {caulis, t), bears the
leaves (f, p), and is green (at least in the young shoots) ; it
branches from the ground upwards, diminishing in thickness as
it branches. The lower portion, the root {radios, e), is leafless
and subterranean, of a pale colour, and branches from above
downwards, diminishing in thickness the deeper it penetrates the earth.

Thus the stem and root are ^nited where their girth is greatest, and are deve-
loped in opposite directions ; the former always tends to ascend, and the lower to

1, Stock. Boot and lower
portion of stem.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

descend, and tliey together constitute the vegetable axis. In its early stage this
axis is simple, but by successive growths it -Qsually gives off branches, which form
secoiulnnj axes; each branch may. thus be regarded as an independent axis.

The point of junction of the stem and root is the neclc {collum, c). It is from
this point, which may be thickened, shortened, or obscure, that the ascending
fibres of the stem and the descending fibres of the root diverge.

The stem, which alone possesses the power of emitting lateral expansions,
develops from its sides more or less flattened bodies, the leaves (p). The point
at which the leaves issue from the stem is generally thickened, and is termed a
node (nodus) ; the intervals between the nodes ai'e termed internodes (internodium,
merithallus). When the nodes develop leaves only, the stem remains perfectly
simple or unhranched ; but at each node a hud {gemran, b, b) may spring from the axil
of the leaf; and this bud, which appears at first as a small protuberance, afterwards
becomes a hranch [ramus), which lengthens, develops leaves, and ramifies in its turn.
The buds springing from the axils of the leaves on the primitive axis thus give
origin to as many fresh axes, whence it results that the mother- plant is repeated
by every bud which it produces. Hence it is more logical to say that a plant
multiplies, than that it divides by branching ; and a vegetable may thus be looked
upon, not as an individual, but as a collective being, or an aggregation of individuals
nourished in common, like the zoophytes of a coral.

The node does not always produce a leaf and bud; the bud may be absent or
scarcely visible, or the leaf may be imperfectly developed : but the latter is rarely
entirely suppressed; and when the bud is undeveloped, it is owing to the rigour
of the climate or the short duration of the plant.

Leaves are not developed promiscuously on the stem ; they may be given off
singly, when they are alternate (alterna, fig. 2) ; or two may be placed opposite to
each other (opposita, fig. 3) ; or they may be whorled around the stem [verticilJata,

2. Toad-flax, Alternate leaves.

3. St. .Tohn-s Wort.
Oppoblte loaves.

4, Madder. Whorled leayes.

fig. 4). Stem-leaves are rarely whorled, but floral leaves are arranged in several
superimposed whorls {verticilli)-

Alteniate leaves, though apparently scattered without order on the axis, are
really arranged in a spiral (fig. 6) ; so that, in starting from any one leaf (1),
we arrive, after one or more turns of the spiral, at another leaf (6), placed

INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.

3

directly above the first ; whence it results that, if the leaves completing the
spiral (1, 2, 8, 4, 5) -were all placed on a level with the first, they would form a
whorl around the stem. This arrangement; is more easily traced on young branches
of trees than on herbaceous stems.

The fibro-vascular bundle connecting the green expansion of the leaf with the
stem is the petiole {petiolus, fig. 6). It extends from the axis to the blade or limb

S. Oak; Branch.

7. Wallflower, flower.

{limbus, lamina), which is composed of parenchyma and fibro-vascular bundles, which
latter form the nerves {nervi, 1, 2, 3). The middle nerve of the limb, which is
continuous with the petiole, is the median nerve or midrib {n. medius, casta media).
The bundles which rise from each side of the midrib are the lateral nerves {n. late-
rales) ; and these again give rise to secondary (2), tertiary (3), &c. nerves, according
to their subdivision.

A leaf springing directly from the stem without a petiole is sessile (/. sessile,
figs. 2-4), and that with a petiole is petiolate (/. petiolatum, figs. 5, 6). The leaf-
blade is protected on both surfaces by a thin, colourless, and transparent skin
[epidiermis), which covers almost the entire plant, and will be described later.

The coloured leaves, arranged in whorls at the extremities of the ultimate
branches of the axis, together form the flower {flos, fig. 7). The branch which
immediately bears a fiower, and forms the axis of its component whorls, is its
peduncle or pedicel {pedunculus, pedicellus, fig. 7, Ped). Its more or less swollen
extremity, upon which the whorls of the flower are grouped, is the receptacle
[receptaculum, fig. 10, e).

In the most fully developed plants the flower is usually composed of four
successive whorls (fig. 7), of which the internodes are suppressed. The outer
or lower whcrl is the calyx {calyx, figs. 7, s, and 8), the leaves of which are
sepals {sepala, fig. 8). The whorl within or above the calyx is the corolla {corolla,
fig. 7, P), and its leaves- are petals {petala, fig. 9). When a petal is not sessile, but
bas its blade (l) borne on a petiole (o), this petiole is called the claw {amjuis).

e2

INTEODUCTOEY CHAPTEE.

ST .

The whorl within or above the corolla is the androecium, (androecium, figs. 7, E,
and 10), and its leaves a,vestamens {stamina, figs. 10, E, and 11). The petiole of the

stamen is the filament

[filamentum), and its blade

is the anther {anthera).

The dusty parenchyma

contained in the anther is

called pollen {pollen, p).

This pollen leaves the

anther at a certain period,

and, falling on the central

» ,1 J, . , 111. i.ValJfloner. 11. 'Wallflovrer.

organ OI the nOWer, assists Anclraorani ana pistU (mag.). Stameu (iuag.).

in the formation of the seed.

There frequently occur on the receptacle (fig. 10, r) small bodies (gl) which
secrete a sweet juice, named nectariferous glands or nectaries {glandulce nectarifercs,
nectaria) .

The whorl within or above the androecium is the xjistil {pistillum., fig. 12). This,

^ 1

8. Wallflower.
Calyx (mag.).

9. Wallflower.
Petal.

12. Columbine.
Pistil composed of 5 carpels,
■with the scars of the stamens
on the receptacle R.

10. Columbine.

Ripe carpel partially

opened at the top.

14. Pea. Ripe pistil open.

la. Apricot.
Pistil cut vertically (mag.), showing
the suspended ovule D, v. stigroa .'*,
and axis of style T, ti-aversed by t!;e
pollen to fertilize the ovule.

the central or last of the floral whorls, is composed of one or more leaves called
carpels {carpidia, earpella, fig. 13), bearing on their edges small bo.dies called ovules
{ovula), destined to reproduce the plant when fertilized by the pollen. The blade
of the carpel, which encloses and protects the ovules, is the ovari/ {ovarium, fig.
12, o) ; its prolongation upwards into a longer or shorter neck is the style {stylus, t) ;
and the stigma {stigma, s) is an organ of variable form, spongy and viscous when
young, usually placed on the top of the style, and destined to receive the pollen,
which adheres to its surface.

The substance of an ordinary leaf, however thin, consists of three parts :
(1) an upper and (2) an under surface, enclosing (3) a network of fibres and paren-
chyma; and a slight inspection will show that a carpellary leaf is constructed on
the same plan. Thus in the Pea, the pistil of which is composed of a single carpel,
which splits into halves when ripe (fig. 14), the outer portion of the leaf (e) is a
thin skin, easily torn away, named epicarp {epicarpium). The inner portion (kn)

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 5

consists of a thicker and paler membrane than the first, named endocarp {endocar-
dium). The intermediate portion consists of a mOre or less succulent tissue (accord-
ing to the proportions of fibre and parenchyma), named mesocarp (mesocarpium).
In the solitary carpel which forms the pistil of a Cherry (fig. 16), Peach, or Apricot
(fig. 15), the epicarp (f) is a thin skin, the mesocarp (figs. 16, me, and 15, b) is very
thick and succulent when ripe, and the very hard endocarp (figs. 10, n, and 15, d)
forms the stone.

The fibro-vascular bundles (fig. 14, l) which are found on the edges of the blade
of the carpellary leaf, and which both bear the ovules (o) and transmit nourishment
to them, are called the placentce (placentae, tropliospermia). Each placenta produces
lateral branches or cords, called funicles {funiculi, p), which are sometimes very
short, and through which the nourishing juices are conveyed to the seeds. When
the funicles are absent (fig. 13), nourishment is transmitted directly to the seed
from the placenta.

The seed or plant-egg (semen, fig. 17) is the ovule fertilized by the pollen. It is
composed, (1) of a very small body, destined to reproduce the plant, the embryo
(or plantula] ; (2) of an envelope or integument surrounding and protecting the
embryo. This integument (in the ovule) either originates from the top of the
funicle (fig. 17, f), or directly from the placenta (fig. 13). It u-sually consists of two
layers or coats, an external testa (fig. 17, i), and an internal endopleura (e). The
point of union of the seed and funicle, and at which its nourishment enters, is called
the hilum or umbilicus (fig. 18, h), and is a part of the testa. The chalaza (fig.
17, h) marks the spot where the juices penetrate the internal coat and reach the

T R M

IG. Cherry.
Eipe carpel, cut vertically,
showing the seed suspetiQcd
by a funicle c springing
from the bottom of the
kernel.

18. Pea.
Part of the in-
17. Pea. Seed deprived oi half its tegument of the

integument (mag.). seed (mag.), 19. Pea. Embryo spread open (mag.).

embryo, and is usually indicated on the outside by a projection or thickening or
discoloration. When the hilum and chalaza are superimposed, the juices reach the
embryo directly ; when they are at opposite ends, they are connected by a small cord,
raphe (figs. 17, A, and 18, e), which runs between the two coats. The small opening
through which the ovule is acted on by the pollen is the micropyle (figs. 17, and 18, m).
The embryo (figs. 17, 19) is a complete plant in miniature, composed of a stem,
cauUcle {tigellus, caulieulus, T),-a root, radicle {radicula, r), one or two leaves, coty-
ledons {cotyledones, c), and a bud, plumule {gemmula, plumula, g), usually occupying
a small pit (p) sunk in the thickness of the cotyledons. The young plant, after
having been nourished by the juices transmitted through the funicle, detaches

INTEODUCTORT CHAPTER.

itself from tlie latter with its integuments ; and when placed under farourable
eircumstances, it sheds or leaves its coats, and becomes developed into a plant
similar to its parent.

The eaMlicle (t) is a small cylindric or conical body, bearing the first leaves of
the plant (fig. 19, c), which ascends to form the stem. The radicle (r), or organ
destined to develop the roots, is at first merely a transparent point terminating the
free end of the caulicle, and tending downwards; it usually corresponds in the seed
to the position of the micropyle (figs. 17, 18). The cotyledons (figs. 17, and 19, o),
which are the first leaves of the young plant, spring laterally from the caulicle, and
protect the plumule, or first shoot of the future plaiit ; they are usually thick and
succulent, and nourish the young plant until it is able to support itself. ^ Within
the integuments of the seed there always exists, at an early period, a peculiar form
of cellular tissue, the study of which is important, and to which we shall recur; it
is sometimes rapidly absorbed by the embryo, but at others it is retained in the
seed until germination, in which case it is called albumen, and supplies the young
plant with its first food.

Considering the embryo as the plaiat in its simplest form, let us follow the growth
and lateral development of its primitive axis. The two first leaves {cotyledons) are
attached to the small stem (caulicle), as may £^
be seen in the Pea (fig. 19), or, better, in a
germinating Bean (fig. 20, c, c). The radicle,
which terminates the free end of the caulicle
(fig. 20, t), sends out many descending branches,
and forms the root (b). Sometimes the coty-
ledon is solitary, as in the Maize (fig. 21, c),
when the rootlets usually spring from various
points of the caulicle {t), and branch very little.
At the point of union of the cotyledons or
cotyledon with the caulicle is the plumule (fig.
20, G, G, and fig. 21, g). Each cotyledon and
each leaf of the plumule is produced from a
node, but the internodes are scarcely visible.
Soon after germination, as the plant grows and the axis lengthens, the nodes, and
consequently the leaves, become separated. Near the flower the internodes of the
axis shorten, the leaves usually become smaller and changed in form and colour ;
finally, at the termination of the axis, the leaves (flower), instead of forming a
spiral or being placed in pairs, are arranged in superimposed whorls of different
structure, the leaves in each whorl usually alternating with those of the next
within or above it; which results in the blades of the different leaves composing
the flower being separated as far as is compatible with being crowded in a very
small Sjpace,

The leaves of the three first floral whorls (sepals, petals, stamens) have no buds
in their axils or on their edges ; those of the pistil alone (carpels) produce and
protect buds ; each edge of the carpel (placenta) giving origin to cords, which

20. Germination of Kidney-
bean.

21 . Germination of Maize.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

convey nourishment to one or more seed-buds {ovules), which eventually become
seeds, consisting of an embryo with its integuments, which is destined to produce a
plant similar to its parent. Though so dissimilar, the ovule or seed-bud presents a
remarkable analogy to an ordinary bud ; both spring from a node, and are protected
by a leaf; both are destined to reproduce the plant. Tbey only differ in the conditions
of their existence : the seed-hud needing for its development the fertilizing action of
the pollen ; the hranch-hud needing only the nourishment contributed by the node.
To this must be added, that the branch-bud multiplies the plant without separating
from it; whilst the seed-bud is destined to leave its parent, and reproduce at a
distance the plant which gave it birth.

In some cases the branch-bud may be separated from its parent, and made
to germinate, which is due to the power which the stem possesses of emitting from
its surface supplementary or adventitious roots (r. adventitiae). Sometimes a young
branch, with its buds, inay be detached from the stem, and planted, when the
buried portion speedily sends forth roots, and the new individual becomes an
independent organism : this is called propagating by slips or cuttings (talea). Or the
branch, still attached to the trunk, may be surrounded with damp mould, into
which it emits roots, which soon become sufficiently strong to nourish the branch,
and to permit of its removal from its parent stem : this is termed propagation by
layers {malleoli). Or again, the branch, with its buds, may be separated from its
parent, and so attached to another plant, whose sap resembles its own, as to bring
into contact the parts in which the sap circulates ; the branch then grows as if on its
parent : this is called propagation by grafts, and the plant on which the branch is
grafted is called the stock. Lastly, the branch-bud may separate spontaneously
from the parent like a- seed-bud, and falling to the ground, may strike root and
become a separate individual, as in the Tiger-lily (fig. 22, b) : such branch-buds are
called bulbils {balbilli).

The power of producing (naturally or artificially) buds and adventitious roots is

not confined to the stem, the
/branches of many plants having

also this power. The physiolo-
gist Duhamel, having planted a

tree with its branches in the

around, saw the roots become

covered with buds, while the

buried branches produced rools.
22. Biiibiferons Lily. In somo cases the divided root
s em. ^.^ j.gpj^.Q(j^(>e the plant, as in
the Japan Quince, the Osage Orange {Madura), and especially the Paulownia, the
roots of which may be cut into small sections, each of which, if planted, will
produce a perfect tree.

In some plants the leaf itself possesses this reproductive power, as in the
Watercress, Cardamine pratensis, and Malaxis, &c., amongst native plants; and
amongst exotics, Bryophyllum calycinum (fig. 23), a succulent tropical plant, whose

28. Bit/op?iylInni,
Leaf giving off embryos at each crenature.

8 INTEODITCTOEY CHAPTEE.

leaf produces buds furnislied with root, stem, and leaves, at the extremities of its
lateral nerves ; these buds, which spontaneously fall off, and root in the earth, may-
be likened to embryos that do not need to be fertilized before developing ; and
the leaf of Bryophyllum may be regarded as an open ca.rpel, on which the seeds
have been developed by nutritive action alone. This fecundity of Bryophyllum
completes the analogy between the true bud and the fertilized embryo.

Amongst the examples of reproduction by leaves, the Begonias hold the first
rank; for if a Begonia leaf be placed on damp soil, and incisions made across its
nerves, roots and buds will spring from every incision, and as many fresh plants
will be obtained as the leaf has received wounds. The same vitality is observable
in some woody plants : thus, if a fresh-cut Orange leaf be placed under suitable
conditions of heat and moisture, a small swelling will be formed on the broken
petiole, from which will shortly spring roots and shoots, that will eventually form
a tree, capable of growing, flowering, and fruiting, like an Orange-tree raised
from seed.

In this brief summary we have only spoken of the structure of the higher plants,
whose organs of fructification being obvious, and their seeds provided with mono- or
di-cotyledonous embryos, are called cotyledonous or phoBnogamous [p. eotyledonece v.
•phcenerogamcB). Other plants, which have no obvious stamens or pistils, and seeds
Jvithout embryos, are called cryptogamous or Acotyledonous {p. cryptogamem v. acoty-
ledonew), and are of much simpler organization.

OEGANOG-EAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

THE ROOT,

The root (radix) is that part of the plant which tends towards the centre of the
earth ; it is not coloured green, even when exposed to light, and rarely produces
leaves or shoots. It serves to &i the plant in the earth, and to draw thence the
nourishment necessary to its growth.

The root is absent in certain plants, which, from growing upon and drawing
their nourishment from others, are called parasites (p. parasitica}). Such is the
Mistleto, which fixes itself beneath the bark of certain trees by the dilated base
of its stem.

The root may be simple, or irregularly branched. Its axis or branches termi-
nate in delicate fibrils, which together are termed the root-fibres {fibrilloe) ; the

24. Can-ofc. 25. Meadow-grass.

Tapering root. Fibrous root.

26. Dropworfc.
Nodose root.

27. Dahlia, Tuberous root.

28. Orchis.
Mbrous- tuberous root.

tips of these fibres, being soft, loose, and cellular, are named spongioles (spongiolce).
The individual fibrils die annually, like leaves, and fresh ones spring from the
youngest parts of the root.

Roots with a single, descending, vertical stock, are called tap-roots [r. perpen-
dicularis) ; their main trunk or tap may branch {Stock, fig. 1), or remain nearly
simple '(Corroi, figi 24). Sometimes the original, usually simple, tap-root perishes
soon after germination, and is replaced by a bundle of fibrils, which spring from

]0

OEGANOGEAPHY Al^D GLOSSOLOGY.

the neck or crown of the root. A root is fibrous {r. fibrosa) when its fibrils
form a bundle of fine, long, scarcely-branched threads {3Icndow-gragi>, &g. 2;')) ;
nodose (r. nodosa), when the fibres are swollen at intervals {Dropwort, fig. 26) ;
tuberous (r. tuherosa), when the fibres are much swollen in the middle, thus
becoming stores of nourishment destined to sustain the plant (DaJiJla, fig. 27).
The Orchis root (fig. 28) is both fibrous and tuberous, the ovoid or palmate
tubers being reservoirs of nutritious matters, and the cylindrie fibres being orgaus-of
absorption:. The fibres of young Crocus roots are similarly swollen.

We have said that the stem has the power of emitting adventitious roots ; these
are sometimes artificially induced (as on slips or layers), sometimes spontaneously
developed on the nodes of the stem : when these emerge at a considerable height,
and descend to enter the earth, they are termed aerial roots (many tropical climbers
and epiphytal orchids) ; when they spring from the lower branches of creeping
plants, they are called accessory roots [Straivberry, Ground-ivy).

THE STEM.

The stem {caulis) is that portion of the vegetable axis which grows in an opposite
direction to the root. It branches by means of shoots, which originate in the
axils of the leaves. The stem exists in all phcenogams, but is sometimes scarcely

developed, when the
leaves and flowering
branches appear to spring
fi'om the root, and the
plant is termed stemless
{p. acaulis), and its leaves
radical {f.radicalia. Hya-
cinth, Dandelion, fig. 29).
The stem is perennial (c.
perennis) when it lives
many years (Strawberry) ;
annual (a. annuus), when
it only lives one [Wheat) ;
biennial (c. biennis), when
it lives two years (Garrnt) ;
a biennial stem usually
produces leaves only the
_ . „ „ first year, and in the

second it flowers, fruits, and dies. The stem is herbaceous (c. herbaceus) when soft
and easily broken; such are annual, biennial, and many perennial steins; it is
woody (c. Ugnosus, fruticosus) when it forms a solid, more or less durable wood
(Oah) ; it is suffruticose (c. miffruticosus) when the lower part is hard, and remains
ahove ground for many years, while the branches and twigs die, and are annually
renewed [Rue, Thyme, Sage, Bitter-sweet). The woody stem of trees is called a trimJt

20. Dandelion, wilh root.

THE STEM.

11

The stem is indefinite (c. indeterminatus) when the flowers are borne only on the
secondary axes (those springing from the axils of the leaves), thus appearing to
elongate indefinitely {Periwinkle, Fim^pernel, &g. 30).

so. Pimpernel. ludcflnifce stem. 31. Columbine. Definite stem.

The stem is defi,nite (c. determinatus) when each axis terminates in a flower,
and cannot therefore be indefinitely prolonged [Campanula, fig. 1 59 _; Columbine, fig.
31) ; it is aerial when it grows entirely above ground [Stock, fig. 1).

The rhizome or rootstock [rhizoma) is a stem which extends obliquely or hori-
zontally below or on the surface of the ground, the advancing portion emitting
fibrous roots, leaves, and shoots, the posterior gradually dying. The rootstock
is indefinite [rJi. indeterminatum) when it grows by means of a terminal shoot,
which lengthens indefinitely, and never itself flowers, but gives off lateral flowering
shoots. Thus in the Primrose (fig. 32) the extremity of the rootstock bears a bundle
of leaves, in the centre of which is the shoot by which it is indefinitely prolonged,
whilst the fiowering shoot is developed in the axil of one of the leaves (b). After
flowering, the aerial portion of the leaves dies, but the subterranean portion survives,
and from its axil spring accessory roots.

The rootstock is definite [rh. determiiiaium) when, after producing laterally one
or more creeping branches, it rises above the earth, and terminates its existence
by a flowering branch. In the Iris (fig. 33) and Arum (figs. 34, 35) the leaf-bases

12

OEGAI0GEA.PHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

5 Arum. Definite ihraome, out Tertically, showing two
bud.s the joiingcst whole.

a4. Arum. Definite rhizome.

THE STEM.

13

Carci. Definite rhizome.

produced it,

persist as dry scales on the fleshy mass of the rootstock, after the decay of the aerial
portions.

In Ourex (fig. 36) each shoot remains under ground during the first year of
its existence ; it ' rises in the spring of the second year, makes a tuft of leaves,
and emits from the
axil of the lowest of
these a shoot, which
lengthens during its
first year, as its pre-
decessor did. In the
autumn the two-year-
old shoot loses its
leaves, but the axis,
sheltered by their
persistent bases,

lengthens, and sends
up flowers and leaves
in the spring of the
third year, when it
dies. During the fol-
lowing autumn the

flowering stem fruits and dies, together with the old shoot that
but the second year's shoot, which has now produced a tuft of leaves, will in
its turn flower in the following year. A shoot of Carex thus requires three years
for its full development.

The stem is stoloni- j^

ferous (c. stolnnifer) when ,#==s5$Jg^ ^^^-^

creeping shoots [flagellum)
spring from the axils of its
lower leaves, develop ter-
minal tufts of leaves, then
rise, and produce root-
fibres below the tufts
[Creeping Buttercup; Straw-
berry, fig. 37). The rosette

(propagulum.) is the tuft of ""■ strawberry. Creeping ,tem.

leaves produced on the lateral shoots of succulent plants (Roiiseleek) .

The stem may present both stolons and rootstoch when some of the lower
branches are underground, and others aerial and creeping [Glubmoss).

The hidh {bulhus, Lily, fig. 38) is a subterranean swollen stock, consisting, firstly,
of a more or less convex fleshy disk [lecus, l), which below gives rise to the roots ;
secondly, of fleshy, closely-appressed coats or scales (e) borne on the disk; thirdly-
of a more or less central shoot (t), equally borne by the disk, protected by the
coats', and formed of rudimentary leaves and flowers ; fourthly, of one or mor.
lateral shoots, called cloves {bulbuli), destined to reproduce the plant.

14

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

A bulb is coated [h. tunicatus) when the outer leaves overlap each other so
as completely to sheathe the base of the stem {Narcissus, fig. 39 ; Onion, fig. 40) it
is scaly [h. squamosus) when the leaves are narrow, almost flat, and imbricated m many

Lily. Scaly bulb, cut vertically.

39. Narcissus. Go.ated bulb,
I, disk ; t, stem ; /, leciyes.

41. Colchicum. Solid bulb.

rows {Lily, fig- 38) ; solid {h. solidus) when the leaf-bases are very close and confluent
with the disk, so that the latter appears to form the entire stock {Colchicum, fig. 41).
In the Croctis (fig. 42), the underground

stock is formed of two or three solid bulbs,

superimposed like the beads of a chaplet.

The primitive bulb (1), which terminates in

a flower, pushes out a lateral shoot, which

perpetuates the plant. After flowering, it

swells considerably, to nourish the shoot

which is to succeed it ; this latter flowers

in its turn the following year, and emits a

shoot like its predecessor; to nourish this it
40, Onion. Coated bulb, g^^gjjg ^^^ ^^^^^ .^^^^^^ ^2) above the original

one, which then gradually decays. At the flowering of the third shoot (3) adven-
titious roots grow from the base of the second bulb, which soon withers and dries
like the first. At the side of the middle bulb a lateral bulbil often springs, which
separates from the parent, and becomes a fresh plant.

In comparing rootstocks with bulbs, it is easy to perceive that they differ
only by the greater or less length of the disk, and the more or less fleshy texture
of their underground leaves. The rootstock may thus be regarded as a bulb with
a horizontally lengthened disk, and the bulb as a short rootstock with fleshy leaves.

42. Crocus.

Superimposed bulbs.

THE STEM.

15

The superimposed rootstock of the Crocus presents a transition from the bulb to
the rootstock proper, for it may equally be regarded as a vertical rootstock or as a
series of superimposed bulbs.

The roots of Orchis, which are both fibrous and tuberous, are classed with true
bulbs, differing from ordinary bulbs only in the swelling of some of the root-fibres.
The two tubers are ovoid (fig. 43) or palmate (fig. 44), and are unequal; one (t 1)
is dark-coloured, wrinkled, flabby, and empty, and gives off the flowering stem ; the

Pf-_

H -,

Ti

T3

43. Orchis. Tuberous root.

44. Orchis maculata. Palmate tuberous root.

45. Orchis maculata,
Palma.e tttberous root, cut vertically.

other (t 2) is larger, whiter, and more succulent, often ending in well-developed
fibres (p), and bears a shoot (b 2), from the base of which grow fibrous roots. The
two tubers (fig. 45) are united above by a very short neck (p 1). This neck
connects the old tuber (t 1) with the new one (t 2), and from it the latter descends,
and a leafy shoot (b 2) ascends, which in the following year wiU bear a flowering
stem ; between this large shoot and
the old stem a vertical cut reveals
a. third tiny shoot (b 3), developed
from the young tuber, and destined
to succeed it in the third year.
There are thus three generations in
the rootstock of an Orchis, each of
which requires two years for its
perfect development, and dies at
the end of the third, after having
flowered ; and the same may be seen
-in Garex, Crocus, and ordinary bulbs.
The term tubers [tuhera, tuber-
cula) has been given to the dilated

extremities of underground roots, 46. Potato. Snbtenanean branches hearing tubercles.

usually containing starch. These swellings bear rudimentary leaves, in the axils
of which are eyes or buds, which develop into stems [Jerusalem Artichoke ; Potato,
fig. 46). The conversion of shoots into tubers can be encouraged by earthing

16

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

up the lower portion of the stem; if the covering is slight, the tuber swells but
little ; if the light can penetrate to the stem, the tuber becomes green, and produces
rosettes of leaves.

Props [fulcra) are a kind of aerial roots which spring from the axils of leaves,
or from various points of the stem in certain climbing plants [Ivy, fig. 47), which
are attached by them to walls or trees ; these organs are non-absorbent, but under
suitable conditions they behave like ordinary roots, as is seen with ivy cultivated for
edgings.

Suckers (haustoria) are small warts upon certain parasitic stems [Guscuta,
fig. 48), whence issue true supplementary roots, which attach themselves to the
neighbouring plants, and draw nourishment from their juices.

The stem is cylindiic or terete (c. cylindricus, teres), when a transverse cut
presents a circular outline [Cabbage) ;— compressed [c. compressus), when an elliptic

stem with props.

40. Pink. Nodose stem.

48. Cuscuta. Stem with snclcei's (mag.),

one, as if squeezed from opposite sides [St. John's Wort, Tutsan) ; — triangular or
trigonous [c. triangularis, trigonus), when a cut shows three sides [Carex) ; — square
[c. quadrangularis, tetragonus), when it shows four right angles [Lamium) ; —
pentagonal (c. quinquangularis, pentagonus), when it shows five faces and five angles
[Bramble) .

The stem is glabrous [c. glaber), when there are no hairs on it {Horse-tail) ; —
smooth [Icevis), when, being glabrous, it presents no roughness, and its surface is quite
even [Tulip) ;— scabrous (c. scaber, asper), when its surface presents little inequalities
[Carrot) ; — striate (c. striatus), when it is marked with small raised longitudinal lines
or strice [Sorrel) ; — winged [c. alatus), when furnished with foliaceous expansions

[Comfrey, fig. 66) ; — nodose [c. nodosus), when its nodes are tumid [Pink, fig. 49) ;

pilose (c. pilosus), when it is furnished with long scattered hairs [Herb-Robert) •

THE STEM.

17

]pubescent (c. pubescens), wlien it is covered witli more or less appressed short hairs
{Henbane) ; — woolly (c. lanatus), when the hairs are long, close, appressed, and curly
{Thistle) ; — tomentose {a. tomentosus), when the hairs are short, soft, and matted
{Mullein) ; — villous (c. villosus), when the hairs are long, soft, and close-set {Forget-
me-not) ; — hirsute (c. hirsutus), when it bears straight, stiff hairs {Borage) ; — hispid
(c. hispidus), when the hairs are straight, stiff and very long {Poppy). The ana-
tomical structure of hairs will be described hereafter.

The stem is prickly (c. aculeatus), when the hairs which clothe it thicken,
harden, and end in a sharp point; the prickles {aculei) always belong to the
epidermis, and come away with it {Rose, fig. 60) ; — it is spinous (c. spinosus), when
the woody tissue of the stem is elongated into a hard point. Spines {spince) are
usually partially developed or arrested branches {BlacMhorn, fig. 61), which, under
favourable circumstances, produce leaves and shoots.

The stem is erect (c. erectus), when^„ usryf-"^
vertical {Stock, fig. \) •,—procum'be7it or

r^ prostrate (c. procumbens, prostratus)

I when, too weak to support itself, it trails

. Bose. Stem with prioKles.

51. Blackthdvn. 62, Bindweed. Twiuiug stem. . 53. Hop. Twiniflg stem.

along the ground {Knot-grass) ■,--~spreading (c. patulus), when many branches start
from the neck, and spread on all sides horizontally {Pimpernel) ; --ascending
(c ascendens) when, after being horizontal or oblique at its commencement, its tip
becomes upright {Speedwell) ■,-^creeping {c. repens), when a prostrate stem gives off
adventitious roots from the nodes {Strawberry, fig. 37) i-scandent (c. scandens),
when it raises itself by aid of neighbouring bodies, and attaches itself to them,
either by props {Ivy, fig. 47), suckers {Guscuta, fig. 48), or tendrils {Vine, fig. 130 ;
Melon fig 61) ;— the climbing stem is termed twining (c. volubihs), when it coils
spirally round other bodies, rising either from left to right (c. dextrorsum volubilis,
Bindweed, fig. 52), or from right to left (c. sinistrorsum volubilis. Hop, fig. 53) of
the spectator placed opposite its convexity. ,,,,,, „ ,, ., »

The direction of the branches depends on that of the leaves from the axils of
which they spring ; and they are alternate {r. altemi. Rose), opposite {r. oppositi,
Valerian), or whorled (r. verticillati, Pine).

18

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

The stem bearing opposite branches is dichotom,ous (c. dichotomus, Lamb's Lettuce) ;
and trichotomous (c. trichotomus, Oleander), when it continually forks or trifurcates to
the extremities of its branches.

THE LEAVES.

Leaves (folia) are usually flat, green, horizontal expansions, arising from the
nodes, and are the result of the spreading out of a bundle of fibres, the interstices
between which are filled with parenchyma. The point of the stem constituting
the base of the leaf, and of wJiich the latter is a con-
tinuation, forms a small swelling (pulvinus, fig. 54, c),
which, when the leaf has fallen, is clearly indicated by a
scar (f).

54. Glycine.
Branch, showing the buds 55. Orange,

after the leaveshave fallen. Leaf with a winged petiole.

67. Ranunculus.
Leaf with amplexicaul petiole.

56. Acacia heterophyllus.
Phyllode.

The leaves and roots are the principal organs of nutrition, absorbing from
the atmosphere gases and liquids suited for the nutrition of the vegetable : they
also act as respirators, and as exhalers of useless matters ; and it is in their tissues
that the sap, absorbed by the root, and conducted upwards by the stem, parts with
its surplus fluids, and acquires all its nutritious properties.

Of all plant-organs, the leaves are those which present the greatest variety, and
which supply most specific characters.

When the vascular bundle which enters the leaf is prolonged for a certain
length before branching to form the skeleton of the blade (limbus), it takes the name
■ of petiole ['petiolus), and the leaf is called peitoZaie (f. petiolatum, Cherry, fig. 6); —
when it expands immediately after leaving the node, the leaf is reduced to its blade,
and is called sessile (/. sessile, St. John's Wort). When the blade merely narrows so
as to form an obscure petiole, it is called sub-petiolate (/. sub-petiolatuni) .

The petiole may be cylindric [p. cylindricus) ; longitudinally grooved or channelled

THE LEAVES.

19

{p. caHaliculatus) ; flattened horizontally, or depressed {p. depressus); — flattened
laterally or compressed {p. compressus) ; in this case it is usually flexible, and the
pendulous blade trembles with every breath of wind (Aspen).

The petiole is usually of tolerably uniform diameter throughout its length
[p. continuus, Ivy, fig. 47) ; but it may be much dilated in the middle, and thus
resemble a blade separated from the true blade by a constriction, when it is winged
[p. alatus, Orange, fig. 55, p ; Acacia heterophylla, fig. 56). Lastly, a dilated petiole

68. Wheat. Sheathing leaf. 69. Clematis. Twining petiole.

may replace the true blade, when it is called a phyllode (phyllodium), as in most
Australian Acacias. When the enlarged base of the petiole, and the node from which
it issues, occupy a large portion of the circumference of the stem, the petiole is
called amplexicaul {p. amiplexicaulis, Ranunculus, fig. 57) ; if the entire petiole is
enlarged, and sheathes the stem, the leaf is called sheathing [vaginans, Carex, Wheat,
fig. 58).

The direction of the petiole is usually straight, but in some plants it twines
round neighbouring objects [Clematis, fig. 59).

Stipules. — A leaf is stipulate (/. stipulatum), when provided at its base with
appendages more or less analogous to leaves, named stipules {stipulw, Heartsease,
fig. 60). These may be persistent [s. persistentes), when they persist as long as
the leaf which they accompany (Heartsease, fig. 60) ; or caducoiis (s. caducce), when
they fall before the leaf, or as soon as the shoot lengthens {Willow, Oak),

2

2©

OEGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

66, Comfiej, Cecuitcut l6aU

67« Honeysuckle, Connate leaves,

C8. Bupleuriun, Perfoliate leaf,

THE LEAVES.

21

Stipules are foUaceous (s. foliacece), when of the colour and texture of leaves
{Heartsease, fig. 60) ; — scale-UJce (s. squamiformes), when thin like scales ; — meTn-
hranous (s. membranacew), when thin, flexible, and almost transparent ; — scarious
(s. scariosce), when dry and coriaceous {Beech, Willow, Hornbeam) ; — spinous
(s. spinosce), when contracted and hardened into spines {Bubinia, fig. 114) ; cirrhose
(s. cirrhiform.es), when they lengthen into twining tendrils {Melon, fig. 61). (We
retain the name of stipules for the tendrUs of the Melon and other Cucurbitacece, in
deference to the glossology adopted by botanists; but we shall return to this
subject when discussing tendrils.

Stipules axe lateral (s. later ales), when inserted left and right of the leaf {Hearts-
ease, fig. 60; Robinia, fig. 114); — axillary (s. axillares), when in the axil of the
leaf; they are then usually consolidated into one. Such axiUary stipules may
cover only a part of the circumference of the stem {Drosera), or may completely
surround it {Buckivheat, fig. 62), in which latter case it bears the name ot ochrea.

The ligule of grasses {ligula, Meadoiv-grass, fig. 63) is simply an axillary stipule
(Lig.), situated at the separatioii of the blade (l) from the sheathing petiole (g) ;
it may be entire, emarginate, laciniate, pilose, &c.

Of the whorled leaves of Madder (fig. 4) and other Rubiacece, the two opposite
ones are alone considered as true leaves, and bear each a bud in its axil ; the others
are regarded as stipules, sometimes multiplied, when there are more than four, or
confluent, when fewer than four.

The Nerves of the leaf are said to be parallel {n. paralleli), when. they run free
and parallel to the edge of the leaf and to each other {Iris, figs. 33, 79) ; — branching
or anastomosing {n. ramosi, anastomosantes) , when they subdivide and join each other

{Cherry, fig. 6).

Branching nerves are pinnate {n.pinnati), and
the leaves penni-nerved (/. penni-nerma), when
lateral nerves, like the plumes of a feather, spring
from the midrib {Cherry, fig. 6) ; — palmate {n. pal-
rtiati, palmatinervia) , when several primary nerves
diverge from the base of the blade like the
fingers of a hand {Melon, fig. 64). The primary
nerves only are palmate ; the secondary, tertiary,
&c., are always pinnately arranged.

As regards position, leaves are radical (/. radi-
calia), when they spring from near the neck,
and hence appear to rise from the root [Dandelion,
fig. 29 ; Plantain, Erophila, fig. 65) ; — cauline
(/. caulina), when they spring from the stem and
branches {Rose, fig,\50). Leaves are clasping or
amplexicaul (/. amplexicaulia), when the base of
their petiole or blade surrounds the stem {Butter^

Henbane); — decurrent (/. decurrentia), when ^"^ lea^'"'^''

69. Yew. Disticlious leaves.

cup,

their blade is continued down the stem, forming a sort of foliaceous wing ;

Weymouth
Pine.

22

OEGANOGRAPHY AND, GLOSSOLOGY.

71 . Eanunculus aquatilis.
Dissimilar leaves.

73. Sednm.
Cylindrical leares.

- 72. Shepherd's purse. Dissimilat leaves.

76. Eneter daisy.
Spathulate leaf,

74. Small mallow. Orbicular leaf.

78. Privet.
Lanceolate leaf.

79. Iris. Ensiform Icavra.

77. Chenopcdium. Augular leaf.

80. Juniper.
"Needle-shaped loaveB.

THE LEAVES. 23

the stem is then winged [caulis alatus, Comfrey, fig. 66) ; — confluent or connate (/. con-
nata), -when the bases of two opposite leaves join around the stem {HoneysucMe, fig. 67,
Ghlora) ; — when the base of a single leaf spreads completely round the stem, the stem
and leaves are perfoliate (c. /. perfoliatus, Bupleurum, fig. 68) . Leaves are alternate
(/. alterna. Stock, fig. 1; Toad-flax, fig. 2 ; Oak, fig. 5) inapposite (/. opposita, St.
John''s Wort, fig. 3) ; — whorled (/. verticillata. Oleander, fig. 82 ; Madder, fig. 4) ; —
distichous (/. disticha), when they spring from alternate nodes placed on two lines to
right and left {Tew, fig. 69) ;— fascicled (f. fasciculata), when crowded into a bundle
on very short branches {Weymouth Pine, fig. 70). In true Pines this bundle is
persistent ; in larches the leaves become solitary and scattered, in consequence of
the elongation of the axis. Imbricated leaves (/. imbricata) overlap like roof-tiles
{Houseleek, Cypress, Thuja).

Colour of Leaves. — Leaves are green when of the usual colour; — glaucous
(/. glauca) when of a whitish dust}'' green or blue {Poppy, Cabbage) ; — spotted (/.
maculata) when they have spots of a different colour from the ground {Arum) ; —
variegated {f. variegata) when they are of many colours arranged without order
{variegated Holly, tricoloured Amaranth) ; — hoary {f. incana), when they owe their
colour to short and close hairs {Ten-week-stock).

Forms of Leaves. — Without being precisely alike, yet the leaves of any one plant
are usually very similar ; but in some species they are obviously dissimilar {Paper
Mulberry, Calthrop, Water Crowfoot, fig. 71 ; Shepherd's purse, fig. 72) ; the plant is
then said to be heterophyllous {pi. heterophylla).

Leaves are plane (/. plana), when their blade is much flattened, as is usually
the case {Lime, fig. 86) ; — cylindric or terete (/. teretia), when the blade is rounded
throughout its length {Sedum, fig. 73); — orbicular {f.orbiculata), when the circum-
ference of the blade is more or less circular {small Mallow, fig. 74) ; — ovate (/. ovata),
when the blade resembles the longitudinal section of an egg, with the larger end at
the base {Pear, fig. 75) ; — obovate (/. obovata), when ovate, with the smaller end at
the base {Meadow-sweet, St. John's Wort) ; — oblong (/. oblonga), when the width is
about a third of the length {small Centaury) ; — elliptic (/. elliptica), when the two
ends of the blade are rounded and equal, like an ellipse {St. John's Wort, fig. 3) ; —
spathulate {f. spathulata), when the blade is narrow at the base, and large and
rounded at the end, like a spatula {Easter Daisy, fig. 76) ; — angular (/. angulata),
when the circumference of the leaf presents three or more angles ; — deltoid (/.
deltoidea), if it presents three nearly equal angles, like a delta, A {Chenopodium,
fig. 77).

Leaves are lanceolate (/. lanceolata), when the blade is largest in the middle,
and diminishes insensibly towards the extremities {Privet, fig. 78) ; — linear (/.
linearia), when the sides of the blade are nearly parallel, and the space between
them narrow {Toad-flax, fig. 2); — ensiform (/. ensiformia) , when of the shape of a
sword ; in this case, the two surfaces are in apposition and consolidated in the upper
part {Iris, fig. 79) ; — subulate \f. subulata), when the cylindrical blade terminates
somewhat like an awl {Ledum reflexum) ; — needle-shaped (/. acerosa), when the
blade is hard, narrow, and pointed like a needle {Pine, fig. 70, Juniper, fig. 80) ; — ■

24

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

apillari/ (/. ea'pillacea), when slender and flexible like hairs {Water Crowfoot,
fig. 71) ;— filiform (/. filiformia), when thin and slender like threads {Asparagus,
fig. 81). The false leaves of Asparagus here alluded to, and which have been
described as leaves by most botanists, ought to be considered as branches
springing from the axils of small scarious scales, which are the true leaves.

81. -flsparagns,
Filiform leaves.

82. Oleander. Acute le,aves.

83. Pellitory.
Acumina1:e leaf.

85. ABiarantb,.
Emarginate leaf.

Leaves are acute (/. acuta) when they terminate in a sharp angle {Oleander,
fig. 82) ; — acuminate (/. acuminata), when the tip narrows rapidly and lengthens
into a point {PelUtorij, fig. 83) ; — obtuse (/. ohtusa), when the tip is rounded {Mistleto,

86. Lime. Cordate leaf.

87. Ground ivy,
lleniform leaf.

rxx

Bindweed.-
Sagittate leaf.

80. Sheep's sorrel
Hastate leaf.

fig. 84); — emarginate (/. emarginata), when it terminates in a shallow sinus
{Amaranth, fig. 85).

Leaves are cordate (/. cordata), when the base forms two rounded lobes and
the tip is pointed, somewhat like an ace of hearts {Lime, fig. 86) ; — reniform (/.
reniformia), when the base is cordate but the tip rounded, like a kidney {Ground ivy,
fig. 87) ;— sagittate (/. sagittata), when the base is lengthened into two sharp
lobes, which are oblique or parallel to the petiole, like an arrow {Bindweed, fig. 88) ; —

THE LEAVES.

25

hastate (/. hastata), vrhen tlie two lobes are nearly perpendicular to the petiole,
like a halbert {Sheep's sorrel, fig. 89) ; — peltate (/.
peltatum), when the petiole is joined to the centre of
the under surface of the blade {Nasturtium., fig. 90),
in which case the primary nerves diverge symmetri-
cally from the petiole, like the spokes of a wheel.
A peltate leaf may be compared with the orbicular
palmately-nerved leaves of Mallows, for if the two

90. Naaturtiuni. Peltate leaves.

91, Curled Mallow.

edges nearest the petiole of the leaf of the small Mallow (fig. 74) were joined, a
peltate leaf would be the result.

Surface of Leaves. — Leaves are smooth {/. Iwvia), when their surface presents
neither hairs nor inequalities {Orange); — scabrid {f.scabra), when rough or harsh to
the touch {Carex); — glabrous {/. glabra), when, whether smooth or not, they have no
hairs {Tulip) ; — silJcy {f.sericea), when clothed with long, even, shining hairs {Silver-
weed) ; — -pubescent or downy (/. pubescentia), when they are clothed with soft short
hairs {Strawberry) ; — pilose {/. pilosa), when the hairs are long and scattered {Herb-
Robert) ; — villous {/. villosa), when the hairs are rather long, soft^ white, and
close {Forget-me-not) ; — hirsute (/. hirsuta), when the hairs are long and numerous
{Rose-campion) ; — hispid (/. hispida), when they are erect and stiff {Borage) ; — setose
(/. setosa), when they are long, spreading, and bristly {Poppy) ; — tomentose (/. tomsn-
tosa), when they are rather short, soft, and matted {Quince) ; — woolly (/. lanata),
when lorig, appressed, curly, but not matted {Corn- centaury) ; — velvety (/. velutina,
holosericea), when the pubescence is short and soft to the touch {Foxglove) ; — cobwebby
(/. arachnoidea), when the hairs are long, very fine, and interlaced like a cobweb
{Thistle, Gobivebby Houseleeh).

Leaves are wrinkled or rugose {/. rugosa), when their surfa-ce presents in-
equalities, due to there being more parenchyma than is enough to fill the spaces
between the nerves {Sage) ; — bullate (/. bullata), when this "Excess of parenchyma
renders the inequalities more visible, and the whole blade is swollen between the
nerves {Cabbage) ; — crisped (/. crispa), when the extra parenchyma only appears at
the edge of the blade, which appears crimped {Curled Mallow, fig. 91) ; — waved
(/. undulata), when for the same reason the edges are in rounded folds {Tulip).

26

OEGAJSrOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

Hairs and Spines on the Margins of Leaves. — The leaf is ciliate (/. ciliatum), when
its margins bear long hairs like eyelashes (Sundew, fig. 92) ; — spinous {/. spinosum),
when the nerves lengthen and harden into thorns [Holly, fig. 93 ; Barberry,
fig. 94) ; in Berheris, the leaves which first appear after germination are provided
r with parenchyma like ordinary leaves, and the base

,'fl// of their petiole is furnished with two little stipules ;

but on the subsequent branches the stipules harden,
lengthen into spines, and the leaf itself is reduced to one

94. Barberry. Spiny leaves. 92. Sundew. Ciliate leaf. 9S. Holly. Spiny leaf. 95. Gooseberry. Spines.

or three thickened and spinous nerves, from the axils of which short branches,
bearing ordinary leaves, are developed. In the Gooseberry (fig. 95) the three or
five spines (c) which spring below the leaves (f) may be con-
sidered as a development of the pulvinus of the leaf.

Divisions of Leaves. — The leaf is entire (/. integrum) when its
blade is quite undivided (Oleander, fig. 82) ; — cut when its edge,
instead of being a continuous line, presents a series of broken

96. ChestniTt. Dentate leaf.

97. Arclif.ngel. Serrated leaf.

Elm. Bideutate leaf.

99. Hanthorn. Incised leaf.

lines, owing to the parenchyma not accompanying the nerves to their extremities
(Chestnut, Oak„ Hawthorn) ; — dentate or toothed (/. dentatum) when it has sharp teeth

THE LEAVES.

27"

with a rounded sinus ; it is the slightest way in which a leaf can he cut {Chestnut, fig.
96) ; — crenate {/. crenatum) when it has rounded teeth and a sharp sinus {Grovrnd ivy,
fig. 8 7); — serrate (/. serratum) when the sinus and teeth are sharp and turned towards
the tip of the leaf, like the teeth of a saw {White Archangel, fig. 97) ; — doubly -dentate
or -crenate or -serrate (/. duplicato-dentat%m, &c.) when the teeth or crenatures are
themselves toothed or crenate {Ehn, fig. 98) ; — incised (/. incisum) when the teeth are
very unequal, and the sinus sharp and deep {Hawthorn, fig. 99) ;— sinuate (/.
sinuatum), when the divisions (deeper than teeth) and the sinus are large and obtuse
{Oah, fig. 100). The divisions of the leaf are
called lacinice^ {lacinim), when acute, and
separated by an acute sinus, which reaches
half-way to the middle of the blade. If the
nerves are pinnate, the lacinise are so also, and J

100. Gale. Sinuate leaf.

102. Castor-oil. Palmatifld leaf.

101. Dandelion.
Pinnatifid runyiuate leaf.

103. Poppy.
Pinnatipartite leaf.

the leaf is pinnatifid (/. pinnatijidum, ArtichoTce) ; — if palmate, so also are the
lacinise, and the leaf is palmate {f. palmatifidum. Castor-oil, fig. 102). A pinnatifid
leaf of which the lacinije point downwards, is called runcinate (/. runcinatum. Dande-
lion, fig. 101).

The divisions of the leaf are called 'partitions {partitiones), when the sinuses
extend beyond the middle, and nearly reach the midrib^r the base of the blade ;
according to the nervation the leaf is then pinnatipartite (/. pinnatipartitum, Poppy,
fig. 103), or palmatipartite {/. palmatipartitum, Aconite, fig. 104). The divisions of
the leaf are called segments {segmenta), when the sinuses extend to the midrib or to
the base of the blade; then, according to the nervation, the leaf is pinnatisect
{/. pinnatisectum, Watercress, &g. 105) or palmatisect {f. palmatisectum. Cinq-foil, fig.
106;' Strawberry, fig. 107). The divisions are termed lobes {lobi) when the sinuses

■ There are no current exact equivalents for the
suhsfcantive terms lacinim, partitions, segments, and lohes
of this work; though when rendered into adjectives we
usually apply lobes to divisions which descend to or

about the middle of the leaf, and segments to divisions
to or near the base. — Ed.

= The Strawberry and Cinq-foil have undoubted
compound leaves. — Ed.

28

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

are as long as those of the lacinise or partitions or segments, and when the divisions,
of indefinite depth, are rounded ; according to the arrangement of its nerves
the leaf is then said to be pinnately hied (f. pinnatilobatum, Coronopus, fig. 108),
or palmately lobed {/. palmatilobatum, Maple, fig. 109).

104. Aconite. Paltnipartite leaf.

105. Watercress. Pinnatiseot leaf.

106. Cinq-foil. Palmatisect leaf.

The leaf is lyrate (/, lyratum), when, being pinnati -fid, -partite, -sect, or
pinnately lobed, it terminates in a rounded division, much larger than the others
{Turnip, fig. 110) ; — pedate (/. pedatum), when
its lobes, segments, partitions, or lacinise diverge

^^y from the base ; this occurs when three palmate
divisions spring from the petiole, their midrib
remaining undivided, whilst the two lateral |
produce on each side one or two parallel
divisions, which are perpendicular to that
from which they spring {Hellebore, fig. 111).

The same leaf is often variously divided ;
thus the segments of the lower pinnatisect
leaves of Chelidonium (fig. 112) are lobed,
sinuate, crenulate, and dentate ; the lower
'leaves of Aconite (fig. 104) are palmi-partite,
with bifid or trifid partitions, and incised and
toothed lacinise; the lower leaves of Herb-
Robert (fig. 113) are palmatisect, with trifid

107. strawberry. Palmatieect leaf, gegjjigjjtg ^^^ iucised and tOOthed kcinisB ;

the lacinise being rounded and abruptly terminated by a small point, and said to be
apiculate {I. apiculatce). The Castor-oil (fig. 102), Poppy (fig, 103), Cinq-foil (fig,
106), and Maple (fig. 109), have toothed divisions.

Compound leaves. — A leaf is simple (/. simplex), however deeply cut its divisions
may be, when these cannot be separated from each other without tearing, as in most
of the leaves mentioned above. It is compound (/. compositum), when its component
divisions can be separated without tearing; and its divisions are named leaflets

108. Coronopus.
Pennilobed leaf.

THE LEAVES.

29

(foliola). The petiole of a compound leaf is tlie common petiole {p. comwiunis), aad
that of each leaflet is apeholule {petiolulus).

109. Maple. Paliiiately-lobed teat.

110. Turnip. Lyrate leaf.

112. Chelidonium. Pennilobecl leaf.

A leaf is simply compound, when the leaflets, whether petiolulate or not, spring,
directly from the common petiole ; and, according to its nervation, the leaf is

111. Hellebore Pedateleaf.

113. Herb-Eobert, Palmatiseot leaf .

114. Eflbinia. Pinnate leaf.

pimnate (/. pinnatum, Rohinia, fig. 114) or digitate (/. digitatum, Horse-chestnut,
fio-. 116 J Lwpim., fig. 116). When there are but few leaflets, their insertion must

30

ORGANOGRA.PHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

115. Horae chestnut. Digitate loaf.

117. Molilotus. Pinnate leaf . 118, Trefoil. Digitate leaf.

IIG. Lupin. Digitate leaf.

119. Gleditschia triacantlios. Bipiiiuate leaf.

120. Acta3a spicata, Tripimiate leaf.

y^*^*V

121. Actfea raucmosa.'*^ Triternate'"leaf.

THE LEAVES.

31

be carefully observed: thus the Melilot (fig. 117) has a pinnately tri-foliolate leaf,
but the Trefoil (fig. 118) a digitately tm-nate' leaf, all the leaflets springing froM
the top of the petiole.

^ The leaf is bipinnate (/. bipinnatum), when the secondary petioles, instead of each
ending in a leaflet, form so many pinnate leaves (Gleditschia triacanthos, fig. 119) ;
tripinnate (/. tripimiatum), when the secondary petioles bear as many bipinnate
leaves. (Jctea spicata, fig. 120) ; tri-ternate, when the common petiole bears three
secondary petioles, which each bear three tertiary petioles, each of which again bears
as many digitately tri-foliolate leaves {Adwa racemosa, fig. 121). A pinnate leaf
with all its leaflets- in lateral pairs is termed pari-pinnate (/. pari-pinnatum) ; when
in addition it is terminated by a solitary leaflet, the leaf is impari-pinnate
(/. impari-pinnatum, Robinia, fig. 114).

122. Caucalis. Decompound leaf.

123. Potato.
Interruptedly pinnate leaf.

125. Orobus.
124. Agrimony. Pinnate leaf witTi unequal leaflet

Pinnatisect leaf. changed into a very short filament.

A leaf is laciniate or decompound (/. laciniatwtn, decompositum), when, without
being really compound, it is cut into an indefinite number of unequal lacinise
{Caucalis Anthriscus, fig. 122; Water Crowfoot, fig. 71), as in most umbelliferous
plants {Parsley, Chervil, IlemlocJc, Carrot, Angelica, &c.).

A leaf is interruptedly-pinnate or -pinnatisect (/. interrupti-pinnatum, -pinnati-
sectum), when the leaflets or divisions are alternately large and small {Potato, fig,
123; Agrimony, fig. 124).

Tendrils. — Tendrils {cirri) are thread-like, more or less irregularly spiral organs,
which usually coil round neighbouring bodies, and thus support the plant. The leaf
is cirrhose (/. cirrosum), when one or more of its- leaflets is reduced to its median
nerve, and becomes a tendril. In the Bitter Vetch (fig. 125), the tendril is simple
and very short, because it is only the terminal leaflet which is thus transformed.
In the Pea (fig. 126), and in Vetches (fig. 127), the three terminal leaflets are changed
into tendrils. In another Vetch {Lathyrus Aphaca, fig. 128) all the leaflets are
suppressed, and the whole leaf is reduced to a filament without parenchyma (v); in

More correctly a digitately tri-foliate leaf. — Ep.

32

OEGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

compensation, the stipules (s, s) are very much developed, and perform the office of
leaves. In 8milax (fig. 129), the petiole bears two lateral tendrils below the single

128. Aphaca. Petiolax tendrils.

126. Pea. Leaf with tendrils formed from leaflets.

130. Vine. Tendrils formed from peduncles.

cordate blade, which may be regarded as

the lateral leaflets of a compound leaf,

reduced to their median nerves. The

lateral position of the solitary tendril in
■ the Melon (fig. 61) and other Cucurhitacece,

together with the fact that two tendrils

occasionally occur, one on each side of

the leaf, has led most botanists to regard

it as a stipule, of which the corresponding

one is suppressed ; but the occurrence of

two tendrils is very rare, and these are

never precisely on the same level. On the

other hand, unlike a true stipule, the
tendril of Cucurlitacew is derived from a vascular bundle remote from that which
produces the leaf, and is separated from the petiole of the latter by buds. Upon

129. Smilax.
Stipulaiy tendrils.

127. Vetch.
Pinnate leaf with foliolar ten-
drils and winged petiole.

INFLORESCENCE.

33

the wiiole, the simplest explanation of the tendril of the Melon is, that, unlike that
of the Pea and other LeguminosEe, it represents a leaf, reduced to one or more of
its nerves : thus, when simple, it represents the petiole and mid-rib ; -when branched,
it represents the principal nerves of the leaf, which are themselves palmately divided.
In the Vine (fig. 130) the tendril is leaf-opposed, and formed of a branching peduncle
(v, v), of which the pedicels are suppressed, but which sometimes bears imperfect
flowers.

INFLORESCENCE.

This terra (inforescentia) is used in two senses, signifying both the arrange-
ment of the flowers upon a plant, and a collection of flowers not separated by leaves
properly so called ; the latter being the more special meaning of the term.

The organs of inflorescence
are, (1) the supports of the flowers,
pedimcle, pedicel, receptacle; (2) the
bracts {bractece), or altered leaves,
from the axils of which the floral
axes spring, and which are altered
in colour and form, as they ap-
proach the flower ; these are some-
times absent {Stock and other
Cruciferw).

The peduncle [pedunculus) is a
branch directly terminated by a
flower ; and its extremity forms
the receptacle [receptaculum) . This
name is also given to a more or less
branched flowering axis, differing
in appearance from the rest of the
of which the ultimate divisions are called pedicels

123. Currant. Simple

131. Lime. Bract joined to the peduncle.

and

stem, bearing bracts,
{pedicelli).

Bracts vary in shape; they are usually small {Currant, fig. 132), and may be thin,
transparent, and membranous {br. membranacece) ; or thin, dry, stiff, coloured, and
scarious (br. scariosce. Geranium) ; or coloured, like petals {Bugloss) ; they are very
large in the Lime (fig. 131), which is peculiar in having the peduncle adnate to the
midrib of the bract, and, though really axillary to it, appearing to rise from its
centre.

The primary axis of the inflorescence is the common peduncle, whence spring
the secondary, tertiary, &c. axes, according to their order of development.

The inflorescence is axillary {inf. axillaris), when the primary axis, instead of
terminating in a flower, is indefinitely elongated, and the fiowers are borne upon
secondary axes, springing from the axils of its leaves {Pimpernel, fig. 30) ; it is
terminal {i.' terminalis), when the primary and secondary axes both terminate in
a flower {Poppy, Columbine, fig. 31) . :

ORGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

In every inflorescence the flowers are solitary {fl. soUtarii), when each peduncle
is undivided, and springs directly from the stem, and is isolated from the others by
normal leaves {Pimpernel, flg. 30). Inflorescence,
in its restricted sense, consists of a group of pedi-

celled flowers, bracteate or

not, all springing from a

common peduncle which

bears no true leaves.

Indefinite inflorescences

are — the raceme, corymb,

umbel, spike, and head.

1. The raceme [race-

mus) is an inflorescence

of which the nearly equal

secondary axes rise along

the primary axis ; it is

simple, when the pedicels

spring directly from the

primary axis, and terminate

in a flower {Lily, Lily of the

Valley, Snapdragon; Cur-
rant, fig. 132 ; Mignonette,

fig. 133) ; it is compound,

138. Mignonette. Simple panicle, and Called a lOawicZe (vani- 131. Yucca Gloriosa. Branch of compound panicle.

cula), when the secondary axes branch once or oftener before flowering {Yucca
Gloriosa, fig. 134). A thyrsus {thyrsus) is a panicle of an ovoid shape, the central
pedicels of which are longer than the outer ones.

135. Cerasus Mahaleb,
Indefinite corymb.

136. Cherry. Simple umbel.

137. Fennel.
Umbel and umbellul£e without involucre.

2. The corymb {corymbus) resembles the raceme, but the lower pedicels are so
much longer than the upper, that the flowers are nearly on a level {Cerasus Mahaleb,

INFLOEESCBNCE.

fig. 135). In the Stock and many allied plants, the inflorescence is at first a corymb,
but changes to a raceme as the primary axis lengthens.

3. In the umbel {umbella) the secondary axes are equal in length, and starting from

the same point, flower at the same

height, diverging like the rays of a

parasol; it is a raceme of which

the primary axis is reduced almost

to a point. The umbel is simple

{sertulum), Mvhen the secondary axes

flower {Cherry, fig. 186) ; it is com-
pound, when these bear umbellately

arranged tertiary axes, called

partial umbels [umbellulw. Fennel,

fig. 137; Carrot, fig. 138; Fool's

Parsley, fig. 139).

The bracts, which in most racemes spring, like the pedicels, from different heights,
in many umbelliferous plants rise on a level, like the secondary and tertiary axes,
and form a whorl. The name
invohicre [involucrum) is given to
the bracts at the base of the umbel

8. Carrot. Tlmbels with involucre ;
umbellulse with inTolucels.

139. .ffithusa.
Umbel without involucre ;
umbellulje with involucela.

f\

140. Plantain. 141. Vervain. 142. Wheat.

Simple spike. Simple spike. Compound spike.

143. Oat. Panicle of spikeleta.

{Ca/rrot, fig, 138), and that of involuCel or partial involucre {involucellum) to the

»3

36

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

bracts at the base 'of the partial umbel [Fool's Parsley, fig. 139). Both involucre

and involucel may be absent [Fennel, fig. 137).

4. In the spike [spica), the flowers
are sessile or subsessile on the primary-
axis [Plantain, fig. 140; Vervain, fig.
141). In the compound spike [s. composita)
the secondary axes each bear a small

144. Willow. Staminiferous catkin.

145. Willow. PistilliferoiiB catkin.

146. Oak.
Staminiferous catkin.

14!). Arnm.
Spadlx expo.=ed by

the removal of
part of the spathe.

distichous spike [spikelet. Wheat, fig. 142). In many
grasses, the spikelets are borne on long branching
pedicels, forming a panicle [Oat, fig. 143).

The catkin [amentum) is a spike, the flowers of
which are incomplete [i.e. they want either stamens
or pistil), and which is deciduous when mature
[Mulberry ; Willoiv, figs, 144, 145; Oak, fig. 146).

The cone [strohilus) is a catkin with large thick
scales, principally found on certain evergreen trees,
hence named Conifers [Pine, fig. 147). The spike
of the Hop (fig. 148) is a cone with large membranous bracts.

The spadix [spadix) is a spike of incomplete flowers, which, when
young, is enveloped in a large bract or spathe [spatha). The axis

of the spadix sometimes
flowers throughout its
length, sometimes the
upper portion is flowerless
[Arum, fig. 149). The
branched spadix of Palms
is called a ' regime ' (in
French).

5. In the head [capi-
tulum) the flowers are
collected into a head or
depressed spike, of which the primary axis is vertically contracted, thus gaining
m thickness what it has lost in length [Scabious, fig. 160 ; Trefoil, fig. 161), -and the

147. Pine. Cone.

148. Hop. Cone.

INFLOEESCENCE.

37

depressed axis is called the common receptacle [clinanthium). As in the mnbel, the
head is usually bracteate, each flower springing from the axil of a bract. There

150. Scabious. Capitulum, 151. Trefoil. Capitulum. 162. Marigold. Cajjitulnm with inTolucre.

should hence be as many bracts as flowers, but, owing to the crowding of the flowers,
some of the bracts are usually suppressed. The outer bracts, or those below the
outer flower, form the involucre {in-
volucrum, periclinium, Marigold, fig,
152), The bracts of the centre flowers
are usually reduced to scales, bristles.

163. Camomile.

Paleate receptacle, cut

Tertically.

154. Cornflower.

Bristly receptacle, citfc

Tertically.

155. Onoporclon. AlveolElte receptacle, clit Tertically.

or hairs. The receptacle is paleate {r.paleatum), when covered with scale-like bracts
separating the flowers {Ca/momiU, fig. 153) ; — setose (r. setosum), when these are bristly ;
such are often cut into fine hairs {Oornflower, fig. 154) ; — pitted (r, alveolatum), when
the flowers are seated in depressions, separated by variously shaped membranes, which
represent the bracts {Onopordon, fig, 155), When these inner bracts are absent
the receptacle is described as naJced {r, nudum, Dandelion, fig. 156), Sometimes the
base of the head is naked, or only protected by some normal leaves {Trefoil, fig. 151),
but each flower may still be accompanied by a bract.

The inflorescences of Dorstenia Gontrayerva, and of the Fig {hypanthodium),
are also heads. In Dorstenia (fig. 157) the receptacle is much depressed or slightly

38

OEGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

157. Dorstenia,

156. Dandelion.
Naked receptacle.

158. Fig.
Cut vertically.

concave, bearing incomplete flowers inserted in pits witli ragged edges ; in the Fig
(fig. 158) the inflorescence is similar, but the receptacle is still more concave, inso-

mucli that the male flowers, which are at the top of
the fig, answer in position to the lowest flowers of the
primary axis, and the small scales (bracts) at the
mouth represent an involucre, which in the normal

state would gird
the base of the
common recepta-
cle, as in an or-
dinary head.

It is obvious
that every indefi-
nite inflorescence
must be a modifi-
cation of the ra-
ceme ; thus the
corymb is a ra-
ceme with unequal

secondary axes, reaching the same level; an umbel is a raceme whose primary
axis is undeveloped; the spike is a raceme whose secondary axes are undeve-
loped; the capitulum is a spike with the primary axis vertically thickened and
dilated.

The difference between the raceme, corymb, umbel, spike, and head being simply
due to the amount of development of the primary and secondary axes, these terms
cannot be precisely limited, and intermediate terms are therefore frequently resorted to;
as spiked racemes and panicles, when the pedicels are very short ; a globose spike
approaches the head ; and an ovoid or spiked head approaches the spike. Amongst
Trefoils, capitulate, spiked, and umbelled flowers all occur.

In the raceme, panicle, corymb, and spike, the pedicels flower from below up-
wards, i. e. the lowest flowers open first. In simple and compound umbels, the outer
flowers open first ; whence we may conclude that the umbel is a depressed raceme.
In the head, as in the depressed spike, the flowers really open from below up-
wards, but as the surface of the inflorescence in both these cases is nearly
horizontal, they appear to open from the circumference to the centre, and are
called centripetal, a term which is applied to every indefinite inflorescence, whether
the flowers open from below upwards, or from without inwards.

Definite Inflorescences. — These are all included under the general terra cyme
(cyma), however much they may be branched ; they are, the definite- or cymose-raceme;
true corymb ; umbellate-cyme ; npicate-cyme, scorpioid cyme ; and contracted cyme, which
comprises the fancicle and the glomerule.

1. In the definite- or cymose-raceme [Campanula, fig. 159), the flowering pedicels
are of nearly equal length, as in the raceme ; from which it differs in the primary
axis (a, a, a), terminating in a flower, which is necessarily the first to expand^

INFLOiiESCENCE.

39

whilst of the secondary axes (b, e, b), the lowest, being the oldest, flowers first ; and
the tertiaries (c, c, o), although often lower than the axis whence they spring, flower

last. The result is, that of the expanded flowers
some are above, some below the buds, according to
the order of the succession of their axes. When
examining such inflorescences, the student must
look for. the axis terminated by a flower, for the
lateral leaf or bract which it bears, and for
the shoot or secondary axis which springs be-
tween this axis and itself.

159. Campanula, Cyinose raceme-.

160. Cerastiiim.
Dichotomous cyme.

161. Hawthorn. Definite coi-ymb.

The racemose cyme is called a panicle or thyrsus when much branched {Privet) ;
but in reality the difference between the definite raceme and panicle is not analogous
to the difference between the indefinite raceme and panicle, for the indefinite
raceme consists of a primary and many secondary axes ; while the indefinite panicle
consists of primary, secondary^ tertiary, quaternary axes ; just as is the ease both in
the definite raceme and definite 'panicle; the only difference between these two,
then, is in appearance.

The definite raceme becomes a dichotomous cyme, when the primary axis termi-
nates in a fiower between two opposite leases or bracts,, from the axils of which
spring two secondary axes, each again terminated by a flower between two- bracts, from
the axils of which spring two tertiary axes, and so on {Cerastium, fig. 160) ; this evo-
lution of subordinate axes, each terminating between two opposite axes, is continued
till the last axis fails, from deficient nutrition, to repeat the process. When, instead
of two opposite leaves or bracts, there are three in a whorl below each successive
central flower, with again three in their axils, the cyme becomes trichotomous.
;' 2. In the definite (or true) corymb, the different flowering axes, although of
unequal length, attain pretty much the same level {Hmwthom, fig. 161).

In the definite raceme and the corymb, the central fliowers are first developed ■
in other words, the flowers open from withip outwards, or centrifugally.

40

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

3. In the definite umbel or umbellate cyme the pedicels appear to start from the
same point as in the indefinite umbel, hut the central flowers open first, and the
outer pedicels are evidently the youngest and shortest :

being a definite umbel, flowering centrifugally, it is truly '^'T*J<^ "^ f^"^^
a cyme {Ghelidonium, fig. 162). ^^ \!i/^^W^5

4. The definite spike or spicate-cyme {Sedum, fig. 163)

162. Chelidoninm.
Definite umbel.

163. Sedum. Spicate cyme.

164. Myosotia. Scorpioid cyme.

is composed of a succession of independent axes, alternating to the right and left,
each terminating in an apparently sessile flower.

5. The scorpioid cyme {Myosotis, fig. 164) is a
raceme which rolls up in a crozier shape, like the tail
of a scorpion ; it
is composed of a
succession of in-
dependent axes,
which do not al-
ternate right and
left, but form an
interrupted line,
which tends to
turn back upon it-
self; in this in-
florescence, the
bracts are usually
suppressed (fig.
165).

6. In the con-

166. Box. Glomernle. tracted cyme the "^- Lamium. Faseicles on an indefinite stem.

flowers are crowded, owing to the extreme shortness of the axes ; it is called
fascicled, when the axes are somewhat lengthened, and are regularly distributed

INFLOEESCENCE.

41

{Sweet William) ; — •glomerate, when the axes are almost suppressed, and extremely
irregular {Box, fig. 166).

Mixed inflorescences are those in which the definite and indefinite both appear.
In the Labiatw {Lamium, fig. 167) the general inflorescence is indefinite, while

172. Butcher^s Broom.
EpiphjUous flowers.

170. Heartsease.
'Single-flowered cyme.

171. Bindweed. One- and two-flowered cymes.

the separate heads are true axillary cymes or fascicles. In the Mallows the same
arrangement occurs (fig. 168). In Compositw {Groundsel, fig. 169) the general
inflorescence is a definite corymb, and the separate portions are heads. The definite
inflorescence is sometimes reduced to a single flower, and resembles the one-flowered
pedicels of an indefinite infiorescence {Heartsease, fig. 170) ; but a little below the
flower two small bracts {bracteoles) will be found, in the axils of which are two
obyious or suppressed shoots, which sometimes flower {Bindweed, fig. 171). The
two bracteoles of a one-flowered pedicel are therefore the evidences of a two- or three-
flowered cyme, of which the primary axis only is developed.

The inflorescence of certain plants has been called epiphyllous, from the flowers

42

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

appearing to spring from leaves or bracts. In the Lime (fig. 131), the peduncle ii
joined to the bracts. In Xylophylla the floral branch, dilated and flattened lik(
a leaf, bears flowers along its edges. In the Butcher's Broom (fig. 172), as ir
Xylophylla, the peduncles, enlarged into green leaves, rise in the axils of small scales
which are the true leaves, and bear on their centre one or more shortly pedicellec
flowers, forming a cyme.

THE FLOWER.

The flower, in phsenogamic plants, is a collection of several whorls (usually
four), formed of variously modified leaves arranged one above another in rings
or stages, so close that their internodes'are not distinguishable.

The leaves which form each floral whorl are not always precisely on the same
level, but often form a close spiral, and consequently not a true whorl j the term
whorl is, however, always applied to the calyx,
corolla, andrcecium,, and pistil.

The flower may be regarded as a true
shoot, terminating the peduncle or pedicel,
and therefore terminal as regards the branch
from which it springs ,: limiting the growth
of that branch. >. Its terminal position may
be theoretically explained by supposing that
/ the floral whorls exhaust the supply of nutri-
ment provided by the axis, and with this the
vegetative force necessary to prolong it. In
the normal condition of the flower, the re-
productive and nutritive forces are in equili-
brium ; but there are cases in which this

.,., . ,Tj TT ,. i.-i.n • ^^^- The same rose cu'

equilibrium is disturbed, and in which the axis vertically, and deprivec

, ,, 1 ~i i-t ft -I 1 t t ^ calyx and lowe

lengthens beyond the floral whorls, and re- petals, to show tb

-, ,, Till TIT ' T,-i position of all the parbi

produces the plant by branch-buds-; m which along the axis,
cases the seed-buds are usually suppressed ^ this is seen ir
many plants, and especially in proliferous roses (fig. 173)
of which the peduncle is prolonged into a supplementarj
axis, ending usually in an imperfect flower (fig. 174) ol
sepals (s) and petals (p), in the middle of which are a fe\\
imperfect stamens and carpels.-
The variously transformed leaves composing the floral whorls, thougl
modified in tissue, colour, and texture, to form the calyx, corolla, andrcecium,
and pistil, sometimes reveal their origin by resuming the aspect of normal leaves.
The term anomaly or monstrosity is given to casual departures from the normal
structure occurring in animals and plants, which anomalies are most frequentlj
iaduced by cultivation.

The first whorl or calyx, being the exterior, and therefore the nearest to the
leaves, resembles these most.

The second whorl or corolla is more altered •^. the tissue of its petals is mon

173. Proliferous rose,
c, c, calyx transformed into leaves j
p,' petals multiplied at the expense
of the stamens ; A, prolonged axis
bearing an imperfect flower ; f,
coloured blades representing abor-
tive carpels.

THE FLOWER.

43

175. Transformation of stamens iu roses.

17(i. Hooded Columbine,
showing one series of
aatbei's transformed and
connected together.

delicate, and their colour more brilliant, but their claw, Umb, and nerves, and their
usually flat shape, all reveal their foliar nature.

The third whorl, or andrcecium, bears much analogy to the second ; the relative
position of the stamens and petals is always the same, and these sometimes present
an insensible transition from one to the other; as in semi-double flowers, where some
of the stamens are changed into petals ; in partially double flowers, where all the
stamens are so changed; and in full double flowers, where the carpels also have
become petaloid {Ranunculus, Columbine, Rose) . In Rosa centifolia (fig. I 75) , par-

6 ticularly, the successive steps
by which a stamen becomes a
petal are obvious ; sometimes
the anther enlarges, and one
cell reddens (6) ; or both cells
lengthen (5) ; or the connective
reddens and dilates, and bears on one side a yellow scale, which
recalls an anther- cell (4, 3) ; offcenest the stamen expands at once
into a complete petal (2) ; sometimes (1) the proximity of the
calyx seems to influence this petal ; a green midrib traverses its
coloured blade, and it becomes sepaline in the middle, petaline on the sides. In the
double Columbine (fig. 176), the anther swells, and forms a hooded petal; and some-
times, but more seldom, the filament dilates into a flat petal.

The fourth whorl or pistil is the central; its position and the pressure of
the surrounding organs influence its form in many ways, and hence disguise its
origin ; but when the carpellary leaves are free {Columbine, fig. 12), or solitary {Pea,
fig. 14), their foliaceous nature is obvious, and especially in anomalous cases, as
the following.

Anomalies. — In the Columbine (fig. 177) the five carpellary leaves (f.c) instead

of being folded to form a protecting cavity for the
S I young seed, have been found to remain flat, and
bear along their edges (or placentas) small leaf-buds
(p.o) ; these buds, which nor- ^

mally would have contained
an embryo, were mostly open ;
some few, though empty,
were curved, and suggestive of
their normal function; fertili-
zation had not taken place,
N, P, c,aud the unfertilized stigma
was reduced to a small glan-
dular head (St), terminating
the midrib of the carpellary
leaf. In the double Cherry (fig. 178), the free edges of the two carpels (p.c) bear
no buds, and their blade or ovary, which altogether resembles an ordinary leaf,
folded along its paidrib (N.m), is lengthened into a style-like-^eck, terminated by
a spongy tubercle representing the stigma.

....F.o

177. Monstrous Columbine.

178. Double Cherry.
Flower out virtically ; s, sepals;
p, petals ; F.c, carpellary leaves ;
K.m, median nerve or style.

u

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

The Alpine Strawberry (fig. 179) presents a curious metamorphosis of the
floral whorls. The calyx (s) is normal, the five outer leaves are bifid, and accurately
represent the stipules of the leaves. The petals (p)
appear as green, strongly veined, nearly sessile leaves

188. Alpine Strawberry.

179. Alpine Strawberry. 180. Alpine Strawberry. 181. Alpine Strawberry. 182. Alpine Strawberry. Carpel without the
Green petal (mag.). Green stamens. Carpel (mag.). ovary (mag,).

•with five acute ciliate lobes (fig. 180). The twenty stamens (fig. 179, e) are
arranged in four whorls, and are also expanded into green petioled simple or three-
lobed leaves (fig. 181) ; most of them bear on each side of the base of the blade a
yellow boss (a, a), representing a suppressed anther. The carpels (fig. 179, c), which
have also reverted to leaves, are arranged spirally on a receptacle, which becomes
succulent as the green flower grows. The carpellary leaf (fig. 1 82 p.c), the integument
of the seed (p.c), called the ovulary leaf, and the embryo are transformed through
excessive development into overlapping leaves. Of these, the outer leaf, often
bifid (f.o), represents the ovary ; its base sheaths the inner leaf (fig. 183, F.o),
which should have formed the outer integument of the ovule. At the inner base
of this ovulary leaf (183, p.o) is a pointed shoot (p) ; this is the embryo, of which
a vertical section (fig. 184) shows rudimentary leaves
or cotyledons (co) and a plumule (g).

In this curious flower, an excessive supply of
nutrition has deranged the reproductive organs, and
the whorls, which should have been modified in

184. Alpine Strawberry.
Carpel
cut vertically.

185. Bumex.

Flower with a double

calycoid perianth.

186. Lily.

Flower with a double

petaluid perianth.

187. KarHssus.
Flower with a double petaloid perianth,
furnished with a cup simulating a corolla.

subservience to the function of reproduction, have preserved their original form of
green leaves. Such a metamorphosis of all the fioral organs into ordinary leaves
is not uncommon throughout the Yegetable Kingdom ; it is called chloranthy.

THE TLOWEE.

45

An mcompleie flower (fl. incompletus) is one in whicli calyx, or corolla, or
andrcecimn, or pistil is absent. The single or double whorl which surrounds the
androecium and pistil (or essential organs of the flower) is called a perianth
{perianthium. perigonium).

A dichlamydeous flower {fl. ddchlamydeus) is one with a double perianth, i.e. with
two whorls, calyx, and corolla (Wallflower, fig. 7) ; which are similar in form or
colour or not. When both whorls are green and calyx-like {Rumex, fig. 185), the
perianth is called calycoid, calycine, or foliaceous (p.foliaceum), and when both are
coloured or corolla-like [Lily, fig. 186), it is called, petaloid (p.peialoideum). In Nar-
cissus (fig. 187) there is a fringed cup within the petaloid perianth, which is greatly
developed in the common species here figured, but is much less so in the Narcissus
poeticus, and other species. In these latter it is cut into six lobes, alternating with
those of the double perianth, whence some botanists
have concluded that it represents two confluent whorls
airalogous to the outer ones. Others regard this cup
of Narcissus as formed by lateral expansion of the
confluent filaments. In Orchis (fig. 188) the petaloid Wl|'^'

190. Aristolochia.

189. Chenopodium.

191. Ash.

Monoperianthed

192. Oarex.

^onoperianttied flower.

Naked flower.

flower with irregular
perianth.

J flower.

188. Orchis.

Flower with a double

irregrdar petaloid

perianth.

perianth has six unequal, spreading lobes, of which the upper are erect and form
the liood (galea) ; the lowest is dilated, variable in shape, and called the lip
(labellum) ; it is sometimes produced into a sac, or spur (calca/r).

A monochlamydeous perianth (jp. simplex) is usually con-
sidered as a calyx, and the flower is said to be apetalous'
{fl. apetalus). It may he foliaceous (Chenopodium,, fig. 189), or
petaloid .(Anemone, fig. 230), or irregular (Aristolochia, fig. 190).

An achlamydeous flower (fl. achlamydeus) has neither calyx
nor corolla ; it may be protected by one or more bracts (Garex,
figs. 192, 193), or altogether unprotected (fl. nudus, Ash, fig. 191).

A hermaphrodite flower (fl. hermaphroditus, 3) possesses
both androecium and pistil (Wallflower, fig. 7) ; — the flower
is male (fl. masculus, s ) when it has androecium without pistil
(Garex, fig. 192) ;— female (fl. fcemineus, ? ), when it has pistil
•without androecium (Garex, fig. 193) ; — and neuter ar^terile (fl, sterilis, neuter), when
it has neither androecium nor pistil (outer flowers of the Cornflower, fig. l94) ; —

193. Carex. 2 flower.

46

OEGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

monoecious [fi. monoici), when the male and female flowers are on the same plant {Carex,
figs. 192, 193; Oah, fig. 146; Hazel-nut, fig. 195, 195 Us, 196 ter; Arum, figs. 196,

194. Cornflower.
Neuter flower.

19fl. Hazelnut.
Moncecious flowers.

19G. Arum.
Moncecious flowers. Spa-
dix bearing below the
pistilliferous flowers,
above the staminiferous,
and terminated by a club-
shaped prolongation.

199. "Willow.
(J flower.

195 bis. Filbert.
(J flower.

195 ter. Filbert..
9 flower.

202. Mercurialis.
9 flower.

197, 198) ; — dioecious {fl. dioici), when on separate plants [Willow, figs. 1 99, 200 ; Bog''s
Mercury, figs. 201, 202) ; — polygamous [fl. polygami), when hermaphrodite flowers
occur amongst the male or female [Pellitory). The general term diclinous [diclinus)
is applied to moncecious, dioecious, and polygamous flowers.

THE CALYX.

The calyx {calyx) is the whorl placed outside of the corolla and androecium. It
is usually simple {Wallflower), sometimes double {Magnolia, Trollius) ; its component

leaves are termed sepals {sepala). It is poly-
sepalous (c. polysepalus), when its sepals are
wholly separate {Wallflower, fig. 8 ; Colum-
bine, fig. 31) ; gamo- or mono-sepalows (c. gamo-
or monq-sepalus), when its sepals cohere more
or less.

A monosepalous calyx is partite (c. partitus),
when the sepals are united at the base only ;
and it may be bi- tri- multi-partite {Pimpernel,
fig. 203) ;— it is bi- tri- muUi-fid, yvhen the sepals cohere about half-way up {Comfrey,

203. Pimpernel.

Five-partite calyx

and pistil.

204. Erythroea.
Five-fid calyx.

THE CALYX.

47-

Erythrcea, fig. 204) ; — ^it is hi- tri- multi- dentate or -toothed (c. dentatus), when tlie sepals
are united nearly to the top {Lychnis, fig. 205).

In the monosepalous calyx, the connected portion of the sepals is the tube
[tubus), the free portion the limb {limbus), and the point of union
of these the throat {faux) .

Sepals are sometimes prolonged into appendages at the base,
as in Myosurus (fig. 206) and Heartsease
(fig. 500), where the five sepals are
attached to the receptacle by their

206. Myosurus.

207. Campanula.

208. Lamium,

209. Larkspur.

Flower with appendiculate

Appendiculate calyx.

Irregular calyx.

Calyx prolonged into a hollow

calyx.

horn.

centres ; in some Campanulas (fig. 207) the appendage is formed by the union of
two lobes belonging to two contiguous sepals, between which it is placed.

The calyx is regular (c. regularis, wqualis), when its sepals, whether equal or
unequal, form a symmetrical whorl {Wallfiower, fig. 8; Pimpernel, fig. 203 ; Erythrcea,
fig. 204 ; Lychnis, fig. 205) ; — it is irregular (c. irregularis, inwqualis) , when the whorl
is unsymmetrical {Lamium, fig. 208). In the Aconite the upper sepal forms a hood ;
in Larkspur (fig. 209) it is prolonged into a hollow horn or spur. In the Tropoeolmm
(fig. 210), the spur is. formed by the united and lengthened three upper sepals. In
Pelargonium the upper sepal is produced downwards, and forms a tube adherent
to the pedicel. In Scutella/ria the five sepals form two lips ; of which the upper

211. Scutellaria.
Young calyx.

210. Tropoeolum. Howerwitli calyx
prolonged into a hollow horn or spur.

212. Scutellaria.
Bipe calyx.

214. Henbane,
tirceolate calyx.

213. Winter Cherry.
Vesicular calyx.

protuberant one (fig. 211), after flowering, forms a shield to the ovaries, arching
over them so as completely to envelop them, and meet the lower lip (fig. 212).

The tube of the monosepalous calyx may be cylindric [cylindricus, Pink, fig. 226) ;
— cwp-shaped {cwpuliformAs, Orange) ; — club-shaped {clavata, claviformis, Silene,Armeria);
^-bladdery {vesiculosus), when swollen like a bladder {Winter Cherry, fig. 213); — tur-
binate {Iwbinatus), when it resembles a top or pear {Black Alder) ; — bell-shaped

48

OEGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

(campanulatus, Kidney-lean) ; — ureeolate {urceolatus) , when it resembles a small

pitcher {Henbane, fig. 214).

The calyx is connivent (s. conniventia), when the sepals bend towards each other

(Ceanothus) ; — closed (s. claiisas), when their edges
touch without joining [Wallflower, fig. 8) ; — erect
(s.erectas), when the sepals are vertical {Rocket, &g.

216. Fedia.

Fruit crowned

by a calyx with

toothed limb.

215. Quince. Fruit cut vertically.

217. Madder. 218. Olu'ysan- 219. Helianthemum.
Pistil crowned themum. Flower Fruit crowned
by a calyx with without a by a paleated calyx

obsolete Umb, oelyx. (mag.).

220. Valerian.

Fruit crowned by a calyx with

feathery tuft (mag.;.

250) ; — patent (s. patentia), when they spread horizontally {Mustard) ; — reflexed
(s. refl,exus), when turned back so as to expose their inner surface {Bulbous Crowfoot),
The calyx-limb may be petaloid {Iris) ; — -foUaceous {Quince, fig. 215) ; — toothed
{Fedia, fig. 216) ; — reduced to a small membranous crown {Field Camomile) — or
ring (c. margo obsoleius, Madder, fig. 217) ; — or altogether suppressed {Chrysanthemum,
fig. 218) ; in the latter case the calyx is said to be entire (c. integer), because its tube
is considered to be confiuent with the ovary, and undivided.

The calyx-limb may be reduced to scales
{squamw or palece, Helianthemum, fig. 219) ; or to
radiating bristles or hairs, called a pappus {pap-
pus). Such a pappus may he plumose {p.plumosus)
when each of its hairs is covered
with long secondary hairs or barbs
visible to the naked eye {Va-
lerian, fig. 220 ; Salsify, fig. 221) ;
— simple {p. simplex) when the hairs
or bristles are smooth and silky
{Dandelion, fig. 222).

222. Dandelion. 22.9. Scabious. 221. Salsify. The pappUS, whether simple Or

Fruit crowned by Fruit open (mag.). Fruit crowned by a calyx . . ■ -7 • ^ i

a calyx with a limb in Calyx with a with a piUmOSe, IS SCSSlle {p. SeSSllls) , WheU

a simple tuft. stipitate tuft. feathery tuft. . i i • • j_ n t , i

the hairs are inserted directly on
the top of the ovary {Cornflower, Valerian, fig. 220) ; stipitate {p. stipitatus), when
the calyx-tube is prolonged into a slender neck above the ovary {Dandelion, fig.
222 ; Salsify, fig. 221 ; Scabious, &g. 223).

THE CALYX.

49

The calyx is deciduous (c. deciduus), when it falls with the corolla after flowering
{Wallflower, fig. 8) ; — caducous or fugacious (c. caducus), when it falls as soon as

224. Poppy.
Young flower.
Caducous calyx.

229. Scabious.

Involucred fruit

(mag.).

225. Mallow.
Persistent calyx.

227. Mallow.

Calycule of

wliorled bracts.

228. Strawberry.

Flower with a calycule

of stipules.

the flower begins to expand (Poppy, fig. 224) ;— persistent (c. persistens), when it
remains after flowering {Pimpernel, fig. 203) ; — marcescent {marcesoens) , when it
withers and dries up, and remains attached to the fruit {Mallow) ; — accrescent
(c. accrescens), when it continues to grow after flowering {Winter Cherry, fig. 213).

' Calycules ' and Calyciform Involucres. — The calyx is sometimes accompanied by
whorled or opposite bracts, simulating an accessory calyx ; to these have been given
the name of calycule or outer calyx {calyculus). The Pink (fig. 226) has a ' calycule '

E

50

OEGANOGEAPflY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

of four bracts in opposite pairs. The Mallow (figs. 225, 227) has, outside the five-fid-
calyx, a calycule of three bracts, and the Marsh Mallow one of six to nine bracts. .

The five green bodies beneath and adherent
to the calyx of the Strawberry (fig. 228), and which
alternate with the five sepals, are not a calycule
of bracts but of pairs of stipules belonging to the
sepals. The pitted cup with fringed margins which
encloses each flower of the Scabious (figs. 223, 229)
may be considered a calycule.

Calycules are true one-flowered involucres, ana-
logous to the many-flowered involucres of heads
and umbels.

The following are also one-flowered involucres :
the three foliaceous cut bracts of Anemone (fig. 230),

placed far below the
calyx; — the three entire
bracts of Hepatica (fig.
231), also placed just
below the calyx; — the
many foliaceous bracts
of the Winter Hellebore
(fig. 231 bis), placed

281 bis. "Winter Hellebore.
Calyciform involacre near the flowei'.

231. Hepatica.
Calyciform inTolucre near the flower.

232. Oak.
Fruit with a scaly cup.

235. Btipborbia.

Calyciform

many-flowered cxip.

"233. FUbert. Fruits with foliaceous cup,

234. Chestnut, Prickly involucre, containing three ilrnits.

THE COEOLLA.

51

almost in contact with the calyx ; — the cup {cupula) of the acorn (fig. 232), which
is composed of small imbricated scales ; — the foliaceous cup, with cut margins, of the
Filbert (fig. 233). The prickly cup of the Chestnut (fig. 234), and the calyciform cup
of Euphorbia (fig, 235), only differ from the preceding in being many- flowered.

THE COROLLA.

The corolla (corolla) is the whorl next within the calyx ; it is usually simple
{Rose), sometimes double, i.e. composed of several whorls {Magnolia, Nymphoea) ; its
leaves are petals {petala).

Petals are usually coloured, that is, not green like the (usually foliaceous)
sepals ; som^e plants, however {Buckthorn, Vine, Narcissus viridiflorus), have green
petals, while others {Helleborus, Aconite, Larhspwr, Columbine, Fennel) have coloured
or petaloid sepals.

In the polypetalous corolla (c. polypetala, dialypetala) the petals are entirely
separate from each other {Wallflower, Strawberry, Columbine) ; — in the monopetalous
or gainopetalous corolla (c. mono- gamo-petala) the leaves cohere more or less, so as
to form a corolla of a single piece.

The corolla is regular (c. regularis), when its petals, whether free or united, are
equal, and form a symmetrical whorl ; irregular (c. irregularis), when the reverse. A
corolla may be formed of unequal divisions, and yet be regular ; this is when the
petals are alternately large and small, the small being all alike and the large all
alike ; or when its divisions are oblique, but all alike, the whole corolla being still
symmetrical {Periwinkle, fig. 274).

Polypetalous Corollas. — The petals are clawed {p. unguiculata), when the broad
part, or limb {lamina, fig. 9, l), is narrowed at the base into a petiole called the claw

237. Eanunculns.
Petal.

i. Barberry.
Petal.

239. Lydinis.
Petal.

{wnguis. Wallflower, fig. 9 ; Pink, fig. 236) ; the petals of the Rose and Ranunculus
(fig. 237) are shortly clawed ; those of the Philadelphus and Orange are sessile.

The claw of the petal is necta/riferous {u. nectarifer), when it bears a honey-
secreting gland {Ranunculus, fig. 237) ; this gland may be protected by a scale
(fig. 237), or naked {Barberry, fig. 238) ; and the claw itself is naked {u. nudus), when
it bears neither gland nor scale {Wallflower, fig. 9; Pink, fig. 286)^ the claw is
winged {u. alatus), when it bears a longitudinal membrane on its inner surface {Rose
Campion). Little pits {formces) are often found at the point of junction of the claw

E 2

62

OEGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

and limb, or forming small swellings inside tlie tube {Lychnis Chalcedonica) ; they
also sometimes occur in monopetalous corollas. Small scales, placed within and on

243. Felleborns,
Tubular petal.

244. Nigella.
Two-lipped petal.

244 Ijis. Winter Aconite.
Two-lipped petal.

241. 243.

Mignonette. Inner and lateral petals.

246. Columbine.

Petal ill a hood or

cornucopia.

245. Trollius.

Petal with one lip

(mag.)..

247. Aconite.
Flower naked, witbout calyx ;
petals hooded, pediceUed (mag.).

the top of the claw, forming a sort of crown around the andrcecium and pistil, are
collectively called a corona [coronula, Lychnis dioica, figs. 239, 240 ; Mignonette,
iigs. 241, 242).

The limb of the petal may be entire [Wallflower, fig. 9), or toothed or fringed
{Mignonette, figs. 241, 242).

Petals are generally ^af {p. plana), like the leaves ; but may be concave {p. con-
^ava, Barherry, fig. 238) ; — tubular with entire margins [p. tuhulosa, Hellehorus foetidus,
fig. 248) ; — hilahiate {p. hilahiata), or tubular with the mouth two-lipped {Nigella, fig.
244 ; Winter Aconite, fig. 244 his) ; — labiate {p. labiata), when the tube terminates in a
single lip {Trollius, fig. 246) ; — hooded {p. cuculliformia, Columbine, fig. 246 ; Aconite,
fig, 247) ; — spurred {p. calcariformia), i.e, forming a spur or horn {Heartsease, fig. 248 ;

248. Heartsease.
Flower cut Tertically. showing
the horn of the lower petal.

24i>. Lnrk.=:pur.

Petal in a spur formed of

four united petals.

250. Hooket,
Flower,

251, Chelidouium,
Flower.

Larhspwr, fig. 249). Hollow petals, of whatever form, usually enclose at the base a
gland which is nectariferous when the flower expands, and the anthers open to shed
their pollen.

The regular polypetalous corolla is cruciform (c. cruciformis), when it consists of
four petals placed crosswise {Rocket, fig. 250 ; Ghelidonium, fig. 261) ; rosaceous

THE COEOLLA.

63

(c. rosacea), when of five spreading, shortly-clawed, or sessile petals {Rose, Strawberry,
fig. 252) ;—^caryophyllaceous (c. caryophyllea), when of five clawed petals {Lychnis,
figs. 239, 240).

The irregular polypetalous corolla is papilionaceous (c. papilionacea, Cyiisus,
figs. 253, 254), when composed of five petals, of which the tipper or standard

252. Strawberry.
Flower.

253. Cytisus.
Flower in profile.

254. Cytisus.
Front view of flower.

256.- Cytisus. Left wing.

257. Cytisus.
Petals forming the keel.

{vexillum, fig. 255) is placed next to the axis,- and encloses the four others in bud;
of these the two lateral wings {alee, fig. 266) cover the two lower, which are
contiguous, and often adhere by their lower margins, and together form the heel
{carina, fig. 257).

Other irregular corollas are called anomalous (c. anomala, Aconite, Pelargonium,
Heartsease, fig. 170).

Monopetalous Corollas. — In these, the tube consists of the united portions of
the petals, the limb is the upper or free portion, the throat {faux) is the top of the
tube, and is usually reduced to a circular opening, but is sometimes lengthened
or dilated {Comfrey, &g. 268). It must be borne in mind that the term, Km6, as

259. Heliotrope. .

Flower "with naked

throat (mag*.).

260. Heliotrope.

Corolla laid open

(mag:).

261. Pulmonaiia.

Corolla laid open

(mag.).

262. LycopsiS.

Flower with bent tube

and closed throat (mag.).

203. Myosotis.

Flower with closed

throat (mag.).

applied to the corolla, has two meanings ; being used both to designate the blade
of the leaf or petal, and the free upper portion above the tube of a gamopetalous
corolla.

The throat is appendiculate (/. ap-
pendiculata) when furnished inside with,
and often closed by, variously formed
appendages, which often answer to ex-
ternal pits ; — it is nahed (/. nuda) wheii
these are absent {Heliotrope, figs. 269,
260) ;— it is furnished with, but not closed by, long pencils of hairs in Pulmonaria
(fig. 261) ;— closed by six swellings, each tipped with a pencil of hairs, and answering

264, Myosotis.
Corolla laid open (mag.).

205. Bngloss. Flower
with closed throat (mag.).

54

ORGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

to so many external pits, in Bugloss (figs. 265, 266) ;-closed by five swellings,
answering to pits, in Myosotis (figS. 263, 264) and Lycopsis (fig. 262) ;— closed by

266. Bugloss.

Flower cut vertically.

(mag.).

267." Borage.
Flower.

268. Comfrey.

Flower showing the

pits between the

Eepals.

269. Comfrey.
Corolla laid open, show-
ing the five scales be-
tween the five stamens.

five scales, conpiving, and forming a conical roof over the tube,, and answering
to five external pits, in Comfrey (figs. 268, 269) ;— furnished with five emarginate
scales, in Borage (fig. 267) ; and bearing a crown of long, narrow, cut scales, in
Oleander.

The monopetalous limb is bi- multi-partite, when the petals
cohere at their bases only {Pimpernel, fig. 277; Borage, fig. 267); ;■' ->,^|u/ y*

270. Campanula.
Flower.

271. Cerinthe.
Flower,

272. Chrysanthemum.
Flower with tubular corolla.

274. Periwinkle.
Flower.

278. Biudweud.
Flower.

li. multi-fid, when they cohere about half-way up, and the sinuses, as well

as the segments, are acute {Tobacco, Campanula, fig. 270) ; — bi- multi-lobate.

q

[

I,.

\

when the segments are obtuse or rounded {Myosotis, figs. 268,
"64; Heliotrope, figs. 259, 260; Bugloss, fig. 265; Comfrey, fig.
38) ; — toothed, when the segments are very short {Heath, fig.
76).

The regular monopetalous corolla is tubular (c. tubulosa), when

the tube is long and the limb erect and continuous with it {Cerinthe,

\?\ ^ fig. 271). The central flowers, called florets {flosculi],

\Hf Trf /^W^ °^ Chrysanthemum (fig. 272) and allied plants with in-

I JH volucrate heads, have small tubular corollas. Such heads

^pr are called flosculose. They are infundibuUform (c. infundi-
276. Heath. buUformis), when the tube insensibly widens upwards
Flower, ij^^g ^ funnel {Bindweed, fig. 273) ; — hypocrateriform (c. hy-
pocrateri-formis or -morpha), when the straight and long tube abruptly terminates
in a flat spreading limb, like an antique patera {Lilac, Jessamine, PeriwinJcle, flg.

275. Campanula.
Flower.

THE COEOLLA.

55

274 ; Biigloss, fig. 265) ; — campanulate (c. campanulata), when bell-sliaped {Campanula,
fig. 276) ; — urceolate (c. v/rceolata), when the tube is swollen in the middle, and the
nioutk contracted, like a small pitcher [Heath, fig. 276) ;

2S1. Eosemary.

279. Laminm.

280. Galeobdolon

277. Pimpernel.

-278. Lamium.

Labiabe corolla with upper

Front -vie^ of

Frout view of

Flower.

Flower iu profile.

lip upright.

flower.

flower.

— rotate (c. rotata), when the tube is suppressed, and the segments horizontal,
and divergent like the spokes of a wheel (Pimpernel, fig. 277 ; Borage, fig. 267) ; —
stellate (c. stellata), when rotate, with the segments very acute {Galium).

The irregular monopetalous corolla is hilabiate (c. lahiata, hilabiata), when the
limb is cut into two principal superimposed divisions {lips), and the throat is open ;
the upper lip consisting of two petals, and the lower of three. The upper lip may
be entire, by the confluence of the two petals {Lamium, figs. 278, 279 ; Galeobdolon,
fig. 280) ; or slightly split {Sage, Rosemary, fig. 281) ; or so deeply divided {Ger-
mander, figs. 282, 283) that the two petals stand widely apart, and are confluent
with the lower lip rather than with one another. In this case the corolla appears
to consist of one five-lobed lower lip. Lastly, the upper lip is sometimes wholly
suppressed, or distinguishable from the tube only by a notch {Bugle, fig. 284). The
luid-lobe of the lower lip may be entire {Rosemary, fig. 281) ; — iifid {Lamium, fig.
279; Bugle, fig. 284) ;—trifid {Galeobdolon, fig. 280).

The personate corolla (c. personata) is a form of the labiate, with the throat
closed by a projection of the lower lip, called the palate
{palatum) ; in many personate corollas the tube is tumid at the

2S2. Gevmander.
Back of flower.

283. Germander.
Flower in profile.

■284. Bugle.
Labiate coroUa with upper lip almost obsolete.

2S5. Snapdi'agon,
Flower,

base in the direction of the lower lip, and called gibbous (c. gibbosa, Snapdragon,
fig. 285), or even spurred (c. calca/rata, Lina/ria, fig. 286).

Two-lipped corollas are often described as ringent (c. ringens), but this term
being equally applied to both the labiate and personate corollas, it is superfluous.

56

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

The Ugulate corolla (c. Ugulata) consists of five confluent petals, of whicli the
two upper join at their base only, but unite almost throughout their length with the
three others, as do these with each
other, so that the corolla has a //
very short tube, and a limb en-
tirely formed of a finely-toothed

287. ChTysantliemum,

288. Foxglove.

259. Cornflower

291. CefitraiitlluS.

286. Linaria.

Flower with

FJower with

Sterile floret

Flower (mag.).

mower.

ligulafce corolla.

anomalous corolla.

(mag ).

ligule {Chrysanthemum i fig. 287). Ligulate flowers are usually collected in an in-
volucrate head, and are called semi-florets (semi-floscwli). A head (capitulum)
composed of semi-florets is called semi-flosculose (Dandelion) ; one
with tubular florets in the centre, and ligulate ones in the cir-
cumference, is rayed (c. radiatum, Ghrysanthem'tim, Marigold).

All other irregular monopetalous corollas are considered
to be anomalous (c. anomala). Of these the corolla of the Fox-
glove (fig. 288) resembles a thimble ; the flowers on the cir-
cumference of the Cornflower (fig. 289) are large, irregular, and
290. Scabious. Bay floret, neuter; thosc of the Scabious (fig. 290) are also very irregular
and almost labiate ; and Centranthus (fig. 291) has an irregularly hypocrateriform
corolla, with an inferior spur to the tube.

THE ANDRCEGIUM.

The androecium {androecium) is the simple or double whorl, placed within or
above the corolla; the leaves composing it are called stamens [stamina).

A complete stamen (fig. 292) consists of a petiole ov filament {filamentum, f) and
a limb or anther [anthera, a) ; the anther is halved vertically by a median nerve the
connective {connectivum, c) ; each half consists of a cell [loculus, l) formed of two
valves, the junction of which is marked externally by a furrow or suture. The back
of the anther faces the corolla, and its face is opposite the pistil.

The cellular tissue of the anther-cells is originally soft, pulpy, and continuous :
but when the anther is mature, this tissue becomes dry and powdery ; the two
valves then separate along the suture ; the cell opens, and the parenchyma cells.

THE ANDECECIUM.

67

now called pollen, are ready to be conveyed . to the stigma. The anther is teively
sessile, i.e. without filament {Arum, fig. 293).

When the corolla is monopetalous, the stamens almost invariably adhere to it

293. Arum. Stamen (mag.)i

292. StocU.
Stamen.

294. Belladonna.
Cbr'olla and androecium laid open.

,.29.5. Campanula.
Flower cut vertically.

296. Ranunculus.
Pistil and stamens.

{BelladoTma, fig. 294) ; — amongst the few exceptions are Heaths and Campanulas
(fig. 295).

Insertion of the Stamens.-^This term relates to the position on the floral axis
which the stamens occupy relative to the other whorls. The insertion of the corolla
always coinciding with that of the stamens, in the staminiferous monopetalous
corolla the insertion of the stamens may be inferred from that of the corolla. Thus
the stamens, like the corolla, are hypogynous {st. hypogyna), when they do not adhere
to the pistil or calyx, but spring from the receptacle below the base of the pistil
{Ranunculus, fig. 296; Primrose, fig. 297); — perigynoils {st. peri-
gyna), when inserted on the calyx, rather above the base of the
pistil, to which they are relatively lateral {Apricot, fig. 298 ;
Campanula, fig. 296) ; — epigynotis {st. epigyna) when
inserted on the pistil itself {Coriander, fig. 299 ;
Madder^ fig. 300).

cy

297. Primrose.
Plower cut veitically (mag.).

300. Madder.
Plower cut vertically.

299. Coriander.
Flower cut vertically.

The perigynous and epigynous insertions being easily confounded, the term
calycifloral {pi. calyciflorce) has been given to all plants whose corolla (whether mono-
or poly-petalous) and stamens are inserted on the calyx, and this whether the calyx
be below the ovary {Apricot, fig. 298), or above it {Campanula, fig. 295 ; Coriander,
fiff. 299- Madder, Gg. 300). The term thalamifloral {pi. thalamifloroe) has been given
to plants whose polypetalous corolla and stamens are inserted below the pistil, or
liypogynous ; and corollifloral to plants with a monopetalous staminiferous corolla
inserted below the pistil, or hypogynous {Primrose, fig. 297).

58

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

Number of the Stamens.- The flower is isostemonous [fl.-isostemoneus), when the
stamens equal the free or united petals in number {Coriander, fig. 299 ; Pnmrose, fig.
297) ; — anisostemonous (fl. anisostemoneus), when they are fewer than the petals
{Valerian, fig. 301; Centranthus, fig. 291 ; Snapdragon, fig. 305), or more numerous
than the petals {Sedum, fig. 302 ; Horse-chestnut, fig. 303 ; Ranunculus, fig. 296) ;—
diplostemonous {fl. diplostemoneus) , -when
more than double the petals {Ranun-
culus, fig. 296; Myrtle, fig. 304). The
flower, according to the number of
"■^N stamens, from one to ten, is said to be

SOI. Valerian.
Plower (mag.).

302. Sedum.
Flower.

303. Horse-cheatDut.
Flower,

304. Myrtle.
Flowering branch.

man-, di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex-, hept-, act-, enne-, dec-androus ; when above ten, the
stamens are called indefinite {st. plurima), and the ^owev polyandrous {fl. polyandrus).
Proportions of the Stamens. — Stamens are not always equal : they are didynamous
{st. didynama, Snapdra.gnn, fig. 305), when four, of which two are the longest; this
occurs in irregular monopetalous normally pentandrous flowers, in which four
stamens alternate with four of the five lobes of the corolla, and the fifth stamen is
suppressed. Stamens are said to be fetradynamous {st. tetradynama) when six, of
which two are small and opposite, and four large, and placed in opposite pairs

{Wallflower, fig. 306) ; these pairs

being in juxtaposition, their fila- y^ f , ^^ ^: -~,

305. Snapdragon.

Androecium and half

of corolla.

306. Wallflower.
Androecium.

307. Stellaria.
Androecium,

308. Meconopsis.
Flower cut vertically.

ments sometimes eoliere, so that each pair has been supposed to represent a
double stamen. In potystemouous or diplostemonous flowers, the whorls of stamens
are often unequal {Stellaria, fig. 307), but there is no special term for this modifi-
cation.

Cohesion of the Stamens.— Stamens are/rtJe {st distinda, libera), when completely

THE ANDECECIIJM.

59

independent of each other (Meconopsis, fig. 308) ; — monadelphous {st. monadelpha),
when the filaments are more or less united in a single tube {Oxalis, fig. 309 ; Mallow,

309. Oxalis. 310. Mallow.

Androecium aiid pistil. Androecium (mag.).

312. Lotus. Andrcecium and pistil.

313. St. John's Wort.
Flower cut vertically.

fig. 310; Cytisus, fig. 311); — diadelphous (st. diadelpha), when united into two
columns {Lotus, fig. 312); — triadelphus {st. triadelpha), when in three bundles
{St. John's Wort, fig. 313) ; — polyadelphus {st. polyadelpha),
when in several simple or branched bundles {Orange, fig.
314 ; Castor-oil, fig. 315) ;- — syngenesious {st. syngenesa), when
the anthers cohere {Thistle, fig. 316). Sometimes the co-
hesion extends to the filaments also {Lobelia, Melon, fig.
317). The stamens are said to be gynandrous {st. gynandra),

316. Thistle.

314. OraPge.

318. AristolocMa

Andrcecium

Calyx and

315. Castor-oil.

317. Melon.

Androecium

(mag.).

andi-oBcium.

^ flower.

Aiidroecium (mag.).

and pistil (mag.).

when they are united throughout their length to the pistil {Orchis, fig. 188 ; Ari-
stolocMa, fig. 318) ; in this- case they are necessarily epigynous.

The filament may be
cylindric or filiform {Rose), or
capillary {Wheat, fig. 335), or
subulate or awl-shaped {Tulip,
fig. 345), or flat and dilated
at its base {Campanula, fig.
319). It is said to be bi- tri-
cuspidate, when forked at
the top, or three-toothed,
with the mid-tooth antheri-
ferous {Garlic-onion, fig.
320;, Orambe, fig. S21) ; — appendiculate, when it bears an appendage; such

319. Campanula.
Pistil and ttamen.

320. Onion.
Stamen (mag.).

321. Crambe.
Andrcecium and pistil.

322. Borage.
Stamen (mag.).

60

OEGA.NOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

appendages are of various shapes and sizes, and niay be produced before or behind
the anther. In Borage (fig. 322), the anther is horned; in Self-heal (fig. 323), it is
forked, &c. In the Mountain Alyssum, the filaments of the long stamens bear a

323. Self-healj
Stamen (mag.).

324. Alyssutti.
Long stamens.

325. Alyssum.
Short stamen.

S2(). Butomus.
Stamen (mag.).

321 PoIygMtt.
Androecium (mag.).

329. Mallow.
Stamen (mag.).

toothed wing on their inner face (fig. 324), and those of the short stamens have
an oblong appendage at the base in front (fig. 325).

Anther. — The anther is two-celled {a. lilocularis) , when the two cells are Sepa-
rated by a connective {Wallflower, fig. 11) ; each cell being originally divided in two
by a partition or plate springing from the connective, of which no trace remains at
maturity; — -four-celled {a. quadrilocularis) , when this partition remains {Butomus,
fig. 326) '^^-one-celled {a. unilocularis) , when it presents only one cavity {Polygala^ fig.
327 ; Alchemillai, fig. 328) ; this often happens, either by suppression of one cell
{Malloiv, fig. 329), when the filament is lateral; or by fission of the stamen {Sorn-
beam, fig. 330). Sometimes the anther is seated on a flat-lobed connective, when it
contains as many cells as there are lobes of the connective {Yew, fig. 331).

The anther is adnate {a. adnata), when its cells are confiuent with the con-
nective throughout their length {Hepatiaa, fig. 332). The connective is sometimes
very short, connecting the anthers by a mere point. The anther is didyyttous
{a. didyma), when the point of union of the Cells is above their middle {TSuphorhia,
fig. 333) ; — two-horned {a.
bicornis), when, the point of
the union being at the base
of the cells, the latter sure

\

, Hornbeam.
Stamen (mag.)-

331. Yew.
Flower (mag.).

332. Hepatica.
Stamen (mag.).

333. Eiipborbia.
(7 Flower (mag.).

\

tiU. Heath.
Stamen (mag.).

336. Wheat.
Spikelet (mag.).

erect and slightly diverge {Heath, fig. 334) ;— cruciate, when the point of union
of the cells is precisely in the middle, and their extremities are free {Wheat, fig. 335) ;—

THE ANDECECIUM.

61

sagiilate (a. sagittata), -when the upper portions only of the cells are united by the
connective, and the lower portions slightly diverge {Wallflower, fig. 11 ; Oleander,
fig. 340). The anther is usually ovoid, but
may be oblong, elliptic, glolose, square, &c. ; (J^^^
it is acute in the Borage (fig. 322), and
sinuous in the Melon (fig. 817).

The connective is sometimes developed

343. Thuja.
Stamen^

336. Lime.
Stamen (mag.).

337. Periwinkle.
Stameij (mag.).

338. Sage.
Stamen (mag.).

839. Kosemary.
Stajuen (mag.).

341. Heartsease.
Two stamens, one
with its tail (mag.).

340. Oleander.
Stamen (mag.).

transversely, when the two cells are placed wide apart ; in the Lime (fig. 336) the
filament appears to bear two unilocular anthers ; in the PeriwinMe (fig. 337), the
cells are separate and tipped by a very thick connective ; in the Sage (fig. 338) the
connective is greatly produced, forming a bent arm, longer than the filament, and
bearing a cell at either extremity ; of these cells one alone contains pollen, the
other usually enlarges into a petaloid scale ; in the Rosemary (fig. 339) the second
cell completely disappears.

The anther is often appendiculate. In the Heath (fig. 334), the appendages

i^

345. Tulip.
Pistil and andi'oecium.

346. Vitex.
Stamen (mag.).

, 347. Lamium.
Stamen.

348. Myrtle.
Stamen (mag,).

349. Colchicnm.
Stamens.

appear at the base of the cells as two small petaloid scales. In the Oleander (fig.
340) the connective is lengthened into a long feathery bristle. In the PeriwinMe
(fig. 337), the prolongation of the connective is large and hairy at the tip. In the
Heartsease (fig. 341), the connective of two of the stamens lengthens above into a
yellow, flat, triangular scale, and below into a glandular spur, which is lodged

62

ORGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

in the hollow spur of the petal. In the Pine (fig. 342), the anther is tipped by a
bract-like connective. In Thuja (fig. 348), the filament bears a lateral three-
celled anther, above which it dilates into a peltate disk. In the Cypress (fig. 344),
the arrangement is the same, but the anther is four-celled. The anther is basifixed
(a. lasifixa), when attached to the filament by its base [Wallflower, fig. 11; Tulip, fig.
345) ; — suspended [a. apicifixa), when attached by its top {Vitex, fig. 346 ; Lamium,
fig. 347) ; in this case the cells often diverge, their tops touch, and it becomes
difficult to decide whether they are two-celled ; — dorsifixed [a. dorsifixa), when
attached by the back [Myrtle, fig. 348) ; — versatile [a. versatilis), when it rocks upon
its filament, which in this case is not confluent with the connective, but attached to
it by a finely pointed end [Lily, Colchicum, fig. 349).

The anther is introrse [a. introrsa), when the sutures are turned towards the
centre of the flower [Campanula, fig. 319 ; Thistle, fig. 316 ; Heartsease, fig. 341) ; —
extrorse [a. extrorsa), when the sutures are turned towards the circumference of the
flower [Iris, Ranunculus, Hepatica, fig. 332) ; in these two cases the valves of each
cell are unequal. The sutures are lateral when the valves are equal [Myrtle, fig. 34S).
Dehiscence. — The dehiscence, or separation of the
valves of each cell, may be vertical or longitudinal [a.
longitudinalis), and either from top to bottom, or the
reverse [Wallflower, fig. 11 ; Campanula, fig. 319) ; — or
transverse [a. transversa), when it is horizontal, which
principally occurs in unilocular anthers [Alchemilla, fig.
328) ; — or apical by pores or slits [a. apice dchiscens), in
ItameJf^m^')!' Nightshade (fig. 350), when the sutures open above only ; —
or valvate [a. valvula dehiscens), when one valve of a cell
comes away in one piece ; in Berheris (fig. 351) the posterior valve dehisces near
the connective, and ascends elastically like a trap ; in Laurel the anterior valve does
this ; in some Laurels with a four-celled anther, the dehiscence is by four such valves.

Pollen. — Pollen varies in different plants, but is always alike in
species ; ' its grains are commonly ellipsoid (fig. 357) or spheroid (fig.
sometimes polyhedral or triangular [CEnothera, fig. 353) ; their surface
is smooth, rugged, spinous [Rose-mallow, fig. 352), or reticulate, &c.

The ripe pollen-grain generally consists of two membranes, the
inner lining the outer, and containing a thick granular liquid, often
vvv;-r>'v mixed with minute oU-globules ; this liquid, called the
^~!r!j^ fovilla, is the essential part of the pollen.

The structure of the pollen-grains may be easily

the same
352), but

^^'yjj_'j^{f/' observed when they are moistened, which causes them to

SM. Eose-mauow. burst, from the inner membrane expanding more than
Adult pollen. ^-^^ outcr, and rupturing the latter. At certain points of
its surface the outer membrane is thinner than elsewhere, and there folded inwards,
or it presents dots which are regarded as pores. In most cases the membrane s^vells •
at these points the fold disappears, the dots or pores enlarge, and the outer
membrane bursts at the thin part ; the inner membrane, thus set free, emerges from

' To this there are many exceptions. — Ed.

THE AISTDEOECIUM.

63

the openings in tlie shape of a small tubular bladder called the -pollen-tube (fig. 353) ;
this again soon swells, bursts in its turn, and allows the fovilla to escape in an
irregular jet (fig. 354). Sometimes the thin portions are circular, and surround a
sort of cap or covering [operculum), which is pushed off by the
inner naembrane [Melon, fig. 355).

354. Cherry.

367. Polygala.

35S. Polygala.

369. Orchis. PoUen-maasjs,

Ripe pollen,

365. Melon.

356. Pine.

Pollen, seen

Pollen, seen

separated from the

ejecting the tovilla

Ripe pollen

Ripe pollen

lengthwise

from above

style, with their

(raag.).

(mag.).

(mag.).

(mag.).

(mag.).

retjnacula (mag.).

The pollen of the Cherry (fig. 354) and CEnoihera (fig. 353) opens by three pores,
giving passage to three pollen-tubes ; that of the Melon {fig. 355) by pushing off six
discoid caps, which open like doors, or are completely removed by the pollen-tube.
In Pine pollen (fig. 356) the outer membrane splits into halves by the distension of
the inner. The pollen ot Polygala (figs. 357, 358) resembles a little barrel, of which
the staves, formed by the outer membrane (e), open by longitudinal clefts to allow
of the passage of the inner membrane (p). The pollen of Orchis (fig. 359), instead of
being powdery as in the previous cases, is composed of two waxy masses [massm pol-
linis) supported on two small elastic stalks, named caudicles [caudiculi), and resting
on a flat glandular base, called the retinaculum. ;
these masses present a series of small angular
corpuscles [massuloe) joined by an elastic network,
continuous with the caudicle ; each corpuscle again
is formed of four pollen-grains, and each pollen-
grain consists of a single membrane, which lengthens
into a long tube containing the fovilla (fig. 360).
The retinaculum is a portion of the anterior face of
the style ; it secretes a viscous fluid, which agglu-
tinates the originally fre'e pollen-grains ; this viscous
fluid is infiltrated between the grains, and adheres
to them, then hardens, and forms the network which
unites the grains together, and to the small stalk which bears the
network (fig. 359).

The pollen of Ascl&pias (fig. 361) is very analogous to that of

Orchis ; the five bilocular anthers are introrse, and rest against the

Poiieii mass and sides of the stigma, which has five rounded angles ; each cell contains

a compact mass of pollen, the grains of which are provided with a

single membrane, and are closely united. At each angle of the stigma, between each

pair of stamens, are two small viscous bodies [retinacula), from each of which a furrow

361. Ascleplas.
Pistil and pollen masse=;
adhenng to the stigma.

64

ORGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

descends towards and abuts on the contiguous cells of two adjacent anthers. These
furrows contain a soft Yiscid fluid, secreted by the rectinacula ; this fluid extends
from the retinacula to the pollen-masses ; soon the two retinacula unite and solidify,
and the viscid fluid in the furrows solidifying at the same time, forms a double fila-
ment. This filament in hardening unites the two pollen-masses contained in the
contiguous cells of two adjacent anthers, which thus form one body with the reti-
naculum, and remain suspended to it, much as the scales of a balance ai-e suspended
to the beam.

THE PISTIL.

The pistil or gyncecium {pistillum, gynoecium) is the whorl which crowns the
receptacle and occupies the centre of the flower, of which it terminates the giowth,
just as the whole flower terminates the flowering branch.

In most cases, the pistil is inserted directly on the receptacle ; but in some
cases the internode from which it springs lengthens, when it is called a gynophore
{gynophorum), and the pistil is said to be stipitate {Fraxinella, fig. 362 ; Rue,
fig. 363).

The leaves composing the pistils are the carpels {carpella, carpidia) ; their
number varies ; they may form a single whorl [Sedum,
Columhine, Thalictrum, fig. 364) ; or several (Trollius,
ti^. 365), or be solitary, by the suppression of one

3G2. Fraxinella.
Pistil and calyx,

S64. Thalictrum.
Pistil.

6. Bladder Senna.
Pistil.

or more {Bladder Senna, figs. 366, 367 ; Peach, fig. 368). Under certain circumstances,
the suppressed carpels may be developed, and complete the whorl {Cherry, fig. 369),
which has then two carpels ; or, as in some Mimosas, which have
three to five, &c. The pistil is said to be mono- hi- poly-carpellary,

according as there are one,
two, or many carpels.

In the very young
pistil, each carpel makes
its appearance as a small
round or pointed, more or
less spreading scale, the
edges of which gradually
approach, and finally unite
and form a closed cavity ; or, instead of uniting together, they may adhere to the

367. BlEidder Senna.
Pistil cut Tertically,

i. Peach. Pistil, portion
of calyx and andrcccium.

369. Clicrry.
pistil with, two carpels.

THE PISTIL.

65

cages of the contiguous carpels. The edges of the carpellary leaf (or sometimes its

inner surface) present one or more small round bodies, attached to it directly or by a

cord; these are the ovules, and will eventually become the

seeds; the edges or surfaces bearing the ovules are the

placentm; the cord uniting the ovule to the placenta is the

ftinicle ; the limb of the carpellary leaf is the ovary ; the upper

portion of this limb, -when it forms a slender prolongation,

370. Hellebore.
Pistil.

873. Stellaria.
Piistil.

376. Primrose.
Pistil (mag.).

375. Lily.
PistU.

becomes the style ; the extremity or top, which is variable in form, and always
formed of a different tissue, is the stigma.

In the polycarpellary pistil the carpels are :— 1, entirely separate (c. distincta,
Columbine, fig. 12; Thalictrum, fig. 364; Hellebore, fig. 370) ; 2, coherent by their
ovaries at the base only, or half-way up {Fennel, fig. 371), or to the top {Flax, fig.
372; Stellaria, fig. 373); 3, coherent by their ovaries and styles {Cactus, &g. 374;
Lily, fig. 376) ; 4, coherent by their ovaries, styles and stigmas, so as to simulate
a solitary carpel {Primrose, fig. 876 ; Heartsease, fig. 377) ; 5,
coherent by their styles and stigmas only, their ovaries being
free {Periwinkle, fig. 454 ; Asclepias, fig. 361).

Modern botanists, in deference to old
usage, have continued to give the name of
ovary to the union of several ovaries, which
thus form a compound ovary ; they have
similarly retained the names of style, stigma,
placenta, for the confluent styles, stigmas and
placentas of several carpels. .

When the ovaries are free, their edges,
being folded inwards and united towards the centre of the flower, form an apparently
single, but really double placenta, which, when the fruit ripens, often splits into
two partially seed-bearing placentas {Columbine, fig. 13 ; Sedum, fig. 378). In some
very rare cases {Pine, fig. 379; Fir, Cypress, Thuja) the carpels remain long spread
open and quite free ; later they approach and their surfaces unite, but without
consolidating, and they thus form closed cavities in which the seeds are sheltered.

The ovary, whether simple or compound, is superior or /ree {ov.superum, liberum),
when it adheres to none df the neighbouring organs {Lychnis, fig. 380 ; Primrose,

p

379. Pine.
OvTiliferous scale repiBsent
ing a carpel spread out, 'with
neither style nor stigma.

66

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

fig. 297). It is inferior {ov. inferum) when, instead of being placed above the level
of the androecium, corolla and calyx, it is (apparently) below them, although still

3. Gooseberry.
Ovaiy cut
transversely (mag.).

0. Lychnis.
Pistil cut vertically.

381. Myrtle.
Flower cut vertically.

382. Saxifrage.
Pistil and calyx cut
vertically (mag.).

384. Mignonette.

OvaTj cut

transversely (mag.).

retaining its central position [Myrtle, fig. 381). Most modern botanists explain this
latter an-angement by assuming that the ovary is consolidated with the calyx-tube;
— a theory which prevailed during the first half of the present century, and the
expressions ' ovary adhering to the calyx ' and ' calyx adhering to the ovary ' have
been employed in all Floras and descriptive works. But a closer study of the
development of organs has shown that the so-called adherent calyx-tube is in reality
a cup-shaped expansion of the receptacle, which has enveloped the ovary, and that
the calyx only commences at the same point as the stamens and petals. Hence,
what has hitherto been called an adherent calyx-tube, ought to be called a recep-
tacular tube or cup. We shall return to this question when speaking of the Torus.

The ovary is said to be half-inferior {ov. semi-inferum) or half-adherent {ov.
semi-adhwrens), when it does not wholly adhere to the receptaeular tube {Saxifrage,
fig. 382).

In the compound ovary (whether free or inferior) the partial ovaries may be
variously united: — 1, the edges touch {Gooseberry, &g. 383; Mignonette, fig. 384;

386. Orchis.

Ovary cut

transvei-sely (mag.).

386. Cactus.

Ovary cut

transversely (mag.).

387. Bl-ythrtea.

Ovary cut

transversely (mag.).

389. Tulip.

Ovary

cut transversely.

388. Poppy.
Ovary cut transversely.

Orchis, fig. 385 ; Cactus, fig. 386), when their union is marked by two contiguous
placentas belonging to two different carpels ; the placentas are then said to be
parietal {pi. parietales), and the compound ovary is one-celled {ov. uniloculare) ;
2, they are folded inwards so as to form vertical partitions, each composed of two
confluent plates called septa {septa, dissepimenta) , belonging to different carpels •
these septa are incomplete if they do not reach the axis of the flower, so as to unite,;

THE PISTIL.

67

the placentas are then parietal, and the ovary one-celled {Erythr(ea,&g. 387; Poppy,

fig. 388) ; the septa are complete if their edges meet in the axis of the flower ; a

prolongation of the receptacle sometimes traverses this axis,

which then forms a column (columella : Mallow, Tulip, fig.

389 ; Campanula, fig. 390) ; through this column, whether in

its origin it be receptacular, or (as is more usual) through

the placentas, the nourishment of the ovules is conveyed, as well

as through the carpels. When the septa are complete, there are

as many cells as carpels, and the compound ovary is two- or

more celled {ov. duo- pluri-loculare); and the placentas, united in

pairs (two to each carpel), are central.

The septa are usually formed from the endocarp of the carpels, with an
interposed expansion of the mesocarp. Spurious dissepiments [d. spuria) are vertical
or horizontal septa, which are not formed by the union of the inflexed faces of two
contiguous carpels; thus, in Astragalus (fig. 391), the solitary carpel is almost two-
celled by an intruded vertical plate formed by a fold of the dorsal face ; in Flax
(fig. 392), where there are ten septa, five project from the midribs of the carpels
towards the axis, which they do not always reach. In Datura (fig. 393), the three
carpellary ovary is four-celled from the inflexed contiguous faces of the carpels, after
uniting in the axis, being reflexed inwards, and meeting a prolongation from the
midrib of the carpel : the placentas are thus borne on a septum composed partly of

. Campanula.
Ovary cut transversely.

391. Astragalus.

lEtipe pistil,

open.

392. Flax.

Qvary cut transversely,

presenting

five septa and

five half-septa.

S93. Datura.
Centre of ovary
cut transversely.

394. Datura.

Top of ovaiy

cut transvei-sely.

SOS. WalMower.

Young ovary (mag.)

cut transversely.

the inflexed and then reflexed carpellary faces, and partly of a prolongation from
the midrib. In the upper part of the ovary, the accessory septa (formed from the
midrib) disappear, and two cells only are seen (fig. 394). In the Wallflower, and
allied plants (fig. 395), the two carpels are pressed together; along each of their two
edges runs a double seed-bearing fibro-vascular bundle ; these are the four placentas
arranged in pairs ; the pistil is two-celled, by a delicate and almost transparent
false septum, to which the placentas form a sort of frame. This septum is supposed
to be formed by the placentas ; for, when young, it is seen to be composed of four
plates, which spring in pairs from each pair of placentas, and advance inwards till
they join together ; later, this false septunr appears formed of a single membrane,
but it retains in the centre the trace of its double origin, in a vertical median line,
along which it is easily divided without tearing.

In Coronilla and Cassia (fig. 502), the young carpel is one-celled, but at a later

f2

68

OEGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

396. NigeUa.

Ripe OTary

cut transversely.

398. Lychnis.

Young ovary (mag.)

cut transversely^

period is divided into superimposed cells by septa formed of the parenchyma of the
ovary, which is intruded horizontally between the seeds.

Spurious cells {loculi spurii) are cavities in the ovary which do not contain seeds.
The young ovary of NigeUa presents five cells, each containing two piles of ovules ;
later (fig. 396) there appear ten cells, of which five in the centre of the fruit contain
seeds attached to their interior angle ; the other five are exterior
to these, and are empty, and due to the inflation of the epicarp
(bp), which in swelling has dragged with it the mesocarp (m), whilst

the endocarp (en) has re-
mained in its place.

Central placentas are
said to be free {p. centrales,
liherce), when they are not
united by septa to the walls
of the ovary, and appear com-
pletely independent of the
carpels ; this placentation is
characteristic of Primulaceoe [Pimpernel, Primrose, Cyclamen, fig. 397). To explain
this isolation of the placentas, it is assumed that the edges of the earpellary leaves
join throughout their length, and constitute a one-celled ovary, but that their basal
edges dilate, and ascend in the middle of the cell to form a central mass of
placentas. The placentas of Primulacece are thus confined to the bases of the
carpels. The reverse is the case in the one-celled ovary of Combretacew, where the
ovules spring from the top of the cell.

In most Caryophyllew (Pinh, Lychnis), the placentas appear to be free, but this
arises from the early evanescence of the septa, which can only be well seen in the
very young flower (fig. 398).

Some German and French botanists regard the earpellary leaf as a pi'oteetive
organ merely ; denying that it has the power of producing buds, and limiting this
power to the floral axis. According to these, the axis alone produces Ovules, and
the earpellary leaves protect them. In the case of many-celled ovaries, they regard
the edges of the earpellary leaves as folded inwards till they reach and cohere
with the axile placentas (which in no wise belong to them), the fibro-vascular bundles
of the placentas losing themselves in the tissue of the styles, which are continuations
of the midribs of the carpels. In unilocular compound ovaries they consider that the
placentiferous axis branches like the spokes of a half-opened parasol, and that the
branches run along the contiguous edges of the earpellary leaves (Heartsease, Mignon-
ette, fig. 384 ; Orchis, fig. 385).

This modification of the earpellary theory of placentation rests on the isola-
tion of the placentas in Primulacece (fig. 397) ; on the enormous disproportion
of the placentas relatively to the cai'pellary leaves in various plants [Lychnis,
fig. 398 ; Canipanula, fig. 390) ; and on the arrangement of the nerves in certain
ovaries [Pea, fig. 14 ; Columbine, fig. 13), wherein two systems of fibro-vascular
bundles are distinctly visible ; the one coming from the median nerve, the others

THE PISTIL.

69

rising from the placentas, and communicating witli the first ; which seems to
indicate a union between the axis and carpels.

The flower is isogynous {fi. isogynus), when the carpels of which the pistil is
composed equal the sepals in number {8edum) ; — anisogynous [jl. anisogynus), when
the carpels are fewer in number than the sepals {Saxifrage, Snapdragon, Comfrey) ; — •
polygynous {fl. poly gynus), -when the carpels are more numerous than the sepals
{Ranunculus, Poppy).

In pistils formed of consolidated carpels, the number of the latter is determined,
either by the number of styles, when these are free, or by the number of septa, or
by the number of placentas, which are usually in pairs, and form vertical series, or
fleshy protuberances. In pistils with parietal ovules {Butomus, Poppy, Gentian) the
number of stigmas or styles or septa must be examined.

The two- or more ovuled ovary (whether simple or compound, free or adherent)
is always called many-ovuled {ov. pluriovulatum) . All
ovaries are supposed to be normally many-ovuled,
for each carpel having two placentas, and each
placenta being normally one- or more ovuled, it
follows that no ovary should have fewer than two
ovules. A one-ovuled ovary {ov. uniovuVatum) is hence
regarded as resulting from the suppression of one
or more ovules. The young ovary often contains two or more ovules, of which
all but one are subsequently suppressed, as in the Peach (fig. 899), which is always
two-ovuled when young; and in the Horse-chestnut and Oah, which have six
ovules (fig. 400). The compound ovary is usually globose or ovoid; it is lohed {ov.
lobatwm), when the dorsal faces of the carpels are very convex, and separated by
deep furrows (usually indicating the lines of junction, fig. 226), and according to
the number, it is hilobed, trilohed, &c.

The carpels are not always whorled; but are sometimes arranged in a spiral,
when they form a! head or spike ; the receptacle at the same time lengthening into
a hemispheric, conical, or cylindric axis {Strawberry, fig. 401 ; ,
Raspberry, fig. 402 ; Ficaria, fig. 403 ; Adonis, fig.
404). Roses (fig. 405) present a precisely reverse
arrangement; the carpels (ov), instead of rising

399. Peach.

Young ovary (mag.)

cut transversely.

400. Oak.

Young ovary (mag.)

cut transversely.

4(11, Strawberry.
Flower cut vertically.

403. Ficaria.
402. Easpberry. . Carpels arranged
Eipe pistil, out vertically. in a liead.

405. Kose.
Flower cut vertically.

from a plane or convex surface, spring from the walls of a cavity (c) ; which .will be
described under the torus. In this (exceptional) case, the carpels are said to be
parietal {ov. parietalia).

ro

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

The compound style is improperly said to be simple {st. simplex), when wholly
undivided; it is hi- tri-fid, &c., when the component styles cohere beyond the
middle ; hi- partite, &o., when they do not cohere to the middle. The styles of each
carpel rarely bifurcate once or twice ; when they do, they are double or quadruple in
number to the carpels {Euphorhia, fig. 406).

The style is terminal {st. terminalis), when it springs from the top of the ovary
{Apricot, fig. 411) ; — lateral, when it springs more or less from the ,?t Q°

side of the carpel, the top of which appears bent downwards {Sti-aw-
herry, fig. 407) ; — huailar {st. hasilaris), when the top of the ovary is

408. Alchemilla.
Cai-pel (mag,).

, Euphorbia.
Pistil.

407. Strawben-y.
Cai'pel (mag.).

409. Comfrey.
Pistil and calyx cut vertically.

410. Sago.

Lowei" portion of

flower, cut vertically.

bent down to a level with its base {Alchemilla, fig. 408). When there are many
ovaries, with confluent hasilar styles, the style is said to be gynohasic {st. gynohasicus,
Comfrey, fig. 409), and the dilated base
of this composite style, extending below
the ovaries and surface of the re-
ceptacle, has been called a gynohase

..ov

411. Apricot.
Pistil cut vertically.

412. Lychnis.
Toung Ovary (mag.) out trans-
versely. Ep, epicai-p ; End, endo-
carp; PL, placenta; (i, ovule; TO,
conducting tissue^; c, septum. ■

413. Snapdragon.
Vertical section ol style during
fertilization, sliowing two
pollen-grains on the stigma,
and the pollen-tubes pene-
trating between the cells of
the style (mag.).

414. Dandelion.
Young pistiKmag.), open to sliow
the two cords, c.p, of the conduct-
ing tissue, of which one is broken.
Car, ovary ; L.o, calyx ; D.6,
epigynous disk; r, raphe; Oh,
chalaza ; m, mlcropyle.

{gynohasis). The gynobase is sometimes prolonged into a gynophore {Sage, fig. 410 g) ;
but a gynophore proper must not be confounded with the gynobase ; the gynobase
belongs to the styles, that is, to the carpels ; the gynophore proper belongs to the
axis itself, of which it is the termination.'

The style is a portion of the carpellary leaf, contracted into a sort of longi-
tudinal tube, filled with a moist and loose parenchyma, named conducting tissue

' Except under the view that the placentae are productions of the axis. Ed.

THE PISTIL.

71

(fig. 411, t) ; it is this tissue, which, spreading over the top or sides of the style,
forms the spongy surface called the stigma (s). The same tissue descends from the
style into the cavity of the ovary (fig. 412, to), passes along the placentas (pl),
and covers vyith its loose cells the micropyle of each ovule (g) ; and it is between
these cells (fig. 413) that the pollen-tube, leaving the pollen-grain on the stigma,
effects a passage to and fertilizes the ovule.

In CompositcB, the conducting tissue consists of two threads (fig. 414, C.p, C.p),
which descend from the base of the style upon the sides of the ovule, without
adhering to it ; at its base they join and enter the base of the funicle, near the
micropyle.

In Statice (fig. 415), according to Mirbel, the conducting tissue
(tis. c) resembles a pestle ; it enters the cavity of the ovary, im-
mediately above the gaping micropyle of the ovule (ov.), which
is suspended from a basal cord (cor.). This conducting tissue rests
on the micropyle like the stopper of a decanter, and is visible
after fertilization (fig. 416).

?

417. Daphne.
PistU.

416. Statice.

421. Rumex.

422. Parietaria.

418.

410.

Fertilized

Pistil (mag.).

Pistil (mag.).

Tobacco.

WaUflower.

OTUle (mag.).

Pistil.

Pistil (mag.)

416. Statice.
Ovary cut vertically,
showing tbe ovule before
fertilization (mag.).

The stigma (figs. 413 and 411 s) is nothing but the conducting tissue spread out ;
the stigmatic surface has no epidermis, and is usually spongy, damp, and papillose,
and thus suited to retain the pollen. J

The stigma (whether simple or compound) is complete {st. com- \fJ
pletwm) when it is continuous with the style, and clearly distin-
guishable. The complete stigma may be globular {Daphne,&g. 417),
hemispheric {Primrose, fig. 376), round {Tobacco, fig. 418), forked
{Wallflower, fig. 419), hi-lamellate {Datura), lobed {Lily, fig. 375;
Melon, fig. 420), laciniate or
fringed {Saffron, Rwmex, fig.
421), penicillate {Parietaria,
fig. 422),plumose {Wheat, fig.
423), discoid, conical,cylindric,

club-shaped, awl-shaped, &C. 424. VetcH. 425. Hanunculns.

It is superficial {st. super- «=*"• Carpel (mag.).

ficiale) when confined to the surface of a part of the style or ovary, and only

72

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

distinguisliable by its papillae. The superficial stigma is terminal in Framnella (fig,
362), Strawberry (fig. 407), Sweet Vetch (fig. 424) ; lateral in Ranunculus, where it
is hooked (fig. 425) ; and in Hearts-
ease (fig. 377), -where it forins a
hollow ball with a two-lipped

429. Lychnis. Pistil.

St .'..I

427. Il-is. Pistil.

428. Orchis. Plower ivithout the ovary.
ST, stigma ; R, retinaculum ; p, pollen ;
L, anther-cell (mag.).

430. Comflower.
Style and stigmas
(mag.).

orifice; and in Polygala (fig. 426), where it forms a small very short lip (Sti.) on
the sides of a style (Sty.) hollowed into a funnel, and spoon-shaped at the end ; —

in Iris (fig. 427), in which the composite style divides
into three petaloid plates with two unequal lips, the interior

Y% ' if of which is bifurcate, the stigmatic surface (Stig.) occu-

\ .0 pi^s a small transverse fissure between these lips; —

in Orchis (fig. 428), where it forms a shining and viscous
cup (st) situated below the retinaculum (e) ; — in Lychnis
(fig. 429) where it is pupUlose and transparent, clothing

431.

Chrysanthemum .

Pistil (mag.).

432. Eupatorium.
Pistil (mag.).

4S3. AchiUea.
Floret (mag.).

485. Achillea.

Style of a floret

(mag.).

438. Achillea.

Style of

a semi-floret (mag.).

the furrowed inner faces of the styles ; — in Plantain, where its papillee form two
velvety lines along the style.

The stigma must not be confounded with certain peculiar hairs which some-
times garnish the style, and are almost always directed obliquely upwards, and
intended to. catch the pollen ; they are most frequent in flowers with contiguous .

THE PISTIL.

73

introrse anthers. In these plants the young style is much shorter than the stamens ;
it grows rapidly as the flower expands, and traverses the tube formed by the stamens,
where its hairs, rubbing the anther-cells, open them, and sweep out the pollen
which adheres to them ; they are hence called collecting hairs or brushes [pili col-
lectores) . In the Cornflower (fig. 430) the stigmas (Sti.) are lateral and superficial, as
in the Lychnis, and below them is a small swelling clothed with a tuft of very small
collecting hairs (pc). In the Chrysanthemum (fig. 431), the two style -branches are
papillose on their inner faces, and tipped by a little tuft of collecting hairs. In
Eupatorium (fig. 432) the two style-branches are cylindric and bristle with collecting
hairs ; and the stigmatic surfaces form a little band which extends from the fork
half-way up the branches. In Achillea (figs. 433, 434), the heads of which are rayed,
the central florets are tubular and hermaphrodite (fig. 433), and the circumferential
are female semi-florets (fig. 434). Here the style-arms of the central florets
(hermaphrodite) are papillose on the inner face, and tipped with a brush of collecting
hairs; the semi- florets again, being female only, their style-arms (fig. 436) have
no collecting hairs (fig. 43o), but, as the pollen of the centre florets may reach them,
their style-arms are papillose, so as td retain the pollen and secure fertilization. In
Campanula the five style-branches (fig. 437) are papillose on the inner face, and
subtended by five rows of collecting hairs, each row being double, and answering to
the two halves of each anther. Before expansion, the style grows rapidly, the

anthers open, and their pollen-grains, which bristle
with hooks, adhere firmly to the hairs which have
swept them; this accomplished, the coUectiag

437. CampaniUa.
Pistil.

439. Vine.
Alidroecium and pistil (ma^.).

438. Aram.
Pistil (mag.).

440. Elder.
Pistil and calyx (mag.).

hairs are retracted within themselves, like the horns of a snail ; the pollen then
disappears, and the style becomes clean, its surface being merely a little rough.

The stigma is sessile {st. sessile) when, there being no style, it is seated directly
on the ovary. In the Tulip (fig. 345) it forms three bi-lobed crests ;— in the JSfettle,
a pencil ; — in Arum (fig. 438), a little papillose tuft;— in the Vine- (fig. 439), a flat-
tened head ;— in the Elder (fig. 440), three rounded lobes; in the Poppy (flg. 441),
velvety radiating double crests, clothing the depressed styles, which together resemble
a shield or cap with scalloped edges.

The stigma is sometimes absent, and then the ovary remains open ; this is the
case with Pine (fig. 379), Cypress, and Thuja, the female flowers of which are arranged
in a spike ; each is furnished with an outer bract, which soon withers and disap-
pears ; each is formed of a scale representing an open carpel, without style or stigma,

74

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

bearing at its base two ovules witb a gaping micropyle ; after fertilization, these
carpels thicken, harden, and become appressed, and form closed cavities wtich
protect the seeds during their ripening.

TORUS, DISK, NECTARIES.

The torus is the ^art of^he receptacle situated between the calyx and the
pistil on which the corolla and androecium are inserted. It is merely the periphery
of the receptacle, and not a special organ ; but for convenience of description it is
so considered.

The torus produces, besides stamens and petals, nectariferous glands and sundry

442, Columbine.
Pistil surrounded by
scales. Torus showing

the scars left by
the stamens (mag.).

443, Tree Peony.
Flower without the corolla
and most of the stamens.

444. White Water-I41y.

Pistil and cup bearing the petals

and stajnens.

445. Orange.

Vertical section of pistil

and receptacle.

1, torus ; c, calyx.

expansions analogous to petals or stamens. Thus, in the Columbine (fig. 442), between
the androecium and the pistil, are ten membranous silvery white scales, with folded
edges, larger at the base than at the top, which may be considered as filaments, and
Avhich sometimes bear an anther at their extremity. In the Tree Peony (fig. 443),
the thick swollen torus elongates into a membranous cup surrounding the carpels,
without adhering to them, and open at the top to afford a passage
to the stigmas : it appears to form a part of the fruit, from
which it is nevertheless very distinct. This petaloid involucre
sometimes bears anthers. In the White Water Lily (fig. 444)
the stamens and petals cohere with the torus, which envelops
the ovary, so that they appear to adhere to the ovary; they
die after flowering, leaving the torus marked with their scars.
In the Yellow Water Lily, the thick cup, externally green and
flaccid, which some botanists have considered as a torus envelop-
ing the ovary, is nothing but the epicarp of the ovary; at
maturity it bursts irregularly, and comes away, leaving the seeds retained by the
endocarp, when they fall to the bottom of the water and germinate.

The torus often forms, below the ovary, a projecting ring or swelling, from
which spring the stamens and petals {Orange, fig. 445 t ; Mignonette, fig. 446) ; but
more often this ring, reduced to its most simple form, only appears as a circular line

446. Mignonette.

Flower without corolla

(mag.).

TORUS, disk:, nectaeies.

75

on the receptacle, between the pistil and the calyx {GheUdon{um,^g. 447). • In every
case the andrcecium and corolla, being inserted on this ring and below the pistil, are
hypogynous, and the plant thalamifloral if the
petals are free, corollifloral if they are coherent.
In many plants the receptacle dilates into
a cup, which represents a calycinal tube, over
which the tOrus is spread.

448. Apple.

Youug fruit cut

transversely.

447. Chelidonium.
Pistil (mag.).

449. Apple.
Fruit cut vertically.

and the stamens and pistils

spring from its outer

margin {Strawberry, fig.

401 ; Apricot, fig. 449).

In others it rises upon the

carpels, envelops them

closely, and forms with

them but one body, upon the circumference of which the stamens, petals and calyx

are inserted at a higher level than the ovary [Myrtle, fig. 381 ; Saxifrage, fig. 382).

This cup, enveloping the carpels and formed by the growth of the receptacle, is the

calyx-tube of modern Floras, which it would be better to call a reeeptacular tube

or cup.

This hypertrophy of the receptacle is particularly striking in orchard fruits. If
we halve an unripe pear or apple (fig. 448), we find five carpels, forming five two-
ovuled cells, surrounded by a fleshy mass, the so-called ca.lycine-tube (better called
reeeptacular cup), which has closely enveloped them, and agglutinated them by their
lateral faces, but left their inner edges free. A vertical section of a ripe apple (fig.
449) exhibits a fibro -vascular bundle, extending from the peduncle, with which it is
continuous, to the carpels (e) ; it is the parenchyma of the receptacle, which has here
enormously increased in bulk to envelop the ovaries (t) ; at the summit of this
mass, that is to say, at the top of the fruit, the remains of the sepals and stamens
may be seen carried up by the expansion of the receptacle.

The reeeptacular theory of the calycine-tube completely explains the arrange-
ment of the carpels of a Rose (fig. 405). In this, the position of the carpels on the
internal wall of a calycine-tube was difficult to admit ; the whorls of the flower being
lateral expansions of the axis, it was impossible^ in defiance of the law of the
evolution of floral whorls, to attribute to the calyx the power of producing carpels.
The position of the coloured ring from which the petals and stamens rise is the key
to the apparently abnormal position of the carpels ; this ring surmounts the ovoid
body enclosing the carpels ; the torus has therefore reached that point before emit-
ting laterally the petals and stamens; and since the torus is nothing but the
circumference of the receptacle, it is evident that it must be the latter organ which
constitutes the hollow body enclosing the carpels. In fact, the receptacle, instead
of forming, as in the Strawberry (fig. 401), a hemisphere, has swollen, risen much
above its ordinary level, and formed a sort of cup ; thus resembling the finger of a
glove turned inside out, the normally outer or convex surface becoming the^inner, or
concave, one. Were the convex receptacle of the Strawberry reduced to a thin

76

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

membrane, and turned inside out, the sepals would then form a ring round the
mouth of a sort of bottle, represented by the inverted receptacle, whose throat would
be occupied by the stamens and petals, and its inner surface by the ovaries ; and the
strawberry would be thus changed into a rose. The last evidence of the hollow body
of the rose being a cup-shaped expansion of the axis rests on the cases in which the
receptacle forms, instead of a cup, a central convex projection, which bears carpels;
the rose thus being converted into a strawberry.

In all these cases the plant is calycifloral; the stamens and petals are not
bypogynous, as in the Lychnis (fig. 380) and Primrose (fig. 297), but are inserted above
the base of the pistil, at the distal end of the torus {Sumach, fig. 450), or on the
outer circumference of a ring or cup formed by the
torus {Gircma, fig. 450 his; Alchemilla, fig. 451);
they are thus either perigynous or epigynous, accord-

451. Alchemilla.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

450, Sumach,
riower cut vertically (mag.).

452. Nasturtium.
Flower cut vertically.

ing to their insertion around (fig. 450) or above the ovary (fig. 450 his). When
the torus both spreads over the base of the calyx and around that of the ovary, the
andrcBcium may be hypogynous, and the corolla peri- .^yiii:^

gynous ; this is very rare, but occurs in Tropceolum (fig.
452).

The term disk has been reserved for the tamid
ring which, in hypogynous flowers, surrounds the base

453. Radish.

Pistil
and nectaries.

455. Sedum.

Piatii and

nectaries (mag.).

457. ,Parnassia.

Petal
and nectaries.

466, Fritillary.

Stamen,'

petal and nectary.

454, Periwinkle.

Pistil
and nectaries.

of the ovary {Oramge, fig. 445) ; and for the thickening which crowns the inferior
ovary, enclosing the base of the style {Gircoea, fig. 450 Us). These thickenings of'

AEEANGEMENT OF APPENDICULAR OEGANS. 77

the torus are glandular, and usually secrete honeyed fluids, whence they have been
classed with nectaries^ of which we are about to speak.

Nectaries or nectariferous glands are usually developed from the torus, and placed
upon it or the organs developed from it.

The receptacle of the Radish (fig, 453), Wallflower (fig. 10), and othet Oruciferce,
bears four or six glands ; — the Periwinkle (fig. 454) two ; — Sedum (fig. 455) five ; —
most GesneriaceoB also five ; but in this Order all intermediates between five free
glands and a large hypogynous or epigynous disk are to be found. In the BtroAJu-
berry (fig. 401), Peach (fig. 368), and other Rosacece, the orange-yellow layer of the
torus, which is spread over the calyx, secretes superficially a honeyed liquor ; but
often for so short a time that it is difficult to observe it. In Ranunculus (fig. 237) a
small nectary occurs, protected by a scale, at the base of the claw of each petal. In
Berberis (fig. 238), each petal bears, a little above the base, two"^ naked ovoid necta-
ries. In the Fritillary (fig. 456), the six petaloid perianth-segments each bear a
nectary a little above the base, which, instead of projecting, forms a furrow. In the
Lily, a double nectariferous furrow extends along the face of the midrib of each
petal. In Parnassia (fig. 457), opposite each petal there is a petaloid scale which
ramifies into three, five, seven, nine, or fifteen branches, each tipped by a globular
nectary.

Nectaries are sometimes on the tip or base of the connective of the stamens, as
in Adenanthera, Prosopis, &c. In Hea/rtsease (fig. 458), two nectaries pro^
ceed from two of the stamens, and, projecting from the connective at the
base of the anther, form two recurved tails, sheathed in the hollow horn
of the lower petal, at the base of which they secrete a sweet liquor from
their tips.

It has already been remarked that hollow petals contain a nectary in
their cavity {Columbine, fig. 246 ; Aeondte, fig. 247 ; Nigella, fig. 244; Helle- ^'"'^^a'
. bore, fig. 243; Winter Aconite, fig. 244 bis). and androBcium.

In monopetalous corollas the nectaries maybe superficial {Honeysuckle, Lilac) , or
occupy a cavity which externally forms a boss or spur {Linaria, fig. 286 ; Snap-
dragon, fig. 285; Gentranthus, fig. 291) ; in the latter case the corolla is irregular,
and the stamens are often imperfect ; but it is difficult to say whether the necta-
ries are the cause or effect of this irregularity.

Nectaries are not confined to the torus ; they are found on the external surface
of the calyx in Malpighiacece; and a glandular secreting layer occurs in the thick-
ness of the septa of the ovary of Liliaceoe, named by Brongniart ' glandes septales.'
In unisexual flowers, it often happens that the absent organs are.'^replaced by necta-
ries {Melon, and many other diclinous plants).

ARRANGEMENT OF APPENDICULAR ORGANS AROUND THE AXIS.

Appendages or appendicular organs are lateral developments from the vegetable
axis : — the leaves, bracts, sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.

It has been stated (Introd. p. 2), that leaves are either opposite, whorled, or

458. Heartsenae.

78 OEGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

alternate ; as also (p. 42) that the floral organs (calyx, corolla, andrcecium and pistil)
are normally whorled; but we have warned the reader that very frequently the
leaves of each series, instead of forming a true whorl, are arranged in successive
flattened, spirals, though still retaining the name of whorls.

We will now advert somewhat in detail: 1. To the arrangement of leaves
properly so called, carpellary leaves, and bracts (this branch of Botany is called
Phyllotaxy) ; 2. To the arrangement of the petals and sepals, an arrangement
termed Vernation, because it can only be satisfactorily studied before the flower
expands.

PirriLOTAXT.

When leaves are clearly whorled, either in twos (opposite), threes, fours, -fives,
&c., they are generally separated by equal intervals, and consequently the arc com-
prehended between the bases of two contiguous leaves is equal to the circumference
of the stem, divided by the number of leaves in the whorl. This arc will therefore
embrace half the circumference if the whorl consists of two leaves ; one-third of the
circumference if it consists of three ; one-fourth, one-fifth, one-sixth, if it consists of
four, five, or six leaves.

It has also been observed that the leaves of a whorl are not placed directly
above those of the whorl immediately above or below them, but opposite the
intervals which separate the leaves, and either exactly oppo'site, or to one or the
other side of the interval. When the leaves are opposite, and each pair crosses the
upper and lower pair at right angles, the leaves occupy four rectilinear lines, and,
seen from above, form a cross; such leaves are decussate (f. decussata). Whorls of
three or four leaves will in like manner occupy six or eight longitudinal lines.
Whorled leaves are relatively few ; many more plants have opposite leaves, and by
far the largest number have alternate leaves; and it is by the laiter that the
arrangement of leaves on the stem must especially be studied.

We have seen (p. 3) that the Oak presents five leaves (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), spirally
arranged around the stem, so that the one (6) which succeeds the- fifth is placed
vertically above the first. In a longer branch, the seventh would be placed
above the second, the eighth above the third, &c. This spiral arrangement
prevails in many woody and herbaceous plants, as the Peach, Plum, Cherry, Rose,
Raspberry, Hawthorn, 8pirwa, Cytisus, Poplar, Willow, Sumach, Wallflower, Mignon-
ette, Heartsease, Groundsel, Poppy, &o.

The naturalist Ch. Bonnet, who was the first to observe this arrangement of
alternate leaves, reiharked that their points of insertion were separated from each
other by equal intervals, and discovered some more complicated arrangements, as
that, instead of the sixth leaf, it is often the ninth or even the fourteenth which is
placed vertically above the first, indicating a series of eight or of thirteen leaves.
Modern botanists have followed up this subject, and have formulated as laws
the facts which Ch. Bonnet had not generalized.

To begin with the simplest example of alternation of leaves, that in which the
leaves alternate on opposite sides of the stem {Lime, Ivy, Mm, Hazel, iSsc.) : if a

PHYLLOTAXY. 79

thread be carried round the stem so as to touch the insertions of these leaves, it will
describe a regular spiral. If one of these leaves be taken as a starting point, and if
they be counted from below upwards, it will be perceived that 3 is above 1,
4 above 2, &c. ; and all are arranged on two equidistant vertical lines, being
separated by half the circumference of the stem. Leaves thus placed are called
distichous (fig. 69).

If three leaves complete one turn of the spiral, the fourth will be vertically
above the first, the fifth above the second, &c., and all will be arranged on three
equidistant vertical lines, and separated from each other by a third of the circum-
ference of the stem. Such leaves are termed tristichous {Galingale, Garex, and many
monocotyledons) .

In the Oak, Poplar, Plum, &c., where the leaves are arranged in fives, and
occupy five vertical equidistant lines on a branch, these lines divide the circum-
ference of the branch into five equal portions, and are separated by an arc equal to
one-fifth of the circumference of the stem. But here it is important to remark, that
if, taking one of these leaves as the starting-point, we exainine the successive leaves
of the spiral, the leaf which follows or precedes number one is not situated on the
nearest vertical to that to which number one belongs, but on that which comes after
number two, and that this vertical is at two-fifths the circumference from the
first. Here the spiral is not completed in one turn by two or three leaves, as in the
two preceding cases ; for the intervals between the five leaves are such that, before
arriving at the sixth, which is immediately above the first, the spiral passing
through their points of insertion would make two complete turns round the stem ;
the distance between the leaves will therefore be two-fifths of the circumference.
This arrangement is called the quincvnx.

The name cycle is given to a system of leaves in which, after one or more turns
of the spiral, a leaf is found immediately above the one from which we started, and
beginning a new series. To obtain a complete idea of the cycle, we must therefore
consider, besides the number of leaves which compose it, the number of spiral turns
they occupy.

The angle of divergence of two consecutive leaves is measured by the arc
between them. Thus the fraction ^ expresses the angle of divergence of tri-
stichous leaves, and the fraction f the angle of divergence of quincunx leaves.
As to distichous leaves, the term angle cannot apply to their divergence, being half
a circumference, but it is expressed by the fraction i. These fractions have
for their numerator the number of the spiral turns of which the cycle is composed,
and for denominator the number of leaves in the cycle, or, to speak more exactly,
the number of spaces separating the points of insertion of these leaves. A cycle
may therefore be designated by the fraction expressing the angle of divergence, since
the denominator of this fraction indicates the number of leaves, and its nuni^erator
the number of turns.

Besides the three cycles mentioned above, designated by the fractions J, f-, |,
we find cycles of eight leaves in three turns, i.e. f ; thirteen leaves in five turns, -^^
twenty-one leaves in eight turns, 2\ ; thirty-four leaves in thirteen turns.

1.3. .
3 4 5

80

OEGANOGRAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

fifty-five leaves in twenty-one turns, f^ ; eighty-nine leaves in thirty-four turns, |^ •
one hundred and forty-four leaves in fifty-five turns, ■^-^-^, &c.
Now, if we arrange this series of fractions progressively,

L 1 S. S. 5_ _8_ J_S_ .2JL ii 5_3_ &c
23 3J 5J 83 T33 2 13 343 533 893 T443 ""^'s

several curious analogies will appear, of which the most striking is, that each frac-
tion has for its numerator the sum of the numerators of the two preceding fractions,
and for denominator the sum of the two preceding denominators. In like manner any
one of these fractions may be obtained by taking the two fractions which imme-
diately follow it, and finding the quotient of their numerators and denominators.
It is easy to obtain these fractions when the leaves are neither too distant nor too
crowded on the stem, as often happens. The spiral which takes in all the leaves is
called a primitive spiral. But if the internodes are long, the leaves consequently
remote, and the cycle composed of a considerable number of leaves, it becomes diffi-
cult to ascertain by inspection which leaf is vertical to the first, and hence to esti-
mate the angle
of divergence be-
tween two con-
secutive leaves.
This becomes still
more difficult when
the leaves are
crowded, as in the
rosettes of the
Houseleek, in Plan-
tains and other
so-called stemless
plants, in the
bracts of heads
{Artichohe) ; or in
the scales or open
carpels which com-
pose the cones
of Pines, Firs,
Larches, &c.

In the case
of crowded leaves,
we can, however,
by a very simple
calculation, ascer-
tain the angle of
divergence, and
thus determine the
primitive spiral. Take, for example, a stem bearing a series of cycles of eight

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vV ^'iL

X \^

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X \

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\ \

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V N. ^X^

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459 a. Primitive spiral from right to left, and bearing three cycles, each of eight leaves, shown by the
numbered points, and inserted on three turns of the spiral. The secondaiy spirals, formed to the
right by the numbers in fives, are indicated by the finely dotted lines; the secondary spirals,
formed to the left by the niimbera in threes, are indicated by the lines

PHYLLOTAXY. 81

leaves moderately separated on tliree turns, of the spiral ; the cycle will be easily
recognized, and the expression of the angle of divergence will be f . This arrange-
ment obtains in many succulent plants, and especially in Sedum Telephmm. Suppose
the stem to be shortened, so that the leaves become crowded into a rosette, it follows
that the spiral will become a very close one, comparable to a watch-spring of which
the coils contract in approaching the axis (fig. 459 c). Let us suppose, further,
that the inner end of this spring represents the top of the spiral, and its outer
extremity the base ; it is obvious that on this depressed spiral the leaves nearest the
centre would have been the nearest to the top of the more open spiral, and those
nearest the circumference would have been the lowest. Now, knowing the angle
of divergence of the leaves of Sedum in a normal state, it remains to find it for the
same leaves gathered into a rosette ; for this it suffices to represent or plan three
or four cycles, of three leaves each, according to the fraction f , that is, each cycle
to contain eight leaves, that shall occupy three turns of a right- to- left spiral, and
be separated by an arc equal to f of the circumference (fig. 459 a). A circle
must then be drawn around this spiral, of which the radius shall join the two
extremities of the spiral ; it is by means of this circle that we must be guided
in laying down the angular divergence of the leaves, which being |, it follows that
the circle must be divided into eight equal portions by as many radii, when
three of these portions will represent | of the circumference, or in other words the
angle of divergence. This done, we place a number (1) on the position of the first
leaf, which is where the spiral touches the circumference ; then follow the coils of
the spiral, and after clearing the three first arcs (f of the circumference) indicate
the position of the next leaf (2), which will be at the intersection of the spiral
and radius which bounds the third are ; and so on, a leaf position being marked
at the intersection of every third radius with the spiral ; till the centre of the
spiral being reached, the plan will represent the entire series of leaves, numbered
in order.

Let us now examine the relative positions of the leaves, as indicated by their
numbers. If we examine the radius bearing leaf No. 1, we shall see above it on the
same radius, Nos. 9 and 1 7, the difference between which is eight, and it is obvious
that this horizontal radius would represent a vertical line on the Sedum stem, along
which the leaves 1, 9, and 17 are inserted, each marking the commencement of a
cycle ; as also that these leaves are separated by three turns of the spiral. Com-
mencing at any other radius (say Nos. 2, 10, 18, &c.), the result is the same, the
fraction f being clearly expressed.

There are other relations between these leaves, which this plan clearly demon-
strates. Thus, between Nos. 1 and 4, situated on the next radius to the left, there
is a difference of three ; the same between 4 and 7, &c. ; and starting from leaf
No. 2 or 3, we shall find the same numerical relations as in the first instance ; the
number expressing the difference (3) being the same as that of the series. If we
now draw a line through the positions of all the 'leaves of each series, we shall see
that each line is a portion of a spiral, and that these three partial spirals take the

G

82

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

same direction, and include witliin their course the points of insertion of all the
leaves.

If, on the other hand, starting from No. 1, we examine its relations with No. 6,
on the radius next to the right, we find between tliem a difierence of five ; and
similarly with 6 and 11, 11 and 16, &c. ; and between Nos. 2 and 7, and Nos. 12,
17 and 22, and along the series commencing with 4 and 5. Here again, from left
to right, the number expressing the difference corresponds to that of the series.
Each of these series may be shown more clearly by means of a curved line uniting
all the leaves which compose it, and we shall then have five segments of a spiral
turning symmetrically from left to right, and passing thi'ough the insertions of all
the leaves. These segments of the spiral have been termed secondary spirals, to
distinguish them from the primitive spiral, also termed generating spiral. Now it
will be remarked that the secondary spirals proceeding from right to left are three

459 6, Rosette forming two cycles of eight leaves,
of whicli the angle of divergence is §.

459 c. Rosette forming a cycle of thirteen leaves, of
which the angle of divergence is ^ ; the axis A, where
they are inserted, besirs five turns of the spiral, show-
ing the point of insertion of each leaf.

in number, which number is the numerator of the fraction | ; and that the sum of
these three, and of the five going from left to right, is eight, or the denominator of
the fraction. If therefore it is possible to count the secondary spirals to left and
right, of rosettes, involucral bracts, or scales of Pine cones, in all of which the
primitive spiral is obscured by the closeness of the parts, we may assume that the
smaller number represents the numerator, and the sum of the two numbers the
denominator of the desired fraction ; which again gives the angle of divergence, the
number of leaves in the cycle, and the number of turns of the spiral which they
occupy.

This crowding of the leaves, which we have illustrated by Bedum, is frequent
amongst plants with radical leaves, in many of which the cycle of the leaves is
indicated by the fraction | {Common Plantain, fig. 459 6).

The number of secondary spirals to right and left being known, it is easy to
number each leaf in the primitive spiral. Take, for example, the rosette (fig. 459 c),
which represents a Houseleeh, or the cone of the Maritime Pine (fig. 459 d). Their

PHYLLOTAXY.

83

angle of divergence is -^^, which is easily found by counting the very obvious

secondary spirals to right and left. We have only alluded to the most obvious

secondary spirals ; but it will readily be understood

that there are many others, some more, some less

oblique than these, and that every numerical series

having the same relative differences between them

would be a spiral. The secondary spirals are

especially visible in Pine cones, the axis of which

is much longer than that of the Houseleek, and

in which they form very distinctly marked parallel

series.'

Begin by numbering as 1 one of the outer leaves
of the rosette, or of the lower scales of the cone,
and regard it as the first of a secondary spiral
turning from left to right. To find No. 2 on it, re-
member that the numbers of a secondary spiral must
be separated by a space equal to the number of the
secondary spirals of which this forms a part ; and
as there are five parallel left-to-right spirals, the
second leaf or scale must be numbered 6, the third
11, and so on to the top of the cone, or centre of
the rosette. Having thus numbered aU the scales
or leaves of one of the five parallel secondary left-
to-right spirals, these numbers may serve as start-
ing-points from which to number all the other
scales or leaves of the cone or rosette. We know
that each of the numbered scales or leaves of
the secondary leffc-to- right spiral equally forms
one in the series of the right- to-left spirals, and we
may number aU the leaves or scales from any
starting-point, by adding 5 when turning to the right, and 8 when turning to

the left.

Let us take, for example, No. 32 ; this number in the left-to-right spiral would
(adding 5) lead us to No. 37, 37 leads to 42, and so on; but since No. 32 also
enters into one of the eight secondary right-to-left spirals, the leaf or scale succeed-
ing it in this spiral should be numbered 32-1-8, i.e. 40; and following this spiral, by
additions of 8, we should have 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, &c.

To obtain in the same spiral the numbers below 32, we must deduct the number
8, which we had before added, and we shall have successively 32, 24, 16, 8.

If, in starting from the same No. 32, we descend the secondary spiral which
turns from left to right, we must take 6 from 32, when we shall have successively
27, 22, 1 7, 12, 7, 2, &c.

All the leaves or scales of the rosette or cone being numbered, their succession

> Nothing is easier than to observe this, by numbering the scales of a ripe cone of the Maritime Pine.

g2

459 d. Cone of Maritime Fuxe, ■with the scales
numbered according to theii- relative heights.
The most obvious secondary spirals are formed
to the right by the series of numbers in fives ;
Lo the left by the series of numbers in eights.

84

OEGANOGRAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

indicates the generating spiral. But the direction of this generating spiral from left
to right, or right to left, depends on the angle of divergence ; if the fraction be f,
01" T 3J o^ ifj and so on, the primitive or generating spiral wUl follow the most nume-
rous secondary spirals ; but if the fraction be -|, or /-j-, or fj-, &c., the generating
spiral will follow the least numerous secondary spirals.

Take, for example, the fraction |- (fig. 459 a), and let us examine the relation be-
tween the genera-
ting and secondary
spirals. Whatever
may be the direc-
tion of the genera-
ting spiral, the
least numerous
secondary spirals
must follow the
same, and vice
versa. Suppose the
spiral to be aright-
to-left one, as in
459 a, it follows
that, placing No.
1 where the radius
touches the- outer
end of the spiral,
and successively
numbering the
leaves from ^ to f,
the nearest radius
to the left will be
occupied by a leaf
before the nearest
radius to the right.
The first leaf on
the left radius will

evidently be No. 4 ; for it will occur after traversing three ^ (-|) ; that is, after
one entire revolution, plus i, and consequently on the left-hand radius nearest
the one from which we started. The leaf which will be found on the right radius
wiU evidently be No. 6, for it will occur after five times f (y), that is, after one re-
volution minus ^, and consequently on the nearest right-hand radius. Now we
know that the number of secondary spirals is equal to the difference between the
numbers of two consecutive leaves on one of these spirals ; therefore, if we suppose
the fraction to be f, the number of the secondary spirals from right to left, that is, of
the secondary spirals which follow the direction of the generating spiral, will be less

459 e. Frimitive spiral from right to left, beamig five cycles, eacli of thirteen leaves, indicated by
the immbered points, and inserted on five turns of the spiral. The secondary spirals, formed to the
right by the numbers in fives, are indicated by the finely dotted lines ; the secondary spirals,
formed to the left by the nimibers in eights, are indicated by the lines .

PHYLLOTAXY. 85

than tlie number of the secondary spirals which follow an opposite direction. The
same result can be obtained from the succeeding fractions.

On the contrary (fig. 459 e), with the fractions f, ^5_, if, and so on, we find that
the right-hand radius is occupied by a leaf sooner than the left-hand one, and that
in consequence the number of the first leaf on the right-hand radius is less than the
number of the first leaf on the left-hand radius. Therefore the number of secondary
spirals which can be followed from left to right is less than those from right to left,
or, in other words, the most numerous secondary spirals turn in the same direction
as the generating spiral, and knowing the direction of the one, we know the direc-
tion of the other.

The direction of the generating spiral varies not merely in the individuals of a
species, but sometimes in the same individual. Thus, in cones from the same speci-
men of Maritime Pine, right-to-left secondary spirals will be more frequent in some,
and left-to-right in others ; but in all cases the relative direction of the generating
spiral follows the law just enunciated.

The angle of divergence itself is constant only in the fractions i, |, f , and
when these cycles are more numerous, the one is often substituted for the other,
which is owing to the distance between them being extremely small, and to the fact
that the angles expressed by the fractions ^-^, f^, if, |J-, |^, &c., if reduced to
degrees and minutes, differ by a few minutes only ; so that the angles of divergence
actually oscillate between 137° and 138°. A slight twist of the stem or axis is
sufficient to account for so small a variation, and may well occur in rosettes of
leaves, in involucral bracts, and in cones, and cast a doubt on the value of the angle
of divergence. Thus, in Pines (fig. 459 (^, the rectilinear series indicating the suc-
cessive cycles may deviate more or less to right or left, so that the secondary spirals,
which were the most obvious at the base of the cone, become less so in ascending,
and render it difficult to determine such fractions as |-, ■^, -£-j-. A change in the
shape of the stem will also lead to the substitution of one cycle for another, as in
certain Gacti with ribbed or angular stems bearing tufts of prickles, and whose ribs
double as they ascend, and offer cycles of a higher number.

Lastly, there are exceptional cases which perplex the student of Phyllotaxy ;
the above-named fractions are not the only ones which may be observed ; f , ^, f , -^^,
&c., do occur, though very rarely ; but when they do, they preserve among them-
selves the same relations as the preceding, i.e. that each successive fraction may be
obtained by the addition of the numerators and denominators of the two preceding.
We have seen that whorled leaves present a succession of circular groups ; but here
also, as in alternate leaves, the spiral arrangement is discernible. In a branch of
Oleander, for instance, where the leaves are whorled in threes, a relation exists
between any three vertically superimposed leaves of successive whorls ; and a line
successively passing through their insertions will describe a regular spiral ; and if
we examine the relations between the other leaves of these whorls, we shall perceive
that the number of whorls represents as many parallel spirals as there are leaves in
each of them.

86

OEGAl^OGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

ESTIVATION.

Estivation {prcefloratio, wstivatio) is the arrangement of the floral organs in the
bud, and is of especial importance in respect of the calyx and corolla.

The leaves of each floral whorl may be inserted exactly at the same level
(forming a true whorl), or at unequal heights, when they form a depressed spiral,
the lowest leaf of which is necessarily the outermost. The true whorl presents two
modes of aestivation — the valvate and the contorted.

1. Estivation is valvate {m. valvaris) when the contiguous edges of the parts touch
throughout their length, like the two leaves of a door (460 a) ; and it is then nearly
always regular. It is induplicative (cp. induplicativa) when the contiguous parts cohere
by a part of their back ; reduplicative {cb. reduplicativa) when by a part of their faces

460 ffl. Vallate
estivation.

460 S. Valvate
induplicative aestivation.

461. Valvate
reduplicative aestivation.

462. Contorted
aestivation.

463. Imbricate
aestivation.

(fig. 461). 2. Estivation is twisted or contorted^ (contorta) when the leaves are so
placed that each leaf partially covers one of the two between which it is placed, and
is similarly covered by the other, as if each were twisted on its axis (fig. 462) ; in
this case the whorl is always regular.

The depressed spiral presents two modes of aestivation : the imbricate, properly
so called, and the quincunxial. These two are often indifferently termed imhricate.
1. In the true imbricate aestivation (ob. imbricativa, fig. 463) the parts (usually five)
successively overlap, from the first, which is wholly exterior, to the last, which is
wholly interior, and placed against the first ; they thus complete one turn of a
spiral. In quincunxial aestivation (oe. quincuncialis) two of the five pieces are exterior,
two interior, and one intermediate, one side of the latter being covered by one of the
outer, and on the other covering one of the inner (tig. 464). This arrangement
corresponds to that of leaves expressed by f. To explain this aestivation, which is
nothing but a depressed spiral with two coils, we must consider the axis of the
flower as a truncated cone, and draw a spiral line twice round it, from bottom to
top ; then mark off on this line five equidistant points, so that a sixth point at the
top of the cone will be immediately above the first ; it is clear that the interspaces
■will equal f the circumference of the cone, and the five spaces between the six
points will constitute y, i.e. twice the circumference; which equals the two turns
of the spiral traced on the conical axis of the 'flower. Now substitute for the five
points five sepals or petals which shall be large enough to overlap ; then depress the
cone to a plane, and we shall have two exterior leaves (1, 2), a third,, at once half

' Also called convolute by Tarious botauiste. — Ed.

^STIVATIQlSr.

87

interior and half exterior (3), and two wholly interior (4, 6), which are both nearest
to the top of the cone, and the most central. The Rose calyx (fig. 465) confirms this
view ; its outer sepals being next the a.xis of the flower, and consequently most
vigorously developed, present small lateral leaflets, and often a terminal true leaflet,
thus reducing the sepal to an unequally pinnate leaf like ordinary rose-leaves. As
the sepals rise in the quincunx, the growth becomes weaker, the third bears
small leaflets only on one side, and the upper or interior sepal terminates

464. Qnincnnxial
sestivation.

466. Papilionaceoila
eestivation.

467. Ceroia.

Flower witli standard within

the "Wings.

468. Oochleate
Eestivation.

in a simple filament. The quincunx aestivation may be disturbed by unequal develop-
ment of the leaves of the whorl, and this especially occurs in the corolla, owing to
the relatively slow or rapid growth of some of the petals. Thus, in the papiliona-
ceous corolla (fig. 466), the standard, which represents No. 4 of the quincunx, and
ought to be internal, is wholly exterior, because, having developed more rapidly
than the other petals, it covers the two wings representing Nos. 1 and 2 ; this
aestivation is said to he papilionaceous {oe. vexillaris). In the St. John's Bread {Gercis),
the standard retains its normal position, and the quincunx is properly formed (fig.
467). In the Snapdragon (fig. 468) and other personate plants, the second petal is
interior instead of being exterior, either because it has developed before the others,
or because the latter have grown the most rapidly ; this mode of Eestivation is called
cochleate (ce. cochlearis) . The calyx has a similar arrangement.

Amongst the varieties of imbricate aestivation is that termed convolute^ [w. con-
volutiva),: it occurs when the sepal's or petals overlap, so that each completely
envelops all the others; as in the calyx of Magnolia, and the corolla of Poppies
(fig. 470). Estivation is alternate [cb. alternativa), when the leaves of the calyx
or corolla form two whorls, of which the exterior encloses the interior whilst
alternating with it, as in the calyx of the Wallflower, and corolla of Fumitory
(fig. 472).

[..Estivation is straight (ce. recta), or open [cb. aperta), when the parts are so
little developed or so distant that they do not meet. — Bc.j

SYMMETRY OF THE ELOWER.

The term symmetry has been differently applied ; according to De Candolle, it
implies non-geometrical regularity in plants and animals ; other botanists distinguish
(often obscurely) symmetry from regularity: this we do not admit, but regard

' The term convolute is often used synonymously with contorted or twisted aestivation.

88 OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

symmetry and regularity ' as synonymous, and as implying a similarity between the
leaves of a floral whorl ; this relation including : — 1, the form ; 2, the number ; 3, the
independence ; 4, the relative position of the parts of flowers : we have thus the sym-
metry of form, of number, of disjunction, and of position. Symmetry of form is
regularity taken in its usual sense ; as when portions of a whorl are alike, or when,
being different, the one sort alternates with the other, so as to present a symmetrical
whole around a common centre ; this regularity might be termed rayed symmetry
(calyx and corolla of Columbine, fig. 31 ; Wallflower, fig. 7 ; and Buttercup). A whorl
that is not thus symmetrical is said to be irregular ; though its two sides (or halves)
may resemble each other, thus being analogous to the longitudinal " symmetry of
animals, which is opposed to the rayed symmetry of Zoophytes. The corollas of the
Heartsease (fig. 170), Cytisus (figs. 253, 254), Tropwolum (fig. 210), are irregular, but
longitudinally symmetrical. The whorl is called regular, even though it forms a
depressed spiral ; "but if the floral axis lengthens sensibly, the rayed symmetry dis-
appears, and, to describe the symmetry, recourse is had to the comparative length
of the spiral; thus the symmetry of the carpels is hemispheric in the Strawberry
(fig. 401), conical in the Raspberry (fig. 402), spiked in Adonis (fig. 404).

Perfect niimerical symmetry occurs when all the whorls consist of the same
number of parts, as in Crassula, which has five sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

Disjunctive symmetry occurs when the pieces of each whorl are entirely sepa-
rated, and each whorl is entirely free {Columbine, Hellebore). Symmetry of position
occurs when the pieces of each whorl alternate with those of the preceding and
succeeding ; and the normal position of the whorls (calyx, corolla, andrcecium, pistil)
is undisturbed {Crassula rubens). Many botanists, regarding regularity as the normal
feature in plants, assume it to be the primitive type adopted by Nature ; they there-
fore look upon a combination of the above-named symmetries as indicating the
normal condition of the flower ; which should thus consist of
four whorls, each composed of the same number of leaves, all
equal, free, alternating successively, and arranged in the order
of calyi, corolla, andrcecium and pistil.
Further, such a primitive type, whether real
or imaginary, may be more or less com-
pletely and permanently modified by various
single or combined causes, of which the prin-
cipal are, — inequality of development, cohe-

46a. Diagram can ideal "^"'^ 0^«2/'^i'%«^«. multiplication, doubling,

4f,9 bu. Linaria. perfectly supprcssion and abortion. This hvnothe-

Monstrous flower. symmetrical flower. . , j_ 't , t t

SIS lias contributed largely to the progress
of organography, by stimulating investigations into the comparative anatomy of
floral organs.

To ascertain the amount of symmetry a flower displays, its bud must be cut

' Symmeinj in English and American works or equal in number ; regularity, that the parts of a

implies that the parts of successive whorls are isometric whorl are equal and similar, Ed.

- Better called hUateral. — En.

STMMETEY OF THE FLO WEE. 89

through horizontally, when all the whorls will appear projected on the same plane ;
and the relative positions of the organs thus displayed is termed a diagram (fig. 469) .
Inequality of development necessarily interferes with symmetry of form (corolla of
Heartsease, fig. 170; Oytisus,&ga. 253,254; Tropmolum, fig. 210) ; this inequality is
frequently caused hy the cohesion of parts, as in the bilabiate monosepalous calyx
of Lamium (fig. 208), in the bilabiate corolla of Snapdragon (fig. 285), of Linaria
(fig. 286), Lamium (figs. 278, 279), in the monadelphous androecium of Mallow
(fig. 310), diadelphous of Lotus (fig. 312), didynamous of Snapdragon (fig. 305),
tetradynamous of Wallflovjer (fig. 306) ; in the ovary of Snapdragon, the pistil of
Orchis, &c. — irregularities which are usually accompanied with nectariferous glands
{Heartsease, Wallflower, Centranthus, Honey suchle. Snapdragon, Linaria, &c.). In
Linaria (fig. 286) the calyx is monosepalous with five unequal divisions, the corolla
is monopetalous with two unequal lips, of which the upper represents two petals,
and the lower three, of which the centre one is prolonged below into a subulate
spur ; there are four stamens, of which the two longest are situated between the
central and the two lateral petals of the lower lip ; the two others, which are
shorter, are opposite the fissures which separate the two lips ; at the base of the
upper lip a filament represents the fifth stamen. In certain circumstances all the
petals of Linaria are developed like the centre one of the lower lip ; the whorl is
then perfectly regular, and presents a corolla with five lobes, and five equal spurs
between them (fig. 469 lis). At the same time, the filament at the base of the
upper lip develops into a stamen like the four others, which latter, usually unequal,
become precisely alike, so that the flower is furnished with five symmetrical stamens :
to this metamorphosis the name of Peloria has been given, which, according to the
theory adverted to, would be regarded as a reversion to the normal state of the
plant. Violets are also sometimes regular; sometimes presenting two opposite
spurred petals, or three, or even five such ; when the symmetry of form is esta-
blished in the three first whorls.

Cohesion or symphysis, whether congenital or the result of growth, destroys the
symmetry of disjunction by effecting either the cohesion of the leaves of the same
whorl, or the cohesion ' of one whorl with another ; as in monosepalous calyces,
monopetalous corollas, monadelphous, diadelphous and polyadelphous stamens, and
compound ovaries ; also in flowers with inferior ovaries {Myrtle, fig. 381 ; Saxifrage,
fig. 382), and with monopetalous staminiferous corollas {Belladonna, fig. 294) ; in
calycifioral {Peach, fig. 368) and gynandrous fiowers {Orchis, fig. 188 ; Aristolochia,

fig: 318).

Cohesion also masks numerical symmetry, by causing a compound organ to
appear simple, as in the monosepalous calyx, the monopetalous corolla, the com-
pound ovary, &c. ; and it destroys the symmetry of position, as when the carpels are
enclosed in the receptacular tube {Quince, fig. 215), or in causing the androecium to
appear above the level of the pistil {Orchis, fig. 188 ; Aristolochia, fig. 318).

Multiplication consists in the repetition of the same whorl ; thus, Berheris has

1 In English works, the term cohesion is con- same whorl ; adhesion, to the union of the organs of
fined to the union of two or more organs of the different whorls.— Ed.

90

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

three wliorls of three sepals, two whorls of three petals, and two whorls of three
stamens. The Poppy (fig. 470) has two whorls of two petals, and many whorls, each

470. Poppy.
Diagram,

471. Columbine.
Diagram.

472. Fumitory.
Di^gi'am.

473. Geranimn.

Flower (mag.), without

calyx and corolla.

composed of two stamens. The Columbine (fig. 471) has ten whorls of five stamens
and two whorls of five scales. The Fumitory (fig. 472) has two whorls of two petals,
and two whorls of two stamens, of which the outer are normal two-celled stamens,
a,nd the inner stamens are divided into four, each one-celled (equal to two complete
stamens). Ly thrum has two whorls of six sepals, coherent and adherent. Datura
fastuosa has two or three monopetalous corollas, one inside the other.

Deduplication or chorisis occurs when two or more organs fake the place of one.
This affects not only numerical symmetry, bnt symmetry of position; in which respect
it differs from multiplication, when the whorls preserve their relative positions. De-
duplication is parallel, when the organ is doubled from without inwards, and when
the supernumerary piece is opposite to that from which it proceeds ; it is collateral,
when the supernumerary piece occurs by the side of the organ from which it proceeds,
maintaining the same relative position on the receptacle ; a parallel deduplication
may double or treble the whorl, a collateral deduplication can only increase the number
of parts in that whorl, which still continues simple. In the case of parallel dedu-
plication, the supernumerary pieces are usually altered, and rather resemble those
of the whorl which normally succeeds them, than those of the whorl to which they
belong. In Lychnis (figs. 239, 240) and other Caryophyllew, the petals give off a
fringed petaloid layer, which coheres with the claw, and is free only where the claw
meets the limb ; in 8edum (fig. 476) the five petals produce a whorl of five stamens
shorter than the five which alternate with them, and the normal and superntimerary
andrcecia are so close that their bases cohere. In Geranium (fig. 473), the five
petals produce by deduplication five stamens shorter than and outside the others,
but the five larger bear at their outer bases five nectaries, which re-establish the
alternation disturbed by the five supernumerary stamens (fig. 474) ; in Erodium
(fig. 476) the same arrangement exists, except that the extra stamens have no
anthers; in Sedum (fig. 476) the stamens opposite to the petals are a deduplication
of the latter; in Flax (fig. 477), the supernumerary stamens are reduced to
sessile membranous teeth ; in Mignonette (fig. 478), the petals with a fringed top

STMMETEY OF THE FLOWBE.

91

bear -within a small concave plate, which is a deduplication of the petal. The petals
of Ranunculus (fig. 237) bear at their inner base a small scale, parallel to the claw,

474. Geranium.
Diagram.

475. Ei-odium.
MoT^'er (mag.), without corolla.

477. Hax.
Andrcecium and pistil (mag.).

and forming with it a nectariferous cavity ; the bilabiate petals of Helleborus are
formed of two nearly equal plates, a.nd may be regarded as originating by dedupli-
cation in a parallel direction. The petaloid laminae of these plants must not be
confounded with the different protuberances on the corolla of Gomfrey (fig. 269), and
other Boraginew, nor with the sort of hairy palate on the lower lip of Snapdragon
(fig. 285) and Linaria (fig. 286) ; which are not the result of deduplication, but
are derived from the substance of the petal. Deduplications are chiefly confined to
the corolla and androecium ; they rarely occur in the pistil ; in Sedum (fig. 455)
there is externally at the base of each carpel a little green glandular scale, parallel
to the carpel, and which might be looked upon as a deduplication of this.

Deduplications are not always a proof of superfluous vital action ; they may arise
from a misdirection of vegetative force ; in fact, when one whorl is doubled, the
succeeding one is either weakened, modified, or suppressed, as in the Primrose, Pim-
pernel (fig. 479), and other Primulacew, which have only five stamens, and these
opposite to the petals, thus not forming a normally whorled androecium, but being
referable to a parallel deduplication of the petals ; they thus replace the normal
andrcecium, which however sometimes appears, not as stamens, but as
scales, alterna,ting with the petals (Samolus, fig. 480). In the Vine

478. Mignonette.
Corolla (mag.).

479- Pimpernel.

Stamen
and petal (mag.).

480. SamoluB.
Portion of corolla and
androecium (mag.).

482. Bocket.
Andrcecium.

(fig. 481), the five normal stamens are replaced by five nectaries, but fertilization is
secured by five stamens opposite to the petals.

Hnllateral deduplication is less frequent thsan parallel ; inihe Bocket (fig. 482) and

02

OEGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

other Crudferm, the four stamens arranged in pairs alongside tlie pistil represent
two doubled ; the filaments of each pair are indeed often connected half-way up,
or throughout their length. In the Orange (fig. 483), the androecium consists of a
single whorl of thirty stamens, whose filaments cohere in bundles of four, fire,
or six; in St. John's Wort (fig. 484), the stamens form three or five bundles, of
which each may be considered as a doubled stamen; and so in Castor-oil (fig. 315),
the stamens of which form branched bundles. Each filament of the Laurel (fig.
486) bears on each side of its base a shortly stipitate gland, which firmly coheres
to it, and is sometimes developed into a true stamen. This shows that the stamen
of the Laurel with its two glands represents a stamen multiplied into three, of
which the two lateral are rudimentary. In many Garlics (fig. 320) the filaments
are dilated, and terminated by three teeth, of which the central only bears an anther ;
in Pancratium this dilatation is enormous ; the lateral lobes of each filament cohere
with the neighbouring filaments, and form with them a fringed tube ; in Narcissus
(fig. 486) this tube is still more remarkable, and assignable to the same origin.

Many plants present the case both of multiplication and dedu plication ; the flower
of Butomus (fig. 487) has three sepals, three petals, six stamens in pairs opposite to the

484. St. John's Wort.
Bundle of stamens.

483. Orange.
Forbion of andrcicium.

485. Laurel.
Stamen (mag.).

487. Butomug.
Diagram.

Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus.
Perianth laid open.

sepals, three other stamens within the six preceding, also opposite the petals, and six
carpels in two series : here we have a multiplication of the androecium and pistil, and
besides this a collateral deduplication of the first whorl of the androecium. When the
stamens are twice and thrice as many as the petals, and by their extreme closeness
seem to form but a single whorl, it may be difficult to decide whether this is a case
of collateral deduplication of the androecium, or of multiplication, or of a dedupli-
cation of the corolla added to the normal androecium. This difficulty is increased
when the stamens all cohere. If the stamens are placed exactly on a level, they
may be formed by a collateral deduplication [Orange, fig. 483) ; if some are a little
within or without the others, which is easily distinguishable, in spite of coherence,
then it is a case either of multiplication or of parallel deduplication. It is a case of
multiplication when the outer stamens alternate with the petals (Berberis), but of
parallel deduplication when they are opposite to the petals {Oeranium, fig. 473).

SYMMETEY OF THE FLOWER.

93

Arrests and suppressions are due to failures of development, and affect more than
all other causes the symmetry of the flower. Arrest is the condition of an organ
the growth of which has stopped, so that it is reduced to a sort of stump, sometimes
glandular ; suppression implies that an organ has never even been developed. The
outer whorls are more seldom arrested or suppressed than the andrcecium and espe-
cially the pistil, which occupies but a narrow area of the receptacle. The suppression
or arrest of one or more pieces of a whorl affects the symmetry of number, position
and form. For example, Berberis, whose calyx, corolla and andrcecium are in threes
or multiples of thj-ee, has for pistil a single carpel ; the Pink (fig. 488), whose other
whorls are quinary, has but two carpels ; the Heartsease three
(fig. 489) ; in the Bitter Vetch (fig. 490) and other Papilion-
acecB, the two first whorls are quinary, the third decennary,

488. Pink.
Diagram.

diagram.

492. Scrophnlaria.
Diagram.

491. Snapdragon.
Diagram.

wbilst the pistil is mono-carpellary ; it is the same with the pistil of the Plum and
Peach. The Snapdragon (fig. 491), of which the calyx and corolla are quinary, has
(owing to arrest) four stamens, and two carpels due to suppression.

In Scrophularia, with the same arrangement, the fifth stamen is represented by
a petaloid scale (fig. 492). The Periwinkle and other Apocynem, as well as many
monopetalous families, have five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and two carpels ;
Polygala (fig. 493) has five sepals, three petals (sometimes five, alternating with the
sepals), eight half anthers (equivalent to four stamens), and two carpels. TJmhel-
lifercB (fig. 494) have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and two carpels. The
Cornflower, Dandelion, Chrysanthemum and other Compositce have quinary corollas
and androecia and a single carpel ; in most, the calyx degenerates into a pappus,
though in some {Asteriscus, Hymenoxys) it presents five scales. In most Cucurbitacew
{Melon, Pumpkin, Cucumber) the calyx and corolla are quinary and the stamens are
reduced to two and a half.
In apetalous, monoecious,
and dioecious flowers, an
entire whorl is suppressed
or arrested {Lychnis, Sagina.,
Chenopodium, fig. 189) ; some-
times several whorls are
absent, as in the Nettle and
Mulberry (fig. 495), which
present only a calyx with an andrcecium, or a pistil. Sometimes several whorls are
suppressed, together with one or more pieces of the remaining whorl ; the male flower

493. Polygala.
Diagram.

494. Ooriander.
Diagram.

49.5. Mulberry.
J flower (mag.).

94

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

of Euphorbia (fig. 333) consists of one whorl, reduced to one stamen ; and the female
flower (fig. 406) of one whorl of three carpels ; the flowers of Arum (figs. 196, 197,
198) consist of a solitary stamen or carpel. Seeds, like the floral whorls, are subject
to suppression and arrest ; in Geranium (fig, 474) the five carpels are two-ovuled,
and but single-seeded ; the Oak (fig. 400) has three carpels forming three two-ovuled
cells ; the septa become speedily absorbed through the rapid growth of one of the
ovules, and the ripe fruit is one-celled and one-seeded. The. Horse-chestnut presents
a similar arrest. In the Cornflower and other Compositw, in Wheat
and other Oramineae, the ovule is solitary from the first ; at least,
a second has never been discovered ; thus offering a case of suppres-
sion and not arrest.

The causes which disguise or disturb symmetry in any one
flower are not always isolated. In Larhspur we have unequal develop-
ment and symphysis in the calyx and corolla, multiplication in the
andrcBcium, and suppression in the pistil; in Asclepias (fig. 496)
symphysis in all its whorls, multiplication in its corolla, dedu-
Asciepias. pUcation in the second whorl of the corolla, and suppression in the
pistil. Mignonette is an example of unequal development in its calyx,
corolla and andrcecium ; of symphysis in its pistil, of parallel deduplication in its
coroUa, of collateral deduplication in its andrcecium, and of suppression in its pistil.

Flower (mag.).

THE FRUIT.

The fruit {fructus) is the fertilized and ripe pistil, that is, a pistil enclosing
seeds capable of reproducing the plant. It may be accompanied by accessory
organs, which are considered as forming an integral part of it, and to which we shall
return.

The fruit is apocarpous — 1, when its carpels are separate from each other
[Columbine, fig. 497; Ranunculus, fig. 524; Bramble, fig. 521 ; Rose, fig. 525), when each
carpel is considered to be a fruit ; 2, when the pistil is formed of a single
carpel {Pea, Bladder Senna, fig. 498 ; Apricot, fig. 499 ; Wheat). It is synca/r-
pous, when its carpels are consolidated into a single body {Tulip, fig. 389 ;
Iris, Campanula, fig. 390; Poppy, fig. 388; Heartsease, fig. 500).

497. Columbine,
Fruit.

600. Heai-tsease.
Ripe piBtil,

498. Bladder Senna. Fruit. 499, Apricot. Open flower.

According as each free carpel, or each c.ell of a syncarpous fruit, or each

THE FRUIT.

95

linilooular composite ovary contains one, few, or many seeds, this carpel, cell, or ovary
is said to be monospermous [monosperma) , oligospermous [oligospermaj, or many-seeded
{polysperma). The ripe ovary is called a pericarp {pericarpmm) ; we have already
described the three layers of which it is composed (figs. 15, 16), epicarp, endocarp,
and mesocwrp or sarcoearp.

Changes caused by Maturation. — In ripening, the fruit undergoes changes, some
of which have been already mentioned : it may be dry, and then, according to its
consistency, it is said to be membranous, corky, coriaceous, woody, bony ; the latter
quality is found in the Filbert (fig. 233) ;
sometimes it becomes fleshy through the
abundant pulp of the seed ; ' in Belladonna
{&g. 567) the mesocarp is succulent; in the
Orange (fig. 568) the pulp consists of long

501. Gooseberry.

Fruit

cut Yertically.

608. Gneorum.

Fruit cut

Tertically (mag.).

504. TribuluB.

Fruit cut

Tertically (mag.).

602. Cassia.

Portion of open

fruit.

606. Radish.,
Flower cut vertically.

spindle-shaped cells, fixed to the endocarp by one of their extremities, and free at
the other; in the Tomato it is the placenta, in the Gooseberry (fig. 501) and the
Pomegranate it is the testa itself of the seed which is pulpy.

In fruits with a succulent mesocarp, as Plum, Cherry, Peach, Apricot, Walnut,
&c., the endocarp thickens at the expense of a portion of the mesocarp (figs. 16, 620),
becomes bony, and forms the stone (putamen). The septa sometimes disappear in
the pericarp; as in Lychnis (fig. 398) and other Garyophyllacece, where the rapid
growth of the walls of the ovary breaks and effaces them; in the Oak (fig. 400),
where one ovule stifles the other five, and destroys the three septa; in the Ash
(fig. 561), where one of the two cells contains a seed, while the other is reduced to
an almost imperceptible cavity by the destruction of the septum. Sometimes trans-
verse septa are developed in the ripening ovary ; these are horizontal expansions of
the endocarp and mesocarp, which sometimes become woody [Cassia, fig. 602) . In
Cneorum (fig. 503) and Tribulus (fig. 504), the endocarp and mesocarp are gradually
intruded from the inner wall of the ovary, so as to form oblique septa, which at
maturity divide the cavity into small superimposed cells. The membranous transverse
septa of the cells of the Radish pod (fig. 505), Baphanistrum, and some other Cruci-
feroe, are longitudinal septa which the growth of 'the seeds has driven to right and
left by the resistance of the endocarp ; in this case, the fruit dehisces transversely,
each segment containing one seed.

Suture. ^The ventral suture [sutura ventralis) is the line indicated by the

' TES" pulp rarely contributes to the formation by tempting birds, &c., and -it is often an aid to the
of the seed; it aids in the- dispersion of fruits germination of the seed.— En.

96

OEGANOGRAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

cohering edges of a carpellary leaf, and which faces the axis of the flower ; what" is
(somewhat improperly) called the dorsal suture (s. dorsalis) is nothing but the median
nerve of the carpel, which consequently faces the periphery of the flower. This
nerve may be masked by the parenchyma developed from the carpel, as in the Peach;
it is usually indicated either by a rib [Columbine) or furrow (Astragalus). The
ventral suture may also be indicated by a rib (Pea) or furrow (Peach) . In a many-
celled ovary, the ventral sutures, occupying the axis of the flower, cannot be seen
externally, and each cell is indicated by a dorsal line or rib; besides which, we
generally see, on the walls of the compound ovary and between its dorsal furrows,
other sutures, named parietal (suturce parietales), which indicate the union of two
septa, or of two parietal placentas (Mallow, fig. 225). In inferior ovaries, those are
not sutures which we perceive on the walls of the fruit, but fibro-v'ascular bundles,
which belong to the calyx-tube according to some, to the receptacular tube
according to others (Currant). In this case, the calyx-limb often crowns the fruit
in the form of teeth (Fedia, fig. 216), or bristles (Scabious, fig. 229), or a pappus
(Dandelion, fig. 222), or a crown (Pomegranate, Medlar).

Accessory Organs. — The style sometimes remains upon the ovary, and grows with
the pericarp as it matures; it forms a flattened beak in the Radish and Rocket
(fig. 506), a feathery tail in Pulsatilla and Clematis. The receptacle, which in some
cases adheres to the ovary, necessarily forms a part of the fruit ; such is the recep-
tacular tube which encloses the carpels in Apples, Pears, Quinces, Medlars, White-
beam, Aza/role, Haws, &c. ; such is also the receptacle of the Strawberry (fig. 507)
which, though almost dry at first, gradually enlarges, becomes fleshy, and encloses
the ovaries in its crimson parenchyma ; it is not then the pistil alone, but the enlarged
receptacle which is prized in the strawberry, and which is usually regarded as the
fruit ; the carpels of the strawberry are insipid, and crack under the teeth, and the
little black styles appear as dry deciduous threads. In the Fig (fig. 158), a fleshy
receptacle encloses innumerable minute flowers, the
lower female, the upper male.

Exuvias. — The name
exuviae (induvioe) has
been given to the per-
sistent withered remains
of the calyx or corolla,
or sometimes of the
andrcecium, which per-
sist around the fruit
but do not adhere to
it; in Campanula (fig.
544) the corolla withers
and persists on the calyx; in the Mwrvel of Peru the base of the petaloid perianth
envelops the ovary, and resembles one of the integuments of the seed; in the
Winter Cherry (fig. 608) the whole calyx persists, enlarging enormous'ly, and
enclosing the ovary in an inflated coloured bladder. In the Rose (fig. 609), the

606. Rocket.
Fruit.

607. Strawberry,
Fruit.

508. Winter Clierry.

Fruit shown by the removal

of half the calyx.

THE FEUIT. 97

caTyx-limb dries and decays, but the receptacular tube persists and becomes fleshy.
In the ripe Mulberry (fig. 571), the female flowers of which form a dense spike, the four
sepals are succulent, and enclose the pistil; they may thus themselves be regarded
as belonging to the fruit. Inyolucres, which we have described in the paragraph
on bracts, usually persist around the fruit and grow with it ; such is the case with
the involucres of Gompositce, the cups of the Acorn (fig. 232), of the Nut (fig. 233), and
of the Chestnut (fig. 234),

Dehiscence.— Dehiscence is the act by-which the ripe pericarp opens to let the
seeds escape. Fruits which thus burst spontaneously are called dehiscent {dehiscens :
Tulip, Iris, fig. 531) ; the term indehiscent (indehiscens) is applied to— 1, fleshy fruits
which do not open, but decay, and thus free the seeds {Apple, figs. 448, 449 ; Peach,
fig. 619 j Melon, Pumpkin) ; 2, dry fruits, whose pericarp is pierced by the embryo
in germination {Wheat, Buckwheat, Oat, fig. 626 ; Anemone, fig. 623).

Valves {valvce, vahulce) are the pieces into which the pistil separates when ripe,
to allow the seeds to escape ; according to the number of these, the fruit is said to
be univalved, hivalved, &c. {univalvis, hivalvis, &e.) ; sometimes the separation is
incomplete, the valves only opening to a half or a quarter of their length, or at the
top only. Apocarpous fruits' dehisce by the ventral suture {Gohimbine, fig. 497 ;
Larkspur, fig. 512 ; Caltha, fig. 511), or by the dorsal nerve {Magnolia), or by both at
once {Pea, fig. 516, and other Leguminosce) ; in the latter case, there are two valves
to one carpel.

The dehiscence of plurilocular syncarpous fruits is septicidcd {d. septicida) when
the septa split into two parallel plates, and the united carpels separate {St. John's
Wort, fig. 527 ; Colchicum, fig. 529 ; Mullein, Scrophularia, fig. 628) ; each valve then
represents a carpel. The placentas may fall away with the valves, or form a solid
central column {Salicaria, fig. 530). In all cases, the edges of the valves are said
to be inflexed. The dehiscence oi plurilocular syncarpous fruits is loculicidal {d. locu-
licida) when it takes place by the dorsal suture ; this results from the septa being
more firmly united than the median fibro-vascular bundles of the carpels; each
valve then represents the halves of two carpels, and the valves are described as sep-
tiferous in the middle {v. medio-septiferce). Sometimes the placentas are continued
along the septa {Lily, Iris, fig. 531), at others they remain consolidated into a
central column ; sometimes, again, the placentas may retain a portion or the whole
of each septum, and the central column then presents as many wings or plates as
there were septa in the ovary before its dehiscence {Rhododendron, Batura, fig. 532) ;
this variety of loculicidal dehiscence is called septifragal.

The same fruit may be both septicidal and loculicidal ; thus, in Foxglove, which
is two-carpellary, the septa first separate, then the dorsal nerve of each carpel splits,
and each of the four resulting valves represents half a carpel.

Syncarpous finits with parietal placentas usually dehisce by placental sutures,
when each valve represents a carpel, and has placentiferous margins {val. marginihus
placentiferce. Gentian, fig. 533), — or by the dorsal sutures, when each valve represents
the halves of two contiguous carpels, and is placentiferous in the middle {v. medio-
placentiferce, Hea/rtsease, fig. 534; Willow, fig. 635), — or by the separation of the valves.

98

OEGANOGEAPHY AND" GLOSSOLOGY.

610. Linaria.
Fruit.

whicli leave the placentas in their places {Walljlower, fig. 647; Chelidonium, fig.
546).

la some syncarpous fruits, the dehiscence is by valvules or teeth, variously
placed, which, by diverging or ascending, form openings for the
seeds to escape {Primrose, Lychnis, fig. 642 ; Snapdragon, fig. 645 ;
Harebell, fig. 544; Poppy, fig. 643). Dehiscence is transverse {d.
transversalis) vrhen a compound ovary is halved transversely {Pim-
pernel, fig. 537; Henbane, fig. 539; Purslane, fig. 538; Plantain) ; —
as also when apocarpous fruits break up transversely into one-
seeded segments {Goronilla, Sainfoin, fig. 518). Dehiscence is irre-
gular {d. ruptilis) in fruits with resisting septa and dorsal sutures,
but uniformly thin walls ; thus, the pericarp of some Linarias (fig. 510) splits into
longitudinal ribbons; the fruit of Momordica, Wild Cucumber, &c., rupture thus
elastically.

Classification of Fruits. — Many authors have attempted this ; but their efforts,
though resulting in many valuable scientific observations, have sometimes given rise
to a very obscure botanical terminology. Linnaeus admitted five sorts of fruit;
Gaei-tner, thirteen ; Mirbel, twenty-one ; Desvaux, forty-five ; Richard, twenty-four ;
Dumortier, thirty-three ; Lindley, thirty-six. The following classification, adapted
from these several authors, appears to us the simplest and easiest of application ; it
includes most of the modifications of form observable in the fruits of phsenogamous
plants.

Apocarpous Fruits.— 1. The follicle {folliculus) is dry, dehiscent, many-seeded,

516. Pea, Fruit.

and opens by its ventral suture {Caltha, fig. 511 ; LarJcspur, fig. 51 2 ; Peony, fig. 613),
or very rarely by the dorsal only {Magnolia). roUicles are rarely solitary, but almost

THE FEUIT.

99

always form a wliorl {OolumUne, fig. 497; Peony, fig. 613 ; Galtha, fig. 511), or head
{Trollius, fig. 515).— 2. The legume (legumen) is a follicle opening into two valves bj

:J A

519. Peach.
Fruit cut vertically.

523. "Wood Anemone.
"Whole achene and
achene cut vertically.

523 bis. Cornflower.
Fruit (mag.).

524. Kanunculus.
Achenes
in a head.

626. Oat.

Fruit (mag.).

o, ovary ;

T, testa ;

R, G, c, embryo ;

A, albumen.

its dorsal and ventral sutures {Pea, fig. 616). Some Leguminosm have spirally twisted
fruits [Lucerne, fig. 517) ; of others the fruit is indehiscent and one-seeded, hence a
true achene [Trefoil) ; of others it is a lomentum, i.e. the legume is contracted at
intervals into many cells by transverse septa ; when ripe, the fruit separates through
the septa of the cells into one-seeded joints [Coronilla, Sainfoin, fig. 518) ; other
legumes are vertically more or less perfectly two-celled, by the in-
flexion of the dorsal [Astragalus, fig. 391), or ventral siiture [Oxytropis) .
— 3. The drupe [drupa) is indehiscent, usually one-seeded, with a fleshy
mesocarp, and stony or bony endocarp [Peach, fig. 519; Cherry, fig.
520; Apricot, Plum, Almond, Walnut). Acini are the small drupes
forming the fruit of the Raspberry and Bramble, &c. (fig. 521). — 4. The
simple berry only differs from the compound berry by originating in a
solitary carpel [Berheris, Arum, fig. 622). — 5. The achene [achenium)
is dry, indehiscent, with a single free seed (not adhering to the
pericarp) ; it is solitary in the Cornflower (fig. 523 bis) and Dandelion;
agglomerated in the Ranunculus (fig. 524), Anemone (fig. 523), Rose,
(fig. 525), and Strawberry (fig. 401). The utricle [utriculus) is an achene with a very
thin and almost membranous pericarp [Scabious, Amaranth, Statice). — 6. The
caryopsis [caryopsis) is dry, indehiscent, with a single seed adhering to the pericarp
[Wheat, Maize, Oat, fig. 626).

Syncarpous Fruits. — 7. The capsule [capsula) is dry, one- or many-celled, and
dehiscent; it is plurilocular and septicidal in St. John's Wort (fig. 527), Scrophularia
(fig. 528), Mullein, Colchicum (fig. 529), Salicaria (fig. 530) ; loculicidal in Lilac, Lily,
Iris (fig. 531) ; septifragal in Datura (fig. 532), septicidal emd loculicidal in Digitalis
and Linum catharticum. " The valves of the unilocular capsule are placentiferous at
the edges in Gentian (fig. 533) ; placentiferous at the middle in Heartsease (fig. 534)
and Willow (fig. 635). The capsule of Orchis (fig. 536) opens into three valves

H 2

100

ORGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

placentiferous at tlie middle, and the median nerves of the three carpels, united by
their bases and tops, and crowned by the dry floral envelopes, persist after the
valves fall away. In the circumsciss capsule
{pyxidium, c. circumscissa) , the dehiscence is
transverse {Plantain, Pimpernel, fig. 537 ; Purs-

527.
St. John's Wort.

528, Scropbnlaria,
Fruit.

530. Salicarla.
i-'ruit (mag.).

631. Iris. Fruit.

636. Orchis. Fruit.

lane, fig. 538 ; Henbane, fig. 539). In Mignonette (fig. 540), the capsule opens by the
separation of the three sessile connivent stigmatiferous lobes, without dividing into

Datura. Fruit.

529. ColcMcum.
Fruit.

539. Henbane.
Fruit.

teeth or valves, and leaves an opening between them. In the Primrose, the capsule
is five-valved at the top, by the fission of the dorsal nerves of the carpels. In
the Pinh (fig. 641), both the dorsal nerves and placental sutures split. In Lychnis
(fig. 542), the capsule is similarly incompletely ten-valved. In the Poppy (fig. 548),
the capsule opens by small tooth-lite valves between the septa, below the disk
formed by the style and stigmatic rays. In the Harebell (fig. 544), the capsule
opens by five small valves at the base of the receptacular tube; these openings
are formed by the lower portions of the septa separating from the central axis,
and carrying up with them a portion of the pericarp, in the shape of a little
open door. In other species of Campanula the opening occurs at the upper part
of the receptacular tube, where the edge of the septum is thickened and forms

THE FEUIT.

101

a border with tlie concavity outside; the bottom of this border rolls over the
concavity, and ruptures the wall of the ovary, forming between each sepal a little
round protuberance, and the seeds escape
by pores which are on a level with their
placentas. In the Snapdragon (fig. 645),

540. Mignonette.
Fruit.

542. Lychnis.
Fi-uit.

545. Snapdragon.
JFruit.

544. Harebell.
Pruit.

the upper carpel, that next the axis, opens near the persistent style by small free
valves ; the lower carpel, which is gibbous below, opens by two similar collateral

valves, also near the style. The entire fruit, when seen
in front, resembles a monkey's face, the style being the
nose, the hole of the upper carpel the mouth, the two other
holes the eyes, and the persistent calyx a head-dress.

The siliqua (siliqua) is a capsule with two carpels ;
it is properly one-celled {Ghelidonium, fig. 646), but usually

646.

Ghelidonium

IJruit.

548.
"Whitlow-grass.
Fruit (mag.).

649. Cochlearia.
Fruit.

660. Thlaspi.
Fruit (mag.).

551. Bunias,
Fruit.

552. Bunias.
Fruit, open.

two-celled by a spurious membranous septum, and opens from bottom to top by
two valves, the seed-bearing parietal placentas persisting {Wallflower, fig. 547).
The silicule {silicula) is a siliqua of which the length r"^
does not much exceed the breadth {Whitlow-grass, fig. '"'

548 ; Cochlearia, fig. 549; Thlaspi, fig. 560). In some
cases the siliqua is lomentaceous, separating transversely
into one-seeded joints {Baddsh). In the Bunias (figs.
551, 652), each of the two cells of the silicule is two-
seeded and two-celled, by a longitudinal septum. In

Oramhe (fig. 553), the siHcule is compressed, and ,53. crambe. 554. Myagr.™.

originaUy consists of two unequal one-seeded cells, but fi'^''. "p^"- i^-uit,open.

whilst the seed of the upper cell becomes developed, that of the lower ceU is
arrested, its funicle being strangled in the septum ; and the result is a one-seeded

102

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

indehiscent fruit. Li Myagram perfoUatum (fig. 554), tlie silicule contains only one
seed, which occupies its lower half, and pushes up the septum; the two upper cells
are empty. In plurilocular capsules, the name cocci {cocci) has been
given to one- or two-seeded carpels, which separate (often elastically),

and carry the seeds with them, but

555. Geranium.

556. Fraxinella.

557. JEtliusa.

B5S. Bugle.

559. Cerinthe.

Fruit (mag.).

Fruit.

Fruit.

Fruit (mag.).

Fruit.

usually leave the placentas attached to a central column {Cneorum, Fraxinella,
Euphorhia, Geranium, Mallow). In Euphorbia this central column consists of the
placentas, and three double plates, which are portions of the septa, of which the
other portions were carried away by the dehiscence of the valves.

In Geranium (fig. 555) the five carpels separate elastically upwards, and roll
over upon themselves ; the central column consists of the placentas and the edges of
the carpellary leaves. In Mallows, the septa of the ten to fifteen carpels split, but
the carpels do not wholly separate from the column ; a considerable portion of the
septa adhering to it. In Fraxinella (fig. 556) the five carpels separate completely,
and leave no column.

The fruit of Angelica, JEthusa (fig. 657), and other Umhelliferce is a capsule
with two one-seeded cells, divided by a narrow septum ; its two carpels separate
like cocci, and remain suspended at the top to the filiform axis or prolongation of

the receptacle. Most botanists
consider this fruit to be composed
of two achenes ; but achenes are
apocarpous fruits, and this fruit,
being syncarpous, constitutes a
true two-celled septicidal capsule,
of which the only opening to the
carpels is a narrow cleft, pre-
viously occupied by a filiform axis.
The fruit of the Bugle (fig. 558) is
composed of four one-seeded lobes,
which separate when ripe, often
called achenes and nucules ; but
the fruit ot Borraginece and Labiatw
is now considered to be formed
of two carpels, each distinctly two-lobed, and containing two seeds ; this is obvious
in Cerinthe (fig. 659). It has been demonstrated that in the very young buds of the

660. Maple. Fl-ult.

THE FEUIT.

103

Sage and other Lahiatw, there really are only two carpellary leaves, opposite to the
two lips of the corolla. Such fruits are not collections of achenes, but synearpous,
the carpels being united below by the dilated style-base (fig. 409) ; it is a true
capsule of two carpels, each of which becomes two-celled, and hence it simulates four
distinct carpels. The samara (samara) is a dry, one- to two-seeded fruit, of which
the pericarp forms a membranous wing above or round the cell (Maple, Ash,
Elm, &c.) ; these, which are often placed among apocarpous fruits, are evidently
composed of two united carpels. In the Maple (fig. 560), the two cells are distinct,
and the fruit separates, as in Umbellifero!, into two cocci hanging at the top of a
filiform axis ; it is therefore a true septicidal capsule, the only opening of the carpels
being the narrow slit previously occupied by the axis. In the Ash (fig. 561), the
septum is perpendicular to the faces of the ovary, and consequently the two
sharp edges answer to the backs of the carpel; after flowering, all the ovules
but one are arrested ; the septum is pushed back, one of the cells almost completely
disappears, and the other is filled with the seed.

The fruit of the Mm (fig. 562) is similar ; one of the cells is one-ovuled, the
other is empty from the first. The nucule (nucula) is an indehiscent capsule, with a
bony or coriaceous pericarp, plurilocular when young, but one-celled and one-seeded
by arrest (Oak, fig. 232 ; Filbert, fig. 233 ; Hornbeam, Beech, Chestnut, fig. 563 ; Lime,
fig. 564). To the same category belong also the fruits of Fedia (figs. 565, 566) and
other ValerianecB, sometimes for convenience, but not accurately, called achenes. — ■
8. The berry (bacca) (whether compound or simple) is succulent, indehiscent, and
has no stone ; it differs from the capsule only in its fleshy consistence, which
frequently induces the suppression of the septa, and arrest
of some of the seeds (Vine). There are some fruits

062. Elm.
Fruit.

563. Chestnnt.
Frnit.

564. Lime.
Fruit.

665. Fedia.
Fruit cut
transversely
(mag.).

667. Belladonna.
Fruit.

which may equally be termed a berry or a capsule (Capsicum, Winter Cherry).
Among species of the same genus, some are provided with a capsule, others
with a berry (Galium, Asperula, Campion, Hypericum). The Trivet, Nightshade,
Belladonna (fig. 567), Vine, have a two-celled berry; Asparagus a.-n.dL Lily of the Valley,
a three-celled berry ; Herb Paris, a four- to five-celled berry. Among plants with an
inferior ovary, the berry of Sambucus is three-celled, that of the Myrtle four- to
five-celled ; Ivy, five-celled ; Coffee, two-celled ; Gooseberry, one-celled, with parietal
placentas (fig. 501). The hesperidium (hesperidium) is a plurilocular berry, with an
aromatic glandular epicarp, a dry and spongy mesocarp, an endocarp covered with

104

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

small watery cells wliich spring from the walls of the cavities, and extend to the
seeds [Orange, fig. 568). The gourd (pepo) is a berry composed of three to five
(rarely one) carpels, united to the receptacular tube, and forming a single cell wilh
very fleshy seed-bearing parietal placentas (Melon, Fumphin, SecMum, Briony).
The pome [pom.um, melonida, figs. 569, 570), is a berry composed of many (usually

five) cartilaginous carpels (e),
forming five cells, and united to
the receptacular tube (t) (Apple,

bus. Orange.
Fniit cut transversely.

570. Apple.
Frait cut rertically.

669. Apple.
Fruit cut transversely.

571. Mulberry.
Fruit.

Pear, Quince).- — 9. The compound drupe (nuculanium) is fleshy, and encloses many
stones, which are sometimes connate (Dogwood), sometimes free (Medlar, Beam,
Sapotilla) .

Aggregate fruits is the name given to fruits that result from the union of several
flowers ; these component fruits are included amongst the above-described varieties.
In the Honey suclde, the fruit is formed of two connate, but originally free berries.
In the Mulberry (fig. 571), the true fruit consists of a spike or head of small drupes,
each enveloped in a succulent calyx. The Fig (fig. 158) is a pyriform body, fleshy,
hollow, bracteate at the base, the mouth furnished with little scales, and serving as

a common receptacle to
the flowers enclosed in its
cavity, the males above,
the females below. In the
Fine-apple (fig. 572), the
flowers are spiked and
pressed round an axis

673. Pine.

Carpel (mag.) bearing

two seeds. Ch, cbalaza ;

M, micropyle.

676. Juniper.
FiTiit.

672. Pine-apple. m, mioropyle. 674. Pine. Fruit. 676. Cypress. Fi-uit.

terminating in a tuft of leaves ; the ovaries form so many berries, but the calyces,
the bracts, and the axis itself become fleshy. The Pine-cone (conus, strohilus)
is an aggregate fruit, which has nothing in common with the preceding ; the
carpels, represented by scales (fig. 573), have neither style nor stigma, and do not

SEED.

105

close to shelter tlie seeds, but protect them by closely overlapping each other until
ripe. They are sometimes woody, when they form either a conical spike {Pine, fig.
674), or a globular head {Cypress, fig. 575) ; when fleshy and connate, they simulate
a drupe {Juniper, fig. 576).

577. Feaseed (mag.), deprived of
half its integument and one of
its cotyledons.

SEED.

The seed {semen) of phsenogams is the ovule when fertilized, ripe, and ready for

germination ; it contains the embryo {emhryo, plantula, corculum), which is destined

to reproduce the mother-plant. Let us recapitulate the structure of the embryo in

the Pea (fig. 577). It is composed of a caulicle {caulicuhis,

t), a radicle {radicula, e), two cotyledons {cotyledones, c), and

a plum,ule {gemmula, plumula) ; it is enveloped by a double

integument, of which the outer (i), or testa {testa), is

attached to the hilum {hilus, umbilicus) by the funicle

{funiculus, f), which rises from the placenta {placenta, p) ;

and the inner (e), or endopleure,^ {endopleura) provides a

passage for the nourishing juices by the chalasa {chalaza, h),

which communicates with the hilum by means of a cord (a),

the raphe {raphe). Near the hUum is a small opening (m),

the micropyle {micropyle), by which the ovule is fertilized by

the pollen. As a general rule, the radicular end of the embryo answers to the

micropyle, and the cotyledonary end to the chalaza ; the exceptions to this rule,

which are rare, and do not invalidate it, will be specified.

Relative Positions of Seed and Embryo. — It is important to observe that, in the

early condition of the ovule, the hilum and chalaza are united ; consequently the

raphe does not exist, and the micropyle occupies the opposite, or free end of the

ovule; also that 1, the base of the fruit (ovary ^), is the point by which this is

attached to the receptacle, and its top is the point from which the style springs ;
2, the base of the seed is the point by which it is attached to the
funicle or placenta, and which is indicated by the hilum ; the
top of the seed is the extremity of an imaginary straight or
curved line drawn through the axis of the seed. The axis of the
ovary is defined in the same manner.
The embryo has also its axis; its
base is its radicular, and its top its
cotyledonary extremity.

The top of the seed is obvious

r^i^£riS°^^a™trtbe whenever the hilum occupies either

i^Sl:^T''l^'rtl extremity of the long axis of the seed,

^Tri.Iiaf^d^,l7^B as is usually the case {Nettle, fig.

the top of the ovary. 578 ; /Sa^e, fig, 579; Chicory, 580) ;

but sometimes the hilum is placed at the middle of the long axis of the seed

■ Sometimes called tegmen.-BT>. seed in relation to the ovary, where we should say

2 Throughout this section the authors speak of the carpel or fruit.— Ed.

678. Nettle.
Achene cut vertically (mag.),
showing one of the _ large

&r

579. Sage.

Achene cut vertically

(mag.), ov, ovary ;

Gr, seed.

106

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

{Lychnis, fig. 587) ; it is then ventral {h. ventralis), and when the seed is flattened

{Madder) it is described as depressed (s. depressum), or peltate (s. peltatum) if it is

convex on one side and concave

on the other {Lychnis, Stellaria).

In these latter cases it is difficult

and superfluous to determine the

top of the seed, but it is easy and

581. Sedum.
Flower cut -vertically (mag.).

SS2. Valerian.
Flower cut TertJcally (mag,).

5S.3. Plumbago.
Flower cut yertically (mag.).

important to distinguish tlie ventral face, i.e. that facing the placenta, and the dorsal
or opposite face. The seed is erect (s. erectum) when it is fixed to the bottom of tlie
cavity of the fruit {Nettle, fig. 578; Sage, fig. 579). It is ascending (s. ascendens),
when, being fixed to a central or parietal placenta, its top is turned towards that of
the fruit {Sedum, fig. 681 ; Apple, fig. 570). The seed is reversed (s. inversum) when
its base corresponds to the top of the fruit, whether the placenta is immediately
under the style {Valerian, fig. 582), or at the bottom of the ovary, in which case the
seed is suspended from an ascending basal funicle {Plumbago, fig. 583). The seed is
suspended, pendent (s. pendulum), when it is fixed to a central or parietal placenta,
with its top turned towards the base of the fruit {Apricot, Almond, fig. 583 his).
The distinction between reversed and pendulous seeds is often very slight, and
these terms are often used indifferently to describe a seed of which the free end
faces the bottom of the fruit. The seed is horizontal when fixed to a central or
parietal placenta, with its axis at right angles to that of the fruit {Aristolochia, Lily,
fig. 584).

In certain two-ovuled ovaries one
ovule may be pendulous and the other
ascending {Horse-chestnut, fig. 585) ; in
others with many seeds or ovules, some
are ascending, others pendulous, and
those in the centre horizontal {Colum-
line). All the terms indicating the
position of the seed are equally applicable
to that of the ovule.

The radicle is superior (r. supera)
when it points to the top of the ovary ;
it is inferior (r. infera). when it faces the bottom ; thus corresponding to the erect and

583 Us. Almond.

5S4. Lily.

Ovary cut

transversely (mag.).

585. Horse-chestnut.

Pistil cut

vertically (mag.).

SEED.

107

ascending seeds. Thus, the Nettle (fig. 578) has an erect seed and a superior radicle; the
axis of the seed is straight, the radicular end being furthest from the cotyledonary,
-which answers to the hilum. In the Sage (fig. 579) and Chicory (fig. 580), the
seed is erect, with an inferior radicle ; here the embryo seems to have twisted half
round upon itself; the cotyledonary end, which ought to answer to the hilum, being
at the opposite extremity, and the radicle nearly occupying its place ; this movement
has taken place in the cavity of the ovule before fertilization, as we shall presently
explain ; the result is a long raphe, which runs along one side of the seed, and the
chalaza is consequently diametrically opposite to the hilum. The radicle is centri-
petal {r. centripeta) when it faces the central axis of the fruit {Lily, fig. 584) ; centri-
fugal {r. centrifuga), when it faces the circumference {Mignonette, fig. 384). The

586. 'Wallflower.

Seed cut
Tertically (mag.).

587. LycTinis.

Seed cut

vertically (mag.).

588. Datm'a.

Seed cut

Tertically (mag.).

689. Marvel of Peru.

Fruifc

cut Tertically.

691. Plantain.
Ventral surface
of seed (mag.).

592. Plantain.

Seed cut
Tertically (mag.).

embryo is antitropal (e. antitropus), when, its axis being straight, the micropyle (and
radicle) is furthest from the hilum {Nettle, fig. 578 ; Rumex, fig. 644) ; it is homo-
tropal {e. homotropus) when, its axis being straight, the microp3'le (and radicle) is next
the hilum, while the chalaza (and cotyledonary end) is distant from the hilum, and
only connected with it by a raphe ; then the base of the seed (hilum) and of the
embryo (radicle) correspond (whence the term homotropal, Sage, fig. 579 ; Chicory,
fig. 580 ; Pear, Apricot, Rose, Strawberry, Scabious, Centranthus, Campanula, Hearts-
ease, Iris, &c.) . The embryo is amphitropal (e. amphitropus) when, its axis being bent,
the micropyle and chalaza are both close to the hilum {Wallflower, fig. 686 ; Lychnis,

fig. 587; Datura, ^g. 588; Marvel of Peru, fig. 589 ;
Mulberry, fig. 590). The embryo is heterotropal
{e. heterotropus) when, from the unequal growth of the
coats, neither extremity of the embryo corresponds
to the hilum, and the radicle does not correspond

596. Pine.
Seed.

690. Mulberry.

Ovary cut
Tertically (mag.).

593. Palm.

Seed

cut Tertically.

694. Asparagus.

Seed cut
Tertically (mag.).

695. Spergularia.
Seed fmag.).

to the micropyle; in this case, the- axis of the embryo is sometimes parallel to
the plane of the hilum {Pimpernel, Plantain, figs. 591, 592), sometimes oblique to it
{Wheat, Chamcerops, fig. 693 ; Asparagus, fig. 694) ; the radicle is then said to be
esccentric (r. vaga, excentrica).

108

ORGANOGRAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

Form and Surface of the Seeds. — According to their form, seeds are globular, ovoid,
reniform, oblong, cylindric, turbinate, flattened, lenticular, angular, &c. ; some are
irregular, flat, and rather like grains of sawdust, and are said to be scobiform (s. scobi-
formia) ; flattened seeds with thick and projecting edges are said to be margined
(s. marginata) [Spergularia, fig. 595), or winged if these margins become broad and
membranous [Bignonia, Pine, flg. 696). The surface may be smooth (s. Iceve, Colum-
bine, fig. 597) ; wrinkled (s. rugosum, Fennel, fig. 598) ; striate (s. striatum, Tobacco,
fig. 599) ; ribbed or furrowed (s. costatum, Larkspur, fig. 600) ; reticulate (resembling
a sort of network (s. reticulatum. Cress, fig. 601) ; -punctate (s. punctatum), i.e. marked
with little dots; alveolate (s. alveolatum), i.e. covered with little pits resemblifig

601. Cress.
Seed (mag.).

602. Poppy.
Seed (mag.).

honeycomb {Poppy, fig. 602) ; tubercled {s. tuberculatum) , i.e. furnished with small
rounded projections [Stellaria, fig. 603) ; aculeate (s. aculeatum), i.e. bristling with
small points {Snapdragon, fig. 604) ; glabrous {Flax) ; hairy {Cotton). Some seeds
have a pulpy testa {Gooseberry, fig. 605 ; Pomegranate) ; others are covered with oily
glands, often arranged in bands {Angelica, fig. 606) ; sometimes placed in furrows
{Juniper, fig. 607).

The hilum, or point by which the seed is attached to the funicle or placenta,
forms a depressed or prominent scar ; in the middle or towards one side of this scar,
is the umbilicus, a very small simple or compound orifice, indicating the passage of
the nourishing vessels of the funicle into the seed. The chalaza, or internal hilum.

604. Snapdragon.
Seed (mag.).

605. GoosebeiTy.

Seed cut
vertically (mag.).

606. Angelica.
Seed (mag.).

607. Juniper.
Seed (mag.).

609. Orange.
Whole seed.

forms sometimes a more or less distinct protuberance, sometimes a sort of knob,
sometimes a simple blotch {Orange^ fig. 608, Almond), The raphe, which maintains
the communication between the hilum and chalaza when these are separated during
the development of the ovule, appears like a band along one side of the seed ; often
it branches out in the thickness of the testa [Almond, Orange, fig, G09). The micro-
pyle, which in the ovule formed a large gaping opening, remains visible on some
seeds {Bean, Kidney -lean, Pea) ; it disappears in most, but its position is usually
indicated bj that of the tip of the radicle.

The Proper and Accessory Coats of the Seeds. — Seeds do not always possess a

SEED.

109

distinguishable testa and endopleure; often, when ripe, all the coats merge into
one, or one splits up into several layers, and the seed presents three or four
coats. The origins of these envelopes will be described under the development of
the ovule.

Arils are accessory organs, which mostly develop after fertilization, and cover
the seed more or less completely, without adhering to the testa ; some are expansions
of the funiele, and are specially designated as aril (arillus) {Nymphoea, Passiflora,
Opuntia, Willow, Tew) ; others arise from the dilatation of the edges of the micro -
pyle, and are called by some authors arillodes or false arils (arillodes) .

In the White Water Lily (fig. 610) a swelling (a, a), rising from the funiele (f),

gradually spreads over and caps the

"' '-S.E „.,,,„, „ ^^

-Jl

.-A

ovule, and ends by closely enveloping
the seed, without adhering to it, leaving
scarcely a trace of an opening over
the chalaza (Ch.). In Passion-flowers

610. White Nymplissa.

Yertical section ol the young

Seed (mag.)'

614. Tew.
611. Willow. Ripe fruit, sunk in
Seed (mag.). its fleshy aril.

61S. 616. 617. 618.

European Spindle-tree, showing the successive

developments of the arillode.

an annular swelling, with a free membranous torn margin, forms at the shortened
end of the funiele, round the hilum; this gradually expands, and ends by en-
closing the seed in a loose fleshy bag, with a large opening towards the chalaza.
In Willows (fig. 611), the very short thick funiele expands into an erect pencil
of hairs, which envelops the seed. In Cactus Opuntia, two concave boat-shaped
expansions spring laterally from the funiele, into which the ovule - is pushed,
and within which it is developed ; this accessory envelope thickens, hardens, and
forms a sort of stone, covered with pulp. In the Yew, the female flower (fig. 612)
consists of a single ovule, which is at first protected only by the scales of the bud
from which it issued, and after fertilization disengages itself from these, when it is
completely naked, with a gaping micropyle at its summit. Soon (fig. 613), between
the ovule and the scales at its base, a small cup is developed, which gradually swells,
becomes red and succulent, and ends by almost entirely covering the seed (fig. 614) ;
this cup is nothing btit an enormous development of the funiele, which thus furnishes
an envelope to the fruit, which had not even the protecting scale of the Pines and
Firs (fig. 379). In the Spindle-tree (figs. 615, 616, 617, 618), the successive stages
of development of the arillode (a) are easily followed (1, 2, 3, 4) ; it does not spring
from the funiele (/), but from the micropyle, the edges of which dilate by degrees so
as to form around the seed a succulent, loose, folded bag, open towards the chalaza.

110

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

It must be observed that tbis arillode, starting from the micropyle, which is very
near the hilum, unites at a very early stage with the funicle, of which it appears to
be an appendage, but its origin may be recognized in very young ovules. In tbe
Nutmeg, the fleshy and honeycombed envelope of the seed, which forms the aromatic
substance called mace, may be looked upon as an expansion of the micropyle. In
Euphorbia, (fig. 619), the circumference of the micropyle, which formed at first a
little swelling, thickens enormously after fertilization, and forms a small fleshy disk,
of which the central canal, at first filled with the conducting tissue, becomes by
degrees stopped up. In Poly gala (fig. 620), the little three-lobed
body at the base of the seed has the same origin as the disk of

621. Asclepias.

619. Euphorbia.

620. Polygala.

622.

623. Chelidonium.

624

Seed (mag.)

Seed crowned by

Seel capped by a

Heartsease.

Seed cut

Asarum.

■with hairy arillode.

a fleshy arillode
(mag.).

cartilaginous arillode
(mag.).

Seed (mag.).

vertically (mag.).

Seed (mag.)

Eupho7-hia, and the micropyle is visible long after fertilization. In Asclepias (fig.
621) the tuft of hairs which crowns the seed is also an arillode proceeding from
the micropyle.

The name of stropliioles {stropMolce, carunculce) has been given to excrescences on
the testa which are independent of the funicle or micropyle, as the glandular crest
which in Heartsease (fig. 622) and Chelidonium (fig. 623) marks the passage of the
raphe ; the cellular mass which in Asarum (fig. 624) extends from the hilum to beyond
the chalaza, and the tuft of hairs at the chalaza in EpiloMum (fig. 625). The
name aril having been indifferently applied to true arils, arillodes, strophioles, &c., it
would be advisable to keep this term as a general name for excrescences of various
sorts which appear upon seeds, and to limit the meaning by an adjective indicating
their origin. We should thus have a funicular aril {Willow, Nymphcea, Yew) ; a
micropylar aril {Spindle-tree, Etiphorlia, Polygala, Asclepias) ; a raphean aril

{Chelidonium, Asarum) ; a chalazian aril {Epi-
lobium), &c. A second adjective might denote
its membranous, fleshy, hairy, &c. texture.

G25. Epilobium (inag.)-
Chalaziau tuft of hairs.

027. Berberis.

Sued cut

vertically (mag.).

629. Lime.

Embryo spread

out (mag.).

630. CuBcuta.

Embryo coiled

round its

albumen (mag.).

Embryo or Young Plant. — In most pheenogamic plants the embryo is dicotyledonous,

SEED.

Ill

whence the name Dicotyledons. Some species {Pines, fig. 626), possess six, nine,
and even fifteen whorled cotyledons.

Other phgenogamic plants have only one cotyledon ; vrhence the name Mono-
cotyledons. The colour of the embryo varies ; it is white in most plants, yellow in
some GrucifercB, blue in Salpiglossis^ green in the 8pindle-tree and Maples, and pinle
in Thalia. The cotyledons are generally fleshy, their parenchyma is oily in the
Walmit and the Almond, and mealy in the Kidney-bean ; they have sometimes dis-
tinct nerves {Berberis, fig. 627) 5 they are sessile or petioled, or reduced to a petiole
without a limh ; this is especially the case in monocotyledons. They are usually
entire and equal, but may be lobed [Geranium, Walnut, fig. 628), or palmate [Lime,
fig. 629), or very unequal, with the smaller so minute that the plant might be mis-
taken for a monocotyledon (Trapa). Those of the Nasturtium and Horse-chestnut-
unite as they grow old into a compact mass. In some
parasites they entirely disappear, and the embryo is reduced
to its axis ; as in Cuscuta (fig. 630), whose thread-like stem

632. Bindweed.

633. Wallflower.

634. Rocket.

635. Orange,

637. Almond.

638* Almond

631. Hallow.

Embryo spread.

Transverse section

Transverse section

Seed wittout

Double

Embi-yos

Embryo (mag.)-

out (mag.).

of seed (mag.)-

of seed (mag.).

its testa.

embryo.

separated.

is attached to the plants it preys on, by suckers (p. 16, fig. 48) ; and living on

their juices, it needs no leaves to elaborate sap; and the adult plant, like the

embryo, possesses no leaves. Cotyledons are sometimes folded in

halves, along their median line ; or convolute [Mallow, fig. 631) ;

or spiral [Hop) ; or crumpled [Bindweed, fig. 632) ; the embryo

itself is straight, or curved, or zigzag, or annular, or spiral, or

rolled into a ball, &c. Often the radicle is turned up on the

cotyledons ; if it is then placed against their commissure it is said

to be lateral, and the cotyledons are accumbent [c. accwmbentes.

Wallflower, fig. 633) ; if it is on the back of one of the cotyledons,

it is said to be dorsal, and the cotyledons are incumbent (c.

incumbentes. Rochet, fig. 634).

Some seeds contain several embryos ; the Orange (fig. 635) has
often two, three, or four unequal, irregular, and convolute, the
cotyledonary ends of all facing the chalaza, and their radicles
facing the micropyle ; they all leave the seed at the period of
germination (fig. 636). The seed of the ^ZmomcZ frequently pre-
sents two superimposed embryos, one of which appears to proceed
from the first, like successive internodes (fig. 637) ; they may be
easily separated (fig. 638), when their respective radicles and
two cotyledons can be plainly seen. _ - ■. +v

The monocotyledonous embryo is usually cylindri'5 or ovoid ; to distinguish the

63G. Orange.
Germinating seed. T,
testa ; c, inclnded cotyle-
dons ; PL, stems ; a, plan-
tules.

112

OEGANOGEAPHY AND GLOSSOLOGY.

parts of which it is composed, it must be cut vertically, when it usually discloses an
elongated axis with a small protuberance marked with an oblique or vertical fissure ;
this protuberance represents the plumule ; the fissure through which the two first
leaves will appear marks the separation between the caiilicle aud cotyledon.
Owing to the small size of the parts, it is sometimes difiicult to distinguish the
cotyledonary from the radicular end ; but the latter, which answers to the micropyle,
is usually nearer to the integument than the former ; this is evident in the seed of
Arum (fig. 639). In Oats and other Graminece (fig. 640), the
seed, if halved longitudinally along the furrow on its inner
face, discloses a very abundant farinaceous parenchyma (a),
of which we shall presently speak ; from the base of the seed
along its dorsal face rises the embryo (e, a, c), of a yellow, semi-
transparent colour; within this is a fl.eshy leaf (c), which
extends one-third of the length of the seed ; this leaf encloses
several others, successively smaller (g), which enfold each
other, and are placed between the largest leaf (o)
and the dorsal face of the ovary (o) ; all rise from

639. Arum.

Seed out

vertically (mag,).

641. Oat.

Isolated embryo seen on

its outer face (mag.j.

643. Aconite.

Seed cut

Vei-tically (mag.).

640. Oat.

Vertical section of

fruit (mag.).

642. Oat.

Germinating embryo.

(mag.).

an enlarged neck which narrows towards the base into an obtuse cone ; the interior
leaf (c) is the cotyledon, the others (g) form the plumule, the conical disk is the
caulicle, terminated by the radicular end (e).

If we extract the entire embryo (fig. 641), we perceive the cotyledon, which is
large, and hollowed into a sort of spoon-shape, in the middle of which lies the
plumule, forming a closed bag ; in the middle of this bag is a very small longitudinal
slit, which enlarges later into a sheath, to open a passage for the contained leaves ;
below is the caulicle, bearing the cotyledon on its side, and the plumule in its axis ;
its free end is terminated by rounded protuberances, in which holes will form,
whence radicular fibres will emerge at the period of germination, as from so many
sheaths (fig. 642, Col.).

Albumen. — Many seeds contain, besides the embryo, a disconnected accessory
mass of parenchyma, named albumen {albumen, perisperTmim), the formation of
which will be explained in the chapter on the Ovule. It is destined to nourish the
embryo, and exists at an early period in all seeds ; if only a portion of it is absorbed
by the embryo, the rest hardens, up to the period of germination, and the embryo is
said to be albuminous (e. albuminosus) ; if it be absorbed, the embryo is exalbuminous

SEED.

113

(e. exalbuminosus}. The albumen may be very copious {Aconite, fig. 648), or extremely
thin and almost membranous ; in general it is largest when the embryo is smallest,
and vice versa. It is said to he farinaceous {a. farinaceum) , when its cells are filled
with starch [Buckwheat, Barley, Oats, fig. 640 ; Rumex, fig. 644) ; fleshy {a. carnoswm),
when its parenchyma, without being farinaceous, is thick and soft {Berberis, fig. 627 ;
Heartsease, fig. 645 ; Nightshade) ; mucilaginous {a. mucilaginosum), when it is suc-
culent and almost liquid ; it is then rapidly absorbed, and may almost entirely dis-

644. B,um£X.

Fruit

cut TerticaHy

(mag.).

645. Heartsease.

Seed

cut vertically

(mag.).

646. Poppy.
Seed cut
Tertically
(mag.).

647. NymphBea.
Seed (mag.).

648. Rose Campion.

Seed

cut TerticaJlty

(mag.).

649. Ivy.

Seed cut
vertically

(mag.).

appear [Bindweed); oleaginous {a. oleaginosum},, when its parenchyma contains a fixed
oil [Poppy, fig. 646) ; homy [a. corneum), when its parenchyma thickens and hardens
[Galium, Coffee, Iris}; lihe ivory [a. eburneum}, when it has the consistency and
polish of ivory [Phytelephas). In Pepper and Nymphma (fig. 647), &c., the seed
contains two sorts of albumen ; which will be
noticed when treating of the ovule.

The embryo is axile, when its direction
corresponds with that of the axis of the seed
(Heartsease, fig. 645) ; it is peripheric [e. peri-
phericus), when it follows the circumference of
the seed, and surrounds the albumen [Ease
Campion, fig. 648) ; it is ruminate [a. rumina-
tum], when the testa or endopleura forms folds
which are projected in the interior of the seed,
and form incomplete septa in the thickness of
the albumen, like the folds found in the
double stomach of ruminating mammals [Ivy,
fig. 649).
-Germination is the action by which the embryo
grows and throws off its coats, finally supporting itself by draw-
ing its nourishment from without.

The free end of the caulicle (fig. 650, t), terminated by the
radicle, usually enlarges the orifice of the micropyle, and
emerges ; soon the entire caulicle throws off its envelopes, with
the cotyledons (c) and the plumule [g) ; the latter lengthens in
its turn, and its little leaves expand as it rises; at the same

6-50. Kidney-bean.
Seed germinating.

Germination,-

651. Orange seed germi-
nating, c, cotyledons
enclosed in the testa, T.

time the radicle

develops, and descends into the earth. If the caulicle, which is the first internode

114 OEGANOGEAPHT AND GLOSSOLOGY.

of the plant, lengthens during germination, the cotyledons are raised, and appear
above ground ; they are then said to be epigeal (c. epigwi, Kidney -hean, fig. 650 ;
Radish, Lime). When the caulicle is very short, and the plumule (which forms the
second internode) rapidly lengthens, the cotyledons remain in the ground, often even
within the seed-coats ; they are then said to be hypogeal (c. hypogwi, Spanish Kidney-
hean, OaTc, Graminew, Orange, fig. 651).

In monocotyledons, the evolution of the radicle presents a remarkable pecu-
liarity: it is provided at the base (fig. -642) with a sort of sheath, named the
coleorhiza ; this is nothing but an outer cellular layer which, having been unable to
accompany the development of the radicle (e), has been pierced by it.

ANATOMY.

Is Organography we have described the fundamental organs whicli provide for the
•growth and reproduction of plants ; namely, the root, the stem, the leaves, the floral
whorls, and the seed ; but these are themselves composed of parts which cannot be
studied without the aid of the microscope. These parts, the structure of which
varies but little in different plants, and which are elementary vegetable tissues, are
named elementary organs ; and the science which treats of them is called Vegetable
Histology, or Vegetable Anatomy,

ELEMENTARY ORGANS.

If we examine microscopically the thinnest possible slice of a stem, root, leaf, or
floral organ, it wiU present many different cavities, some entirely enclosed in walls,
others having no proper walls, but being interspaces between the first ; taken
together, they present the appearance of a fabric or tissue : whence the name vege-
table tissue.

The closed cavities present three principal modifications : — 1. Cells. — Their
diameter is [originally] nearly equal every way. 2. Fibres. — These are longer than
broad, and their two ends are spindle-shaped. 3. Vessels, or lengthened sacs, the
two ends of which cannot be seen at once under the microscope.

Cells are very variable in shape, depending on the manner in which they are
arranged. If they are not crowded, they
retain their primitive form of spheroids
or ovoids (fig. 652) ; but if the contiguous
faces become pressed together in the
662. Elder. course of their growth, they become poly-
hedral, and may be dodecahedrons, or

'^

r^

^

653. Elder.

Cellular tissue of the

central pith.

654. Lily.

Elongated

cells.

four-sided prisms, either lengthened into columns, or

tabular, or cubical. A transverse section of prismatic

cells presents equal squares, a vertical section of dode-

cahedral cells presents hexagons (fig. 653) like a

honeycomb ; whence the name of cellula/r tissue given to these cells collectively.

Lastly, the cells may be placed end to end, like superimposed cylinders or barrels

(fig. 654).

When the cellular tissue {parenchyma) is very compact, there are no interstices

I 2

116 ANATOMY.

between the surfaces of the cells ; but if the tissue is loose, the cells retiain their
rounded form, and leave larger or smaller intercellular canals (fig. 655). These
spaces occur between polyhedral cells when an interposed liquid or gas displaces
them ; and it may happen (fig. 655) that if a regular pressure is exerted in neigh-
bouring spaces, each of which is circumscribed by a small number of cells, the latter
may be disjointed, and a portion of their walls pressed inwards ; but where there are
two contiguous spaces, the pressures from without will counteract each other, and
the cells remain coherent ; they then take the shape of stars, the contiguous rays
forming isthmuses which separate the spaces.

Sometimes the intercellular space is circumscribed by a great many cells ; it is
then called a lacuna. These lacunar do not always result from the displacement of the
surrounding cells, but from the destruction of several of them, or the rapid growth
of the plant.

In their earliest condition cells are sacs surrounded by a thin homogeneous
membrane, which is soft and moist at first, but dries by degrees. Sometimes this
membrane constitutes the sole wall of the cell, sometimes it is lined by a second ; but
the latter does not form a continuous sac ; it is wanting here and there, and only
partially lines the outer membrane ; the result is that there are thin areas where

656. Elder. 667. Mistleto. 658. Mistleto.

Bayed CfeUs. Rayed and reticulate cell. Annular cell.

there is but one membrane, and thick areas where there are two. When the inner
membrane is deficient only in small spots, these appear as punctures (fig. 652) or
short lines (fig. 656) ; when it is absent over considerable irregular areas, the thin
places form an irregular network (fig. 657), of which the open parts answer to those
where the inner membrane is wanting, and the threads to the parts where it lines
the outer membrane. Lastly, when the solution of continuity of the inner membrane
is extremely regular, the open spaces are separated by parallel thickened rings
(fig. 658), or a thickened spiral which passes from one end of the cell to the other
(fig. 659). Cells may either be homogeneous, or punctate, or rayed, or reticulate, or
spiral, or annular ; and in many cases the same cell passes successively through
more than one of these forms. It frequently happens that a third, fourth, or fifth
membrane is developed within the second, by which the wall of the cell is corre-
spondingly thickened. It has been observed that these successive membranes usually
mould themselves upon the second, so that the thin and thick portions of the cell
correspond throughout.

Fibres. — The length of these varies, but most have a very thick wall, formed at
first of a single membrane, lined by a succession of others developed within it ; and
as the cavity of the fibre diminishes more and more with age, the fibre finally appears

ELEMENTARY OEGANS.

117

.-; ivf)

660, China regia.
Fibres cut transTersely.

661. Clematis,
Punctata fibre.

nearly filled up. The canal which forms its axis is cylindric ; but its outer walls,
which are pressed against those of the neighbouring fibres, are flattened and pris-
matic, as may be seen by a transverse section of fibrous tissue (fig. 660).

The fibres, being spindle-shaped at their extremities, cannot be in
juxtaposition throughout their length, but the extremities of other fibres
are inserted between their free portions, and hermetically close the
conical interspaces above and below them (fig. 661). When the successive
inner layers completely line the outer layer, as frequently happens, the
cavity of the fibre remains smooth ; if the second layer does not com-
pletely line the first, spiral or reticulate thickenings are the result {spiral
or reticulate fibre) ; and dotted or punctate fibre (fig. 661), the most
common form of all, is the result of the failure of the
inner layer over minute areas.

Vessels are much elongated tubes, the walls of
which are never smooth, but present either slender
spots or lines, or a close network, or rings, or spiral
lines ; they are cyhndric, and constricted at intervals
(fig. 668). The contractions are circular and hori-
zontal and close set, or oblique and distant. If
the vessel be boiled in dilute nitric acid, it breaks
up at the striEB. Where the constrictions occur, membranous folds often project
as 1 ings or perforated diaphragms into the interior ; whence it has been concluded
that the vessel is formed partly of cells,- partly of fibres
joined end to end, of which the ends, which at first
formed septa, have gradually become obliterated or per-
forated. The vessels, like the cells and fibres, are named,
according to the appearance of their walls, punctate, striate,
reticulate, annular, spiral. The spiral vessels, or trachece (fig.
662), are membranous tubes, uninterruptedly traversed
within by a pearly white spiral thread; this thread is
neither tubular nor channelled, but cylindric, flattened
(fig. 663), or a four-sided prism. The tracheae being
spindle-shaped at each end (fig. 662), are regarded as
elongated fibres. ISTothing is easier than to examine these
tracheae : if young shoots of Rose or Elder be gently broken,
there will be seen by the naked eye between the ruptured
662. Melon, surfaccs a spiral thread, lengthening and shortening like
™° "^' a piece of elastic. The outer membrane is not so obvious,
except when the coils of the spiral thread are very remote. In most
cases the spiral thread is- single, but it may be double, and sometimes
as many as twenty form a ribbon {Banana) and can be unrolled together. Einally, a
spiral thread, which was originally single, may become folded and broken up into
finer threads {Beet-root).

Annular vessels (fig. 664) are membranous tubes girt within by rings, which

G65. Mamlllalia.
Trachea.

118

ANATOMY.

may be incomplete, or spirally twisted (fig. 665), whence they liave been mistaken
for old tracheie ; they, however, differ from traeheEe in that they never present in their
earliest condition a regular and continuous spiral, and that many intermediate forms
between the ring and the spiral occur in every such vessel ; as, however, they termi-
nate in tapering cones, they have evidently the same origin as the tracheae. Reticulate
vessels are a modification of the annular ; if rings are so placed as to touch at
intervals, they resemble a network, and the same vessel may be both annular
and reticulate (fig. 666). Striate vessels are membranous tubes, cylindric or pris-
matic, the inner membrane of which resembles a web, whose interstices form thin
more or less regular strige. In prismatic vessels (fig. 667) the striae extend to

the angles, and the
interstices resemble
the rungs of a ladder,
whence their name
of scalariform vessels.
Striate vessels ori-
ginate as a series of
superimposed cells ;
others as fibres,
as shown by their

fe

:3
F— j

664. Melon.

665. Melon.

666. Melon.

667. Brake.

668. Melon.

Annular

Spiral and

Eeticulate and

Rayed prismatic

Punctate monili

vessel.

annular vessel.

annular vessel.

vessels.

form vessel.

spindle-shaped ends.
Dotted vessels (fig.
668) are membranous
tabes of which the

inner membrane is perforated by small holes forming parallel series of oblique or
horizontal dots ; the vessel presents equidistant constrictions corresponding to
circular folds in the interior, clearly indicating
that the punctate vessel is formed by superim-
posed cells of which the connecting surfaces
have been absorbed. Punctate vessels with deep
constrictions resemble chaplets of beads, whence <
their name of moniliform or headed vessels.

Laticiferous Vessels. — We have seen that proper
vessels present inequalities resulting from the
modifications of the inner membrane ; there are
others with smooth transparent and homogeneous
walls, which contain a peculiar juice named the
latex (fig. 669) ; these anastomose, and form a
complicated network, of which the tubes meet at
right or acute angles; these tubes are usually
cylindric, and swollen here and there (fig. 670),
from the accumulation of latex in certain places ;
below these swellings the vessel is gradually constricted, and the communication
between the constricted and swollen portions is interrupted. The laticiferous vessels

(iB9. Chelidonium.
Laticiferous vessels.

670. Dandelion.
Laticiferous vessels.

ELEMENTARY OEGANS. 119

are thus distinguislied. from proper vessels by tlieir transparent walls and by
branching.

TTnion of the Elementary Organs. — Botanists are divided in opinion as to the forces
which cause the walls of the elementary organs to cohere ; some think that the
walls of the cells are originally semi-fluid, and hence become agglutinated, and
remain so even after the plant has ceased to live ; others consider that an inter-
cellular secretion cements the adjacent cell-walls. A third opinion is that vegetable
tissue originates as a homogeneous plasma, which gradually thickens, and ends by
forming vacuoles, which afterwards become the cavities of the cells ; a common
septum therefore separates the neighbouring cells; but soon each cell becomes
individualized, the septum doubles more or less completely, and the cohesion between
the cells is due to an interposed cellular tissue. This theory differs from the
second, inasmuch that in the latter the cells are cemented by a subsequently secreted
matter, while in the former the cells are united by an unorganized tissue, developed
cotemporaneously with themselves ; this unorganized tissue then itself becomes
cellular, and finally separates the previously individualized cells which' it originally
united. Communication is established between elementary organs in various ways ;
it has been stated that it takes place by means of the destruction of the contiguous
surfaces of cells and fibres placed end to end, from which there results a vessel ;
communication can also be established through the walls of cells, either by the
disappearance of the outer membrane, or by slits or holes at different points of its
wall, or simply by pores rendering these membranes permeable.

Contents of the Elementary Organs. — The contents of these are very various:
gaseous, liquid, or solid. Cell-contents appear as scattered or agglomerated
granules, which in very young cells usually assume a lenticular form, and rest
against the wall, or are even buried in 'its thickness (fig. 664) ; this body (the nucleus,
cytohlast, or phacocyst of the cell) is regarded by botanists as a germ which, by its
development, will produce a new cell. In most cases the nucleus becomes less
distinct as the cell develops. According to the recent labours of M. Hartig, the
nucleus is principally formed of small particles of matter analogous to albumen, a
certain number of which are transformed into vesicles, which again give origin to
cellulose, fecula, chlorophyll and aleurone. Cellulose is an insoluble substance forming
the cell- walls, fibres, and vessels, the composition of which is. identical in all
plants. Woody tissue or lignine is nothing but the thickened and condensed cellu-
lose ; to its density wood owes its hardness ; the stony particles in
the flesh of pears and the stones of fruits are also formed of it.

Fecula or starch may be recognized by its blue-violet tinge when
acted on by iodine, by its insolubility in cold water and its coagu-
lation in hot water ; its chemical composition is that of cellulose. '
Starch-grains are generally spheroidal or irregularly ovoid (fig. 671) ;
their surface presents concentric circles around a point which usually
occupies one of the ends of the granule. These circles indicate so
mauy layers, superimposed around a small nucleus ; thus the
starch-grain is developed from within outwards, that is, in the reverse way to the cell

120

ANATOMY,

which contains it. Starch-grains may be easily examined by moistening a slice
of cellular tissue containing them ; a di-op of iodine wUl then colour the starch-
grains blue-violet, and bring out clearly the distinction between the cell and its con-
tents. If there be grains of albumen axscompanying the starch-grains, the iodine
wiU colour them brown or yellow.

Chlorophyll or chromule is a green substance, which forms flakes of a gelatinous
consistence floating in the colourless liquid of the cells ; these flakes have a tendency
to gather around or collect on the innar cell-walls, or on the contained starch or
aleurone grains. Chlorophyll constitutes the green colour of plants ; it is dissolved
by alcohol, whence it has been supposed to be of a resinous nature.

The ,yeUow colouring matter of cells is similar in consistence and properties to
chlorophyll ; but red, violet, or blue colouring matters are always liquid.

Aleurone abounds in ripe seeds, and is always found either in the embryo or
albumen. Hartig considers an aleurone grain to be a vesicle with a double
membrane, containing a colourless waxy mass, which is coloured yellow by iodine,

and is ordinarily soluble in water.
In certain plants it assumes a
well-defined crystalline form (figs.
674, 675) ; in others, the nucleus
of the aleurone mass has crystal-
lized, while the surrounding layers
remain amorphous, and thus the
grain presents a round or ovoid
form. Aleurone is
formed of substances
collectively termed

which see the section on Vegetable Physiology).
According to Hartig, the particles of the nucleus
undergo the following transformations : 1, the nucleus
is transformed directly into chlorophyll, fecula, or aleurone ; 2, it is transformed
into starch and the starch into aleurone ; 3, it is transformed into chlorophyll,
and that into starch, which again passes into aleurone.

The laticiferous vessels contain a large quantity of powdery granules, which
float in the latex, some of which are very large and colourless, and partake of the
nature of starch.

As to the sap which fills these cells, and rises in the vessels, it is a colourless
liquid, holding in solution the materials for cell-formation and cell-contents. The
other liquids, either contained in the cells, or in the intercellular spaces, are fixed or
volatile oils, turpentines, sugar or gum, dissolved in water. Finally, we find gases
occupying the intercellular spaces, sometimes at considerable depths.

Besides the solid organic substances above described as occurring in the
cellular tissue, special cells occur, containing mineral substances, the elements of
which, either compound or simple, have been carried up by the sap, and have cry-
stallized in the cells. Those of which the elements were originally in combination

G74. Lathrffia.
essentially '^^^ containing crystals of
■^ aleurone, in the midst
which ' are of cells containing chlo-
ropnyll.

protein (for

673. Rumex.

Cells containing

raphides.

ELEMENTARY OEGANS.

121

would crystallize at once ; but for the others, it is necessary that the elements which
have a reciprocal affinity should be united in proper proportions. In all cases, it is
only during life that this crystallization is carried on, for the crystals are found in
special cellular tissues, the forms of which determine theirs ; the same salt being,
in fact, found ta crystallize very differently according to the tissues in which it is
formed.

The crystals contained in the cells are either solitary or clustered ; in the latter
case they are grouped into radiating masses (fig. 672), or bundles of parallel needles
(fig. 673) named raphides (k) ; and they may often be seen escaping from the cells (c)
when the tissue containing them is dissected under the microscope. Finally, the
cells and even the intercellular spaces often contain silex, one of the most abundant
of minerals, which constitutes sand and flint; this sUex even encrusts the tissues of
certain' plants, and notably the straw of Graminew. Certain mineral concretions
are observable in the leaves of some Urticew ; if the leaf of a Nettle be viewed
with a lens, transparent spots may be distinguished ; this is due to the presence of
calcareous particles deposited in the outer cells, to which Weddell has given the
name of cysioUths. These cystoliths differ from the crystals represented in fig. 672,
in being deposited in calcareous layers around a nucleus formed at the expense of
the cell-wall, which has been pulled aside by the accumulation of mineral matter,
and has lengthened into a very delicate pedicel from which the cystolith is suspended.
This formation may be compared with that of stalactites.

Epidermis. — Before treating of the anatomy of the fundamental organs, we shall
describe the epidermis, which covers the surface of the vegetable. If the leaf of a
Lily or Iris be torn, a shred of transpa-
rent colourless membrane is detached from
one of the fragments, together with some
cellular tissue, filled with green chlorophyll;
a simple lens shows on this membrane
several parallel (fig. 676) or reticulate lines
(fig. 677) and small, more opaque spots.
Under a microscope, it is seen to be com-
posed of large flat cells, which may be
hexagonal or quadrilateral, or irregularly
waved, and which contain a colourless
liquid ; their lateral walls are closely
united, whence the solidity of the epider-
mis ; their lower surface slightly adheres
to the subjacent cellular tissue; their
exposed walls are usually thicker than the others, and may be flat or raised in the
centre, according as the surface of the epidermis is smooth or rough.

In most cases, the epidermis is composed of a single layer of cells ; when there
is a second, it is usually formed of much smaller cells. The lateral walls of all the
epidermal cells are not contiguous ; many of them present interspaces, occupied by
little bodies I'esembling a button-hole with a double rim or border (figs. 676, 677),

676. Lily.
Epidermis and stomata.

677. Balsam.
Epidermis and stomata.

122

ANATOMY.

formed of two curbed cells whose concavities face each other. These two small lip-
like cells are termed stomata. Stomata, though epidermal organs, differ from the
epidermis in that their cells are much smaller, and nearly always situated below
those of the epidermis ; they farther present different contents, and especially granules
of chloroph3dl ; whence they may be regarded as intermediate between the epidermis
and the subjacent parenchyma.

Stomata are variously distributed over the surface of the leaves : usually solitary,

often arranged in series, some-
times crowded in the base of
a cavity (as in some Proteacew,
figs. 678, 679). Their number
varies : the Iris contains
12,000 in a square inch; the
Pinlc, 40,000; the Lilac,
120,000. When moistened,
their lips swell and become
more curved, and hence gape ;
when dry, they shorten and
close.

Stomata always correspond to intercellular passages, and are found on the
ordinary leaves of Phsenogams, principally on their lower surface, on stipules, on

herbaceous bark, calyces, and ovaries ;
they are wanting on roots, rhizomes, non-
foliaceous petioles, most petals, and seeds ;
acotyledons, and submerged aquatic plants,
which have no epidermis, equally want
sbomata.

If a fragment of a stem or leaf be
macerated, the cellular tissue beneath
the epidermis is rapidly destroyed, and the latter divides into two layers, an
external epidermis proper, and a very thin membrane (fig. 680), moulded on the
epidermis and extending even over its hairs, which are sheathed in it like fingers in
a, glove (p) ; it presents openings (p) corresponding to the stomata. Brongniart has
called this membrane the cuticle (little shin) ; it is not cellular, like the epidermis
which it covers.

678. Vertical section of pari of a Banksia
leaf (mag.)-'

679. Part of a Banksia leaf,
presenting three sections
pai-aUel' to the lower sur-
face, and at different
depths (mag.)."

680. Cabbage. Cuticle.

' Fig. 678 is a section perpendicular to the thickness
of the leaf, showing: 1, on the iipper and lower faces
two layers of epidermal cells ; 2, fibro-vascular bundles
to the right and left, out perpendicularly to their length ;
3, on the lower face, a depression, clothed with hairs,
and pierced by stomata which communicate with the
interstices of a very loose cellular tissue. Above this
'tissue, the upper half is a mass of elongated and erect
cells, perpendicular to the epidermis.

' Pig. 679. Three sections parallel to the plane of the

leaf, carried through three such depressions, each circum-
scribed by the fibro-vascular bundles of the nerves. In
the cavity at the bottom of the figure, the section has
carried away the hairs clothing the walls of the depres-
sion, leaving , the stomata and epidermal cells visible ;
in the cavity on the right the loose cellular tissue which
underlies the stomata of the epidermis is seen through
the latter ; in the third depression the section has re-
moved all but this subjacent tissue with its intercellular

FUNDAMENTAL OEGANS. 123

The cuticle is more constantly present than the epidermis ; submerged plants
and aeotyledons are clothed in it ; and some botanists have considered that it should
be regarded as the true epidermis. Its formation is attributed to the overflow of
that intercellular secretive tissue which we have already spoken of as spreading
itself upon all the organs, and which deposits a sort of varnish or continuous layer
over their outer surface. Eecent experiments, of Fremy seem to show that the
chemical composition of the cuticle is analogoiis to that of india-rubber, which makes
it a suitable protection for the underlying tissues. Fremy has also discovered that
woody fibre is sometimes clothed with a cuticle similar to that which clothes the
epidermis.

FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS.

We shall now describe the anatomy of the fundamental organs in succession ;
i.e. the vegetable axis (stem and root), and its lateral expansions (leaves, sepals,
petals, stamens, carpels, ovules). We have described the embryo as a diminutive
plant, from which all the parts enumerated above will be developed ; we must there-
fore first describe its structure, and then trace its stages of development from its
birth till it becomes a plant similar to its parent.

The embryo invariably commences as a cell with granular contents. In cotyle-
donous plants, this ceU does not retain its form and structure ; from spherical it
becomes oval ; then at one of the extremities, if the plant is monocotyledonous, a
rounded lobe (cotyledon) appears, obliquely and laterally to the axis ; if dicotyle-
donous, two lateral lobes {cotyledons) appear, crowning the axis ; the elongated
summit of the axis becomes the plumule ; from the opposite end the radicle will be
developed, and the body of the cellular mass will form the cauUcle. Following the
growth of these fundamental organs, we begin with the stem, which differs remark-
ably, according to whether the embryo is mono- or di-cotyledonous.

Stem of Dicotyledonous Plants.— Take the Melon as a type. In the caulicle,
which before germination is entirely cellular, some cells elongate
into fibres ; certain of these fibres, together with other super- '>^^^^^L
imposed cells, break the transverse walls which separated them, N^^feJ&^^^f
and become vessels. This change takes place in definite posi- T^^^^^^^^^"
tions, and a horizontal section of the stem (fig. 681) will show ^^^^^^^^m^.r
in the centre a disk (m) of large, loose, nearly transparent ^^^^^^^^^
polyhedral or spheroidal cells ; at the circumference, a ring ^^^^^^^^
of dark green, more closely packed cells ; communication -'^s^pa*^ ..^

being established between this ring and the disk by radiating esi.Veion.

bands of cells (rm), extending from the centre to the cir- Horizontal dice oi the stem
cumference, and dilating in the same direction ; the whole
resembling a wheel, of which the tire is the circle, the axle the central disk,
and the spokes the radiating bands. Between the disk and the circle, and
separated by the bands, are wedge-shaped plates, which together form a. circular
group, and consist of fibro-vascular tissue, and vessels which have been formed ni
the middle of the cellular mass, and become united into bundles. The gaping

124

ANATOMY.

moutlis of these vessels and fibres are very evident, as is the relative thickness
of their walls : we shall return to this immediately. The cellular tissue of the
ring, dist, and bands, constitutes the medullary system. The medullary system
of the disk (m) is called the pith ; that of the ring is the cortical pith ; and the
radiating cellular bands (km) are the medullary rays. The wedges of fibres and
vessels, separated by the rays, are the fihro-vascular system. If we now dissect
one of the bundles in a well-formed stem of Melon, whose duration is annual
(fig. 682), it is found to be tolerably stout, and completely surrounded by the cellular
tissue, the pith (m), bark (pc), and medullary rays (em). Beginning from the
interior, we find, ]., spiral vessels (t), and opaque white fibres with thick walls ; 2,
fibres (p) with thinner walls, and consequently larger cavities, arranged in series,
and altogether occupying half of the wedge ; together with annular, rayed, and
dotted vessels (v p), recognizable, especially the latter, by the size of their walls ;

3, a greenish cellular tissue (o) ; 4,

thick-walled fibres (l) like those next

the pith, but more abundant ; 5, som-e

branching [laticiferous) vessels (v l)

with soft walls ; 6, the cortical paren-
chyma (Pc), covered by a membrane (e)

consisting of the epidermis and cuticle.

In a horizontal section of the stem (fig.

681), the tracheae (t) and fibres next the

pith form with the neighbouring vessels

a ring (interrupted by the medullary

rays), which has received the collective

name of medullary sheath ; the fibres

outside this sheath are the woody^

fibres ; the outer fibres, separated from
the former by a cellular zone, and resembling those of
the medullary sheath, are the woody fibres of the bark ; '
finally, the cellular zone which separates the cortical
from the woody fibres is called the cambium la.jer. In ess iiapie

the Melon, this zone dies each year, together with SS.™lS?"f thrLZV'^"?%t^^^
the fibro- vascular bundle, which it divides into two ™rse ^id vertical sections (mag.).
unequal parts ; but in a woody-stemmed, and hence perennial plant [Oah, Elder),
fresh layers are annually formed in the thickness of this zone, by which the
thickness of the stem increases. Young branches, therefore, one or two years old
or'more, must be examined, to trace the further development of the wood and bark.
A fibro-vascular bundle in a one-year-old branch of OaA;, i/Wer, or JfapZe (fig. 683),
coincides in structure with that of the Melon stem ; but in the cortical system (p c)
there will be found, between the epidermis and central layer of cells, a layer of
close-set cubical or tabular cells (s) ; these contain no chlorophyll, are white or
brown, and are readily distinguishable from the subjacent cortical cells, which are
polyhedral, coloured by green granules, and separated by numerous interstices. This

682. Melon.
Horizontal slice of one of
the fibro-vascular bundles
of the stem (mag.).

FUNDAMENTAL OEGANS.

12t

layer is tlie suber, wliicli in certain trees attains a considerable development, and

forms cork. Take now a vertical section of the same branch, and the disposition,

&c. of the fibres and vessels will appear as in fig. 688.

The cambium, which does not become organized in annual or herbaceous stems

like the Melon, in perennial stems becomes highly organized (fig. 684) . During the

second year, this gelatinous
tissue undergoes the following
changes : outside the woody

u

X> -tf^'^.M-u.-f-n.*-

•€

j&tSr^^PW

*•

'S^ ^^

* l^&

{' av.

'^^

p. L.

V . F . V , T. M .

684. Maple.
Horizontal slice, showing the development of a woody bundle in a iiiTee-
year-old branch, c, cambinm laypr, separating the wood from the bark.

1. Pith (M), trachese (T), punctate vessels and fibres of the first year (v). —

2. Punctate vessel Xv) and fibres f f) of the second year.— 3. Vessels O) and
fibres of the thircr'year. "Within the hark (s) is seen the cortical layer of
the first year (p. L), then that of the second year (P. L), and of the third year
(p. L), separated by the cambium (c) from the contemporaneous woody
layer (mag.).

Horizontal slice of a twenty-five years
old trunk.

fibres interspersed with large vessels (1. v), is formed one fresh cambium layer
(2. F, v) ; within the fibres of the liber and of the cortical system another is
formed ; these layers become moulded upon the older ones, and the zone of cambium
which is transformed to produce them presents a cellular organization at those
points, which corresponds to the cells of the medullary rays, so that these continue
without interruption from the pith to the cortical layers.

Each ring of vascular bundles was hence from its earliest condition enclosed in
two cambium layers, of which one belongs to the wood, the other to the bark ; each
of these vascular bundles, again, is in its turn separated by a cambium layer, which
in the third year repeats the process, producing within ligneous fibres (3. f) and
large vessels (3. v), and outside liber (l) and cortical parenchyma (p), and so on
each year. Now, each wood bundle being composed of two elements, and the large-
sized vessels being usually towards the interior of the bundle, we can, by counting
their number (which is easily ascertained by the gaping mouths of the large vessels),
reckon the number of annual layers, or, in a word, the age of the stem or branch
(fig. 685).

It must be remarked that the secondary ligneous bundles differ from the primary
in the total absence of tracheae ; these vessels being confined to the medullary sheath.

We have said that the medullary rays are not interrupted by the formation of
new vascular bundles, because the cambium zone remains cellular at the points
corresponding to these rays. If each newly formed bundle was undivided, like that
in juxtaposition with it, the number of medullary rays would be always the same ;
but this is not the case ; at the circiimference of the primitive bundle one or more
longitudinal series of cells is developed, which reach to the circumference, and

126

ANATOMY.

686. Cork Oak.

Horizontal slice showing the developmenfc of two woody

bundles in a four-year-old branch (mag.).

divide the new bundle into two or three parts (fig. 686). These cellular rays (2, 3, 4),
which are termed secondary medullary rays, to distinguish them from the primary

(1), which start from the pith
(m), are thus doubled in each
annual ring, and, like the large
rays between the fibro-vascular
vessels, form a sort of vertical
septa or radiating walls, com-
posed of elongated and super-
imposed cells ; whence the name
of muriform tissue for the me-
dullary rays.

Hence, in its totality the
stem presents two very distinct
systems, the woody {wood), and the cortical (bark). 1. The woody system
is formed of the central pith and zones of fibro-vascular bundles, sepa-
rated by medullary rays. The innermost of these is the medullary EiiSophoia.
sheath, formed of trachess and fibres analogous to the liber, and ^™'"='^*'"«-
outwardly composed of woody fibres and rayed, annular, and dotted vessels. The
other zones are similarly organized, except that they never possess trachese.
2. The bark system is formed of the epidermis, the cork, the endophleum, and the
bast fibres {liber), external to and amongst which the latieiferous vessels ramif^^
With age the cells of the pith lose colour, dry, separate, and finally die ; the woody
fibres thicken, and usually darken ; of these the heart- wood {duramen) differs from
the more recently formed or sap-wood, which is more watery, softer, and brighter
coloured. The liber fibres (fig. 686 bis) are more slender, longer, and more tenacious
than the woody fibres ; and are of great use in the manufacture of thread, cord and
textiles. Their bundles descend vertically and rectilinearly in thin concentric plates,
whence their name liber (book) ; but in some plants, as the OaJc and Lime, they form
a network, the interstices of which are occupied by the medullary rays.

From the mode of development of the wood and bark systems, it is obvious
that the wood must harden, and the bark decay ; for in all the bark tissues, the later
formed are constantly pushing towards the periphery, within which they have been
developed ; this produces the exfoliation of the several elements of the cortical sys-
tem ; the epidermis first, then the cork-cells, the endophleum, and sometimes the
liber.

It is not necessary to describe any of those anomalous dicotyledonous stems
which present peculiar tissues or hyper-development of certain elements or the
absence of others ; except that of Conifers (Pine, Fir, Larch, Tew, &c.), the wood of
which, with the exception of a few trachese in the medullary sheath, is entirely com-
posed of regularly dotted fibres. The walls of these wood-fibres (fig. 687) are
hollowed into small cups, like watch-glasses, which are arranged in two straight
lines, occupying the opposite sides of each fibre. These cups are so placed in con-
tiguity that their concavities correspond (fig. 688), leaving an interposed lens-like

FUNDAMENTAL OEGANS.

12?

space. The dot is placed in the centre of each cup (and corresponds to a thinned
portion resulting from the absence of the inner membranes) ; from this thin portion

there proceeds, on the convexity of each cup, a short

canal, with only one opening, which leads into the

interior of the fibre. The lens-shaped cavity arising from.

the contact of two fibres is usually filled with resin

(turpentine), which infiltrates into the cavity of the fibres

and destroys them by degrees; the result is those

resinous deposits which are often found

occupying large cavities in the wood of

conifers (fig. 689, la).

r.rr.

Pt-

J —

689. Pine.
Horizontal slice allowing the deTelopment of two woody
bundles in a three-year-old branch (mag.).

688. Pine.
Vertical section of the stem (mag.), p. f, 687. Pine,

fibre wall ; c. 1, lenticular cavity ; r. m, Punctate fibre
medullary ray ; c. f, cavity in a fibre. (mag.).

Stems of Monocotyledons. — When the monocotyledonous embryo, which is entirely
cellular before germination, begins to elongate, fibro-vascular bundles form in its

stem. These are at first arranged in a
ring as in young dicotyledons ; but
soon, as the leaves develop, the bundles
multiply without any apparent order
in the cellular tissue, becoming more
numerous and close as they approach
the circumference of the stem. If a
fully developed bundle be examined
under the microscope (fig. 690), it is
found to be structurally identical with
that of a dicotyledon ; beginning from the central pith, we
find walled fibres analogous to liber (l), then trachese (t),
then, mixed with cells (p), some of which elongate and thicken
into fibres, are seen the openings of rayed or dotted vessels
(v) : the circumference of the bundle is formed of thick-
walled fibres {liber, l), outside of and amongst which the
laticiferous vessels ramify (v.l).

But, though individual bundles resemble those of a first
year's dicotyledonous stem, when taken all together they pre-
sent a very important difference (fig. 691), in not being grouped in concentric zones but

691. Palm.
Horizontal slice of the stem.

T..„.

690.. Transverse section of a fibro-
Tascular bundle of a monocoty-
ledonous stem (mag,). ■ (The part
answering to the centre of the
stem is lowest.)

128

ANATOMY.

p.v.m

(f) remaining isolated and scattered througli the medullary systeni (m) without any
mediiUary rays of muriform tissue. Here there is no symmetrical arrangement ; the
bundles are scattered throughoxit the pith, and may multiply without being impeded
by lateral pressure ; further, each remains simple ; at no period does it develop
between its bark and wood systems a layer of cambium destined to form new
bundles. In dicotyledons, on the contrary, the bundles are pressed into zones
from the first year, and their wood and bark systems being concentric, they can
only multiply by fresh wood and bark bundles being formed between
them. The consequence of this arrangement of the fibro-vascular
bundles is, that in dicotyledons the stem is hardest towards the centre,
whilst in monocotyledons the stem is hardest towards the circum-
ference; as is very apparent in the woody (fig. 692), and even in
the herbaceous stems of monocotyledons. In a longitudinal section
of a woody (fig. 693) or herbaceous (fig. 694) monocotyledonous stem,

those differences are still
more apparent ; starting
from the insertion of a
leaf, each bundle descends
at first obliquely inwards,
then vertically, then again
obliquely outwards ; cros-
sing in its path all the
bundles which have origi-
nated below it, and are
hence older than itself, and

endinsr by taking up a

. . • T ,. ***■ Im-

position outside of them stem cut

, vertically.

all. In dicotyledons also,
the youngest bundles are the outermost, those of the same age follow nearly
parallel; but whereas in their courses they unite so as to form a cylinder, in
monocotyledons they diverge below and converge above. The composition of mono-
cotyledonous bundles also differs in different parts of their course, the wood system
predominating over the cortical in the upper part, where it descends obliquely
inwards, the cortical system predominating in the lower part, where it descends
obliquely outwards, and finally the cortical system alone being developed where the
bundle reaches the periphery. Here the bundle becomes more slender, and divides
into thread-like branches, which interlace with those of the neighbouring bundles,
and form together, within the cellular periphery, a layer of fibres comparable,
according to many botanists, with a, liber zone.

It is obvious that these fibro-vascular bundles, being composed of different
elements at different heights, and becoming so slender towards the periphery, must
ippear very dissimilar in a horizontal cut of the stem ; the scattered small bundles
with, large vessels, which occupy the middle of the stem, are the upper portions of
jundles in which that which we have called the wood system (though it is rather

692. Palm.
Stem cut Tertically.

603. Theoretical section of a
Palm stem.

FUNDAMENTAL OEGANS.

129

cellular and vascular than fibrous) predominates. The coloured and dense bundles,
which form a more solid zone towards the periphery, are the lower portions of bundles
in which fibres analogous to liber predominate ; and, finally, the less compressed
bundles which are usually seen outside of the coloured zone are these same fibres
after having branched and spread out, and before being lost in the periphery, which
is a cellular zone representing the bark.

A monocotyledonous stem usually retains about the same diameter throughout.
This is because the fibro-vascular bundles, gradually attenuated towards their lower
extremity, do not, as in dicotyledons, unite and descend to the bottom of the stem ;
hence, any two truncheons of a monocotyledonous stem, being equally rich in bundles,
can differ but little in diameter.

Soot. — In the embryo, the radicle is the simple cellular lower end of the caulicle,
which elongates downwards as the latter ascends with its plumule and cotyledons.
A monocotyledonous seed usually presents several radicles (fig. 642) ; these are not,
however, naked like those of dicotyledons, but are originally enveloped in an outer
layer (serving as bark), which they push forward and pierce, emerging from it as
from a sheath; whence the name oi coleorhiza for this organ (fig. 642).

Examples have been given of stems emitting accessory or adventitious roots
from various parts of their surface ; the structure of these is precisely the same as
that of the radicle ; and they may even be regarded as identical, the radicle being con-
sidered as a production of the caulicle, and all roots, whether
primary or secondary, as adventitious.

In its earliest stage the root presents an axis of densely
packed cells ; the central of these elongate and form vessels
which interlace with those of the stem (fig. 695). The root may
be simple or branched, but its branches do not start from the
axil of a leaf, and are not regularly arranged, like the shoots of
the ascending axis. They terminate in fibrils, together called
root-fibres, which decay, and are replaced by fresh ones which
usually spring from near the base of the youngest branch. Like
the stem, the root-branches and fibres are clothed with an
epidermis or cuticle, except at the tips, which some botanists
call spongioles (sp). The root elongates at the tips of its
branches, but not of its root-fibres, which are caducous ; and as
the fresh cells of the root-branches are at first deprived of SP_.
epidermis, it is supposed that roots absorb moisture from the soil
by these, as well as by their root-fibres. vertical section °of^a rootict,

The fibrous and vascular tissues of roots are the same as "rotbecomf^adua^oiBaG^
those of stems, but no trachea are ever found in them; the Sd'^'4?r;''ao'e''"t'th^
cells are distended with juice or filled with fecula [Orchis, l^ftulZr^^^^^f)'.
fig. 695).

In dicotyledons, the root is distinguished from the stem by the absence of pith
and medullary sheatli, and by its axis being occupied by woody fibres ; there is scarcely
an exception to this. Its diameter increases, like that of the stem, by the annual

130

ANATOMY.

foi'mation of two concentric zones between the wood and bark ; it elongates at its
extremity only, while the stem and its branches elongate throughout their length ;
this may easily be proved by marking off an inch of a root and an inch of a stem.
Monocotyledons, instead of having a tap-root (i.e. one main axis which branches),
usually emit compound roots, i.e. composed of simple or slightly branched bundles,
rising from the neck. Their anatomical structure is exactly similar to that of
stems.

Leaves. — The anatomical structure of leaves is the same as that of the stem ;
they consist of a fibre- vascular bundle and parenchyma; this bundle, which is
wholly formed before leaving the stem, spreads into a blade as it emerges {sessile
leaf), or remains undivided for a certain distance before expanding {petiolate leaf) ;
the nerves of the blade are formed of fibres and vessels ; both it and the petiole are
covered with a layer of epidermis bearing stomata on every part except the nerves
and petiole. The petiole, before expanding, often forms a sheath or stipules ; the

sheath exists when the

partial bundles of which it

is composed separate from

each othe:', but without

diverging; the stipules are

the result of the diverg-
ence of the lateral bundles

of the petiole. •

Where the fibro-vas-

cular bundle (fig. 696, Fv)

leaves the stem to form

the petiole (f), the fibres

composing it are shortened,

and narrowed at each end, section perpenaicnlar to the surface of a leal (mag.).

^ p, nair ; s r^ stoma ; f. v, fibro-Yascular bundle ; E .^,

whence their surfaces of ^pp^'^p'**™'^! ^*'l°"'^l'^P'*«™'s•
conf act are contracted ; they are hence not solidly united at the point of
emergence ; and it is this defective cohesion which causes the fall of most leaves.
The stem presents a little swelling at the base of the petiole, called the cushion
(c), which is visible after the disconnection of the petiole (fig. 54), together
with the scar (p) left by the petiole. The relative position of the elements of the
fibro-vascular bundle which passes from the stem into the leaf, shows clearly that
the leaf-blade may be compared to a flattened stem, the fibres aiid vessels of which
have been spread out, and thus allowed plenty of room for the development of
parenchyma between their ramifications. As in the stem the fibro-vascular bundle
consists of trachess in the centre, then rayed or dotted vessels and woody fibres,
and on the outside laticiferous vessels and thick-walled liber-fibres, so in the leaf-
blade each nerve (which is a partial bundle) presents trachess on its upper surface,
rayed or dotted vessels with woody fibre on its lower surface, and laticiferous

FV M
69G. Branch cut vertically,
showing the petiole spring-
ing from the stem (mag.).

' This theory of the origin and development of stipules requires considerable modification. — Ed.

FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS. 131

vessels and liber-fibres. The lower surface of the leaf, which corresponds to the
cortical system, is generally more hairy and presents more stomata than the upper,
which corresponds to the wood system. The parenchyma of the leaf, filled with
green chlorophyll, usually presents (fig. 697), in flat leaves, two well-marked
divisions ; the upper, belonging to the woody system, consists of one or more series
of oblong cells (p.s), arranged perpendicularly side by side beneath the epidermis
(e.s), leaving very small interspaces (m) ; the lower division, belonging to the
cortical system, consists of irregular cells (p.i), with interspaces (l) corresponding
with the stomata. The parenchyma of fleshy leaves (as Sedum) consists of cells
with feAV interspaces, which cells become poorer in chlorophyll towards the centre
of the leaf. Submerged leaves (fig. 698) have no epidermis, stomata, fibres, or
vessels ; their parenchyma is reduced to elongated cells, arranged in few series,
and is consequently very permeable by water.

The leaf originates as a small cellular tumour, which afterwards dilates into a
blade, the cells on the median line of which
elongate and form fibres, then, as in the stem,
first trachese, and lastly other vessels.

In his treatise ' On the Formation of
Leaves,' Trecul admits foiir principal types
according to which these organs are formed :
the hasifuqal, hasipetal, mixed, and parallel.

T it- i. % 7 j-u 1 r • J 1 T ^ 698. Potamogeton.

In the basVfuqaL, the leai is developed irom section perpendicular to the surface of a leat (mag.).

,^ -1 . n 1T1 p, parenchyma witjjout.e'pidermia ; V, interstices.

below upwards, i.e. the oldest parts are

those at the base of the leaf, and the tip is the last part formed ; the stipules
appear before the leaflets and secondary nerves of the leaf. In the hasipetal
type, the rachis or axis of the leaf appears first, and on its sides the lobes and
leaflets spring from above downwards ; the tip is hence developed before the base.
The stipules are developed before the lowest leaflets, and sometimes even before the
upper. In this type, not only the leaflets, but their secondary nerves and teeth,
appear in succession downwards. In the mixed arrangement, both these types are
followed. In the parallel type the nerves are all formed in parallel lines, but the
sheath appears first. The elongation of the leaf takes place at the base of the blade,
or base of the petiole. The sheath, although the first formed, does not increase till
the leaf has developed to a certain extent.

The nerves of leaves are arranged very difierently in monocotyledons and dicoty-
ledons. In the former (fig. 33), they are usually simple, or, if branched, the branches
do not inosculate. In dicotyledons, on the contrary (fig. 6), the nerves branch into
veins and venules, which inosculate with those of the neighbouring nerves, and form
a fibro-vascular network of which the interstices are filled with parenchyma.
Nevertheless, in some monocotyledons, the basal nerves are not all parallel and
simple ; but secondary nerves spring from one or more of the principal nerves, and
diverge in other directions ; but these secondary nerves are parallel, and the con-
vexity of the arc which they describe is turned towards the principal nerve (this
nervation is rare among dicotyledons) ; lastly, the nerves in monocotyledons may

TL 2

132 ANATOMY.

anastomose into a network, and tlie blade, instead of being entire, as is usual in this
class, may be lobed {Arum). On the other hand, some dicotyledons occur with
parallel and simple nerves ; but these exceptions do not invalidate the general rule
indicated above. In all cases of determining the class of a plant, the examination
of the nerves must be supplemented by that of the fibro-vascular bundles of the
stem, -which are symmetrically arranged in dicotyledons (fig. 685) ; and dispersed
without order, though more closely packed towards the circumference, in monocoty-
ledons (fig. 691).

Buds.— The bud (fig. 696, b) appears at first under the bark as a cellular point
continuous with the extremity of a medullary ray ; it soon pushes through the
bark, and forms a tumour on the stem, when its cellular tissue becomes organized
into fibres and vessels communicating with those of the stem ; the medullary sheath,
however, of the young branch is closed at first, and does not communicate with the
medullary ray of the axis from which it emanates.

Sepals. — The anatomical structure of these organs completes the analogy between
them and leaves. The nerves of the sepals are bundles of tracheae and fibres,
parenchyma is spread out between them, and their surfaces are covered by an
epidermis, of which the upper presents more stomata than the lower. As with the
leaves, the nerves of the sepals are usually parallel and simple in monocotyledons,
branched and anastomosing in dicotyledons. The sepals first appear as small
cellular papillae, connected at the base by an annular disk referable to the recep-
tacle : their tips are free in both the monosepalous and polysepalous calyx ; it
is onlj' later that the calycinal tube appears. Vascular bundles are gradually
formed in the sepals as in the leaves.

Petals.— The coroUine leaves have often, like ordinary leaves, a petiole, which
is called the claw. When this is present, the fibro-vascular bundles traverse
its entire length, and only separate to form the nerves of the blade ; these
nerves, usually dichotomous, are composed of tracheae and elongated cells ; the
parenchyma which fills their interstices is formed of a few layers of cells, covered
by an epidermis presenting very few stomata on the upper surface only, or none
at all.

Very young petals, like sepals, appear as cellular papillae ; but in petals these
soon dilate, and form dark or light- green disks, which at a later period always
change colour. Although the petals are placed below the stamens on the floral
axis, they generally expand later, as if they had been developed later, which is not
the case.

In a monopetalous corolla, the torus is raised above its ordinary level so as to
form a little circular cushion which connects the leaves to which it gave birth, and
the segments of the corolla appear as projections upon this cushion.

Finally, whether the corolla be monopetalous or polypetalous, its petals are
developed like ordinary leaves ; the tip and base are first formed, and the develop-
ment takes place towards the central veins from below upwards, from above down-
wards, and laterally.

Stamens. — The complete stamen consists o£ filament, connective, anther, audpollen :

rUNDAMENTAL OEGANS.

183

let us examine their structure in the adult, and their mode of development in the
young stamen.

The filament consists of a central bundle of tracheae which traverses its length,
of a layer of cells enveloping this bundle, and of a thin superficial epidermis. The
connective, which is the continuation of the filament, is formed of cells of the con-
sistence of glandular tissue, in which the bundle of trachese terminates.

The anther is usually divided into two cavities, separated by the connective, and
containing the pollen. The walls of these cells consist of an outer
or epidermal layer of cells (fig. 699, ce) with many stomata, and of
an inner simple or multiple layer of fibrous (b), annular, spiral, or ce.
reticulated cells ; this layer becomes thinner as it approaches the line
of dehiscence of the anther, where it ends. At the period of dehis- Bemamsoj ae'ebrous
cence the outer membrane of these cells is destroyed, and the little temis'o™^the anttai
netted, ringed, or spiral bands which lined it alone enclose the pollen, °'°'°' '
the emission of which they assist when they dry up, contract, and separate the valves
of the anther. The young stamen appears as a cellular green papilla, which usually turns
yellow. The anther is the first formed ; it presents a median furrow (the connective),
and two lateral ones (the future lines of dehiscence) ; the filament appears next, at first
wholly cellular, then traversed by a bundle of tracheae. The tissue of the anther is at
first a uniform cellular mass (fig. 700), in the middle of which a certain number of
cells are absorbed and leave usually four spaces, which gradually enlarge and form as
many cavities, nearly equidistant from the centre and the periphery. Bach pair of
these small cavities eventually represents an entire cell (fig. 701). All these four

CL CI CM CE
C.f. ■ CE CE Ci CM

700. Melon.
Vertical section of young
anther (mag.), showing
the epidermal cells (CE),
and the inner cells (ci),
all alike and homoge-
neous, in the middle of
which spaces will form.

701. Melon.
Vertical section of an anther-
cell (mag.) with two cellules,
c E, epidermal cells ; c I, inner
cells ; c M, mother-cells con-
tained in the cellules.

702. Melon.
Vertical section of an anther-cell
where the cellules are filled with
mother-cells. CL, walls of the
cellules (mag.).

CM...

P.

703. Melon.
Mother - cells (CM),
originally hexagonal,
of which the septa are
destroyed, and con-
taining each four
pollen - grains (p)
(mag.).

cavities gradually fiU with mucilage, out of which are elaborated two forms of
cellular tissue, one of small cells (fig. 702, cl) that line the cavity, the other of large
cells (cm) that fiU the cavity, and within which the pollen is developed. The latter,
called mother-cells (cm), soon become filled with a fluid full of granules ; the granules
again aggregate, and form four nuclei floating in the liquid, which thickens by
degrees from without inwards, and finally forms four septa dividing the mother-cells
into as many cellules. Each nucleus then becomes coated with a membrane (fig.

134

ANATOMY.

703), after whicli both the septa and the walls of the mother-cells disappear, and the
four nuclei (p) which filled them are set free as pollen-grains (fig. 704). As they
grow (figs. 706 and 706), the cellular tissue of the anther, in the middle of which the
cavities had been formed, are absorbed ; a layer of cells which formed the walls of
the cavities now lines the membrane of the epidermis (fig. 699, oe), and rapidly

changes into a layer of fibrous
cells (e) ; the tissue which sepa-
rated the small cavities becomes
gradually thinner, and forms a
septum which projects from the
connective towards the line of
dehiscence; this septum is soon destroyed, and the two cavities form but one
{anther- cell). In some plants this septum is persistent, and the anther remains
quadrilocular [Butomus, fig. 326). In many plants the remains of the mother-
cells only partially disappear, and the rest connect the pollen-grains, as in
Orchis (figs. 359 and 360), where an elastic network causes them to cohere in small
masses.

Carpels. — The anatomy of the carpellary leaves is analogous to that of ordinary

704. Melon.

705. Melon.

706. Melon.

ng pollen-grains,

Nearly adult pollen

Eipe pollen

free (mag.).

(mag.).

(mag.).

707. Pear.
Very young flower, cut
vertically to show the
petals, stamens and carpel-
lary maramje free on the
receptacle (mag.).

708. Pear.
Young carpels, seen from
within, at first concave,
and the edges afterwards
approaching to form
the stjle and placentas
(mag.).

703. fear.
Yoilng flower, cut vertically
to show the growth of the
receptacle, the arrangement
of the carpels, and the inser-
tion of the petals and stamens
(mag.).

711. Pear.
Flowei- cut vertically, with the
stamens and petals removed, show-
ing the carpels enveloped by the
receptaculaf cup (mag.).

leaves ; a cellular tissue (sometimes very succulent, as in berries and drupes),
traversed by fibro-vascular bundles, is covered with an epidermis, the outer surface
only of which bears stomata ; the bundles ascend from the ovary into the style,
occupying its circumference, its centre being hollowed into a canal.
The inner walls of this canal, which is formed by the convolution of
the uijper end of the carpellary leaf, is covered with projecting cells,
and its axis is occupied by soft cellular filaments, named conducting
tissue ; it is this tissue which constitutes, on the top or sides of the
4ScaiyxTpetai"aS style, the truc stigmatic tissue. The placenta, which transmits
™veT t?™how" t\% nourishment to the seed, and the funicle, which is a prolongation
the iSptiiinte cup of the placcuta, consist of a bundle of tracheae surrounded by
elongated cells.
Inferior ovaries have the carpels encased in a receptacular cup, which is some-

710. Pear.
Young flower, fi'om

(mag.).

FUNDAMENTAL ORGANS.

135

-.p

times enormously hypertrophied, especially inBosacece and Pomacece (figs. 707 to 711),
and bears on the top the stamens, petals, and calyx.

Ovule. — Botanists often apply this name to the undeveloped seed ; but, to be
precise, they ought to confine it to the unfertilized seed.

To trace the development of the ovule, it must be examined long before the
bud opens : it then appears as a papilla on the placenta, called the nucleus (fig.
712) ; around thebase of the nucleus (fig. 713) a circular ring is formed (s), which at
first grows at the same rate as itself, but, rising on its surface, it eventually
overtops and finally almost entirely envelops the nucleus ; but before this takes
place, a second circular ring is developed (fig. 714, p) outside the first (s), which
follows it in its growth, and ends by reaching and overtopping it ; the nucleus (n) is
hence enclosed in two sacs, whose mouths are contracted, and on a level with its top,
thus forming a little cylindrical or cup-shaped cavity, consisting of two superimposed
rings touching at all points of their circumference. The upper
opening, belonging to the outer coat, is named exostow.e (Ex) ; the
lower, belonging to the
inner coat, is named en-
dostome (End). The union
of the endostome and ex- i mj i

ostome constitutes the
micropyle, which always ^^^^^^J^
corresponds to the top of
the nucleus. The outer
coat is called the primine (p), the inner the secundine (s) ; the nucleus (n) has also been
called the tercine ; terms which refer to their order of superposition from without
inwards, not that of development. The funicle (f) is inserted on the primine, and
its contained bundle of tracheae, after traversing the primine and secundine, expands
at the base of the nucleus into a swollen coloured cellular tissue, termed chalaza,
oi^posite to which there is almost alwajj-s a corresponding swelling on the primine.
As the ovule, which is wholly composed of cellular tissue, grows, a cavity is formed
near the centre (fig. 715) of the nucleus, by the dilatation of one of its cells; this
cavity, which extends through the length of the nucleus, and adheres by its two
ends to the neighbouring cells, is the embryonic sac (s.e), or quintine. Its walls
shortly become lined with a mucilaginous cellular tissue, developed from the circum-
ference towards the centre, which fills the cavity of the sac ; this tissue, together
with that of the nucleus, constitutes the alimentary deposit destined for the embryo,
and is called albumen {perifipermum}. The ovule, thus organized before fertilization,
undergoes one of the three following changes : — most frequently the embryonic sac
pushes away the nucleus on all sides, and its own parenchyma alone is developed,
when the albumen is more or less fleshy ; sometimes, on the contrary, the nucleus
presses upon the embryonic sac, and reduces it to a narrow tube, when the albumen
is farinaceous; sometimes, again, the action is reciprocal, and two kinds of albumen
result, — the white Nymphoea (figs. 610, 647) aifords a remarkable instance of this.
For this reason Gaertner, comparing the ovule with a bird's egg, limited the term

713. Walnut.
GYiile (mag.).

714. Polygonum.
Ovule (mag.).

715. Polygonum.
Oyule cut vertically
(mag.), p, prinmie ; s,
secuudiue ; N, nucleus ;
s.K, embryonic sac.

136

ANATOMY.

716. Polygonnm.
Fertilized ovule, cut
vertically (mag.)-

albumen (wMte of egg) to the tissue developed witliin the nucleus (fig. 610, n), and
gave that ot vitellus (yolk of egg) to the tissue developed in the embryonic sac (s.e).
Fertilization is a,nnounced by the appearance of a body (fig. 716) destined to
form the embryo, suspended from or near the top of the embryonic sac (s.e). At
first it consists of a vesicle (v.e), named embryonic vesicle, filled with a granular mat-
ter, in which is formed first one cell, then others,
each of which bears a cytoblast on its wall. The
upper and slender portion of this vesicle (fig. 717) is
the suspensor ; in the lower and swollen portion the
embryo is developed ; the vesicle and its suspensor ^
soon disappear, when the embryo develops, according

J 1J1 ■!• ITT TX1T 717. Dicotyledonous em-

to whether it is monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous, bryo, in difierent
as we have already shown, and increases within the inTtaovnMm"^"™
cavity of the ovule, which it invades by absorbing
the albumen. If the albumen has solidified before the growth of the embryo,
the latter remains small and takes up less room ; and the absorption of the
albumen is then delayed till the period of germination. The ovule is not
always provided with two coats ; sometimes the inner coat alone (secundine) is
developed {Walnut, fig. 713) ; in others the nucleus remains naked {Santalacecc,
Mistleto, fig. 712). It is important to understand the changes the ovule may undergo
before fertilization ; changes due to unequal development altering the relative posi-
tions of its different parts. In theory, the hilum and chalaza correspond, and occupy
the base of the ovule, the micropyle being at the top or opposite end. If the
ovule develops uniformly, the arrangement is not disturbed, and the ovule is straight
or orthotropous {ov. orthotropum, fig. 716), and the embryo will also he straight. In this
case the position of the radicle answers to that of the micropyle, i.e. opposite the
hilum and chalaza, and the embryo is said to be antitropous {ov. antitropus. Nettle,
fig. 678).

When the ovule develops unequally, one of two things may happen : l,the chalaza
(Ch, fig. 718) may be removed from the hilum towards the position occupied by the
top of the' ovule ; which top, by a reverse movement, may be turned towards the
hilum ; the axis of the ovule thus making a half turn upon itself, like a compass-
needle turning from the north to the south pole. In this ease the
civ-i/-i«Si?^fe,\ hilum not having been displaced, the vascular bundle which connects

718. Dandelion.

Anatropous ovule

cnt vertically (mag.).

722.

'23. Vertical section
of fig. 722.

Clielidonium. — Anatropous ovule in different stages of development (mag.).

it with the chalaza is forced to follow the latter in its revolution, and form a more
or less projecting cord (e) in the thickness of the primine, named the raphe; the
ovule is then reversed ov anatropous {ov. anatropum,Sgs. 719 to 723). Here the embryo

FUNDAMENTAL OEGANS. 137

will be straight, as in the Nettle, but tbe cbalaza will be the antipodes of the
hilum, the micropyle nearly touching the latter, and -the radicle corresponding to
the base of the ovule; such an embryo is called homotropous [ov. homotropus).
There are many examples of this {Sage, fig. 679 ; Chicory, fig. 680).

2. When the hilum and chalaza (figs. 724 ch, 725) are inseparable, and one
side of the primine (p) is more developed
Uf than the opposite side, th e one lengthens while
/ifflt_sh *^^ otlier remains stationary ; the resistance c._.
» mr^ of the stationary side causes the lengthening

side to turn around the centre of resistance ; ^ -tu

^ the ovule (n) thus bent back upon itself is said s. ^

to be campylotropous {ov. campylotropum) .
Campy Jr^o^o'viue Here the embryo will follow the curvature of camp^itlpou^o^'ie, out
(mag.). ^j^g ovule, and the micropyle and chalaza (ch) vertioauy (mag.).'

being both close to the hilum, the radicle and cotyledonary ends will be only
separated by the hilum, and the embryo is called amphitropous. The Wallflower (figs.
724, 726) and the Mallow (figs. 726-730) are well-marked instances of the curved
ovule and amphitropous embryo.

To these three types {orthotropous, anatropous, and campylotropous) all ovules
properly belong ; but there are many cases of intermediate types, which it is neces-
sary to take into account. In one case which, although very rare, runs through
the whole family of Primulacece, and occurs in Vinca, one side of the ovule develops

'^^•,--„ r, ,F- ,- ■ P^- r. , '''^^- 730. Vertical section

Mallow. — Campylotropous ovule m various stages of development (mag.). of fig. 729,

enormously, while the other gradually atrophies ; this action continues after
fertilization, and the micropyle, approaching the hilum more and more, ceases to
correspond to the radicle, which may hence be variable in direction ; m/)st commonly
the axis of the embryo becomes parallel to the hilum, and the embryo is called
het&rotropous {ov. heterotropus, PloMtain, fig. 692 ; Asparagus, fig. 594).

When the seed is mature, it becomes difficult to distinguish in its coats {testa
and endopleura) the primine, secundine, tercine (nucleus), and quintine (embry-
onic sac), which all enter into its composition. The testa evidently represents
the primine ; and, as the raphe has pursued its course between it and the secundine,
this latter must be represented by the endopleura ; but the nucleus and embryonic sac
are either pushed back by the embryo, and reduced to membranes lining the inner wall
of the secundine, or they completely disappear; the secundine itself may indeed disap-
pear, and the embryonic sac alone remain with of without the nucleus. Lastly, these

138 ANATOMY.

membranes may be united and confounded, so as to become indistinct. The primine
therefore cannot be identified with the testa, except in cases when the latter can be
cleanly removed, exposing the raphe between it and the endopleura ; and then the
endopleura is obviously formed by the secundine, with or without the tercine and
quintine, as may be easily seen in the Orange.

The three typical modifications in the positions of the parts of the ovule being
known, we will indicate the corresponding portions of the embryo in the seed : —

First Type. — Ovule straight (ortJwtropous), and consequently embryo antitropous ;
— the seed may be: 1, erect (radicle superior) ; 2, pendulous (radicle inferior) ; 3, hori-
zontal-parietal (radicle centrifugal) ; 4, horizontal- axile (radicle centrifugal).

SECOiirD TrPE. — Ovule reversed {anatropous), and embryo homotropous ;— the seed
may be : 1, erect (radicle inferior) ; 2, pendulous (radicle superior) ; 3, horizontal-
parietal (radicle centrifugal) ; 4, horizontal-axile (radicle centripetal).

Third Type. — OrxAe curved {cawpylotropous), and embryo amphitropows ; if the
embryo is not much curved, the radicle is inferior, superior, centripetal, or centri-
fugal, according to the position of the micropyle ; if neither extremity of the embryo
is turned towards the hilum, owing to the unequal growth of the coats, it is said to
be heterotropous ; it may then be either straight, curved, or flexuous, and the radicle
is inferior, superior, centripetal, centrifugal, or vague.

ACCESSORY ORGANS.

To complete the anatomy of the elementary and fundamental organs, we must
describe that of certain modifications of the cellular tissue : these are prickles, hairs,
(jlands, and lenticels.

Prickles. — These are composed of a cellular tissfue analogous to that of the hark;
they must not be confounded with spines, which are fibro-vascular, and are merely
transformed organs, whose nature is indicated by their position; i.e. they are
aborted branches {Blackthorn, fig. 51), hardened stipules {Rohinia, fig. 114), petioles of
pinnate leaves become spiny after the fall of the leaflets {Astragalus Tragacantha),
leaves of which the nerves have lengthened into spiny points, to the destruction of
the parenchyma {Berheris, fig. 94) ; cushions, which elongate greatly, and become
pungent {Gooseberry, fig. 95). Prickles, on the contrary, are dispersed without order
on the stem and leaves, and even on the corolla, and are thickened, hardened, and
pungent hairs. When young, they exactly resemble hairs, of which we
are about to speak, and it is only when older that they thicken,
lengthen, and harden ; they occur on the Rose (fig. 50) in every stage
of its growth.

Hairs. — Cellular organs, which principally occur on branches,

731. Cabbage. petiolcs, and the nerves and under surface of leaves, especially young

^'^ll^Tmi'f''^ °"^^ ' ^^^^ ^^^ lengthened epidermal cells, covered by cuticle, like

those cells which do not lengthen. Hairs are unicellular, when formed

of one elongated, vertical, oblique, or horizontal cell, which may remain simple

ACCESSORY ORGANS.

139

(fig. 731), or branch, iii a fork (fig. 732), trident, star (fig. 733), &c. Some branch
in stagesj and resemble superimposed whorls (fig. 734). Chambered, septate, or
jointed hairs are composed of cells joined end to end, and forming
simple beads (figs. 785, 736) or branches; sometimes a bundle of
hairs radiates horizontally from a common centre, and, being united

.•:<%\^..i /,//-;:

732. 'Vniitlow-
gra^s. Bifur-
■ Gated one-
celled hair
(mag.).

733. Alyssnm.

Starred one-celled

hair (mag.).

73.5. Tradescatitia.

Chambered hair

(mag.).

738. Mirabilis.
Hair resembling
a necklace(mag. ) .

737. BlEcagnus.

Badiated hair

(mag.).

734. Alternanthera.

Branched hair

(mag.).

The small brown scales

by the cuticle, resembles the rays of the sun (fig. 737).
observable on ferns are considered as scarious hairs.

Glands.— 'These are organs of secretion, i.e. they extract a peculiar liquid from
the materials with which they come in contact ; they are entirely ceUular ; the
cells of some glands project, and are called glandular hairs, which only differ from
ordinary hairs by the liquid they contain ; some are swollen at the tip ; most are
unicellular, as those on the calyx of the Sage (fig, 738), and on the velvety palate
of the Snapdragon (fig. 739).

The stinging hairs of the Nettle (fig. 740) are formed of a single
conical cell, of which the base ia swollen into a bulb, and surrounded
by a group of epidermal cells ; the top is lightly
bent, and it is the fragile tip of. this hair which,
breaking in the skin which it has penetrated, intro-
duces the venomous
juice contained in
the cell. The sting-
ing hairs of the
Wigandia have a
lanceolate tip (fig.
741). Glandular hairs
mav be chambered, one-cefied hair

•/ . ^mag.).

when the terminal
cell alone is glandular, as in the calyx of the Snapdragon (fig. 742) ; or there may
be several superimposed cells ; but it is invariably the upper ones alone which
secrete. Peltate hairs are composed of one cell lying horizontally on the leaf,
and adhering by its centre to the epidermis, by means of a gland which forms its
bfiiSe {Malpighia).

True glands differ from glandular hairs only in projecting slightly or not at all

L

Glandular

739. Snapdragon.
Glandular one-
celled hairs
(mag.).

740. Nettle. 742. finapdragon.
Stinging one-celled Glandular

hair, bent chambered hair
at the top (mag.). (mag.).

741 . Wigandia.

Stinging hair

with lanceolate

point (mag.).

140

ANATOMY,

above the epidermis ; they pass insensibly into each other, as ia glandular roses. The
superficial glands covering the bracts and flowers of the Hop (fig. 743) are simple
vesicles (fig. 744) containing a liquid, and a resinous principle called by chemists
lupuUne ; these vesicles burst and soon disappear, vyhen the resinous principle
remains in the form of powder. Sometimes the glands are sunk in the thickness of
the bark, but they are always near the epidermis ; such are the glands called vesicular
of the leaves of 8t. John's Wort and Myrtle, and of the bark of the Orange, which
contain a volatile oil (fig. 745).

We have already described the nectariferous glands or nectaries, which secrete a
sweet liquid (p. 74).

The cavities called reservoirs of proper juice, in which gums, resins,
elaborated and accumulated, are lined with peculiar cells ; they are
analogous to the vesicular glands, but more deeply immersed in the tissue.

Lenticels, formerly called lenticular glands, are not glandular; they

are

743. Hop.
9 flower (mag.).

744. Hop.

Superficial glands containing

lupuline (mag.).

745. Orange.

Vertical section of a fragment of rind,

showing the

reservoirs (R) of Tolatile oil (mag.).

are prominences on the surface of the stem (fig. 746, 1), produced by excrescences
of the endopleura which have pierced the bark. Adventitious roots often spring
from lenticels ; but they also spring from many other points ; which invalidates the
opinion of De CandoUe, who regarded lenticels as the buds of aerial roots.

ANATOMY OF ACOTTLEDONS.

Stem. — The stems of Ferns more nearly resemble those of cotyledonous plants
than do those of any other acotyledonous order. A transverse section of a Tree fern
stem (fig. 747) shows fibro-vascular bundles (f, v) of various
forms, disposed in a more or less irregular circle, which
surrounds a yellowish central disk (m), and is itself sur-
rounded by a zone of the same colour (p) ; this disk and
zone are cellular, and communicate by larger or smaller
passages between the bundles. The outermost blackish
zone is an envelope formed subsequently to the epidermis, of
the bases of the fronds. A transverse section of the bases
of these fronds displays a structure analogous to that of the
stem, on which their bases, when detached, leave remarkable scars. The same

747. Cyathea.
Transverse section of the stem.

ANATOMY OF ACOTYLEDONS.

141

f

74,8. Male Fetn.

Trans rerae sectioa of the

rhizome.

749. Male Pern.

structure and scars characterize the stems of the herbaceous ferns of Europe (figs.
748, 749). The fibrorvascular bundles of ferns, whether exotic or indigenous, con-
sist of a pale portion (fig. 747, v), formed of annular and
radiating prismatic (scalariform) vessels, surrounded by a very
narrow black zone (f), formed of woody
fibres. Tracheae are invariably wanting.

A few other acotyledonous families con-
tain fibro-vascular bundles in their stem;
in Mosses and Hepaticce the stem is com-
posed of elongated cells, which sometimes
become fibres ; the tissues of Lichens, Fungi,
AlgcB, &c., are entirely cellular.

Root. — The roots of the higher acoty-
ledons, such as ferns, present the same
structure as the stems ; i.e. bundles of fibres
and vessels, surrounded by cellular tissue: EhizomeBhowmgthesoara(c)

' -^ . _ ' of the old fronds.

these roots are always adventitious and often
aerial. In the lower acotyledons they are formed of cells which reach the ground,
and then lengthen and bury themselves.

Leaves. — The leaves of acotyledons present the same structure as their stems ;
in ferns, we find radiating prismatic vessels and black fibres ; in Marsileacece, the
nerves are numerous ; in Lycopodiacem, the leaf is a cellular plate traversed by a
single fibro-vascular bundle ; in Mosses and Hepaticw, the nerves are represented by
elongated cells ; in the lower acotyledons, the leaves and stem are represented by a
frond entirely composed of cellular tissue.

Reproductive Organs. — Antheridia are little sacs, at first perfectly closed, then
opening at a certain period at one point of their surface, and emitting by this
opening a mass of corpuscules, usually cohering by means of a mucilaginous liquid ;
these organs are considered analogous to anthers ; we shall explain their nature in
the description of the Orders.

Spores are little membranous sacs, full of liquid, which germinate by lengthening
at some undetermined point of their circumference, and develop into a little plant
similar to that which produced them. Spores are formed in particular cavities,
called sporangia ; they are the analogues of seeds, with regard to their functions, but
they possess neither coats, caulicle, radicle, plumule, nor cotyledons ; they are
developed freely in the sporangium, and never, adhere to its walls, as the seeds of
cotyledons adhere to their placenta. The sporangium, which fulfils the functions of
a carpel, has neither style, stigma, nor ovarian cavity ; it is filled with a con-
tinuous cellular mass, in the midst of which are certain isolated cells, destined to
reproduce the plant. We shall explain the spores and sporangia when describing
the characters of the Orders.

ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

FOOD OF VEGETABLES.

The food necessary for the development of the plant is drawn from the soil by
the root, and is absorbed by means of the spongioles which terminate the root-fibres,
and which are composed of a renewable cellular tissue having no epidermis.

The substances drawn from the soil are, carbonic acid, ammonia, and alkaline
and earthy salts dissolved in water. Carbonic acid comes : 1, from the rain, which
has dissolved it in passing through the atmosphere ; 2, from the slow decomposition
of humus or mould, the carbon of which combines with the oxygen of the air,
which the water holds in solution. The ammonia comes : 1, from rain during
storms, when, by the influence of electricity, it is formed from the nitrate of
ammonia ; 2, from the putrefaction of vegetable or animal matter, at the commence-
ment of which azote and hydrogen combine. This decomposition is aided by adding
chalk to cultivated soil ; for chalk, as Boussingault has proved, attacks insoluble
azotized matters, and favours the formation of ammonia. The alkaline and earthy
salts, and notably the sulphates, and phosphate of lime are derived from the soil ;
the sulphates are decomposed by the ammonia, which substitutes itself as their base,
and forms a sulphate of ammonia, which, being soluble in water, and containing
azote, hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, is eminently adapted for the nourishment of
plants. Phosphate of lime, which is insoluble in pure water, is soluble in water
containing either an ammoniacal salt or carbonic acid only, as is the case with rain.
The water which holds in solution these different inorganic substances is a colourless
liquid, which rises by the vessels into the root, stem, and leaves, fills the cells and
their interstices, in which, during life, are formed the organic matters which
are- to be deposited in the tissue of the vegetable, or to assist in its growth.

The above-mentioned inorganic substances are all binary compounds, which
sometimes remain isolated, sometimes enter into combination with one another. But
the organized substances which are found in the plant are the results of more com-
plicated combinations ; we have already spoken of cellulose and sta/rch, allied to which
is a third substance named dextrine, which does not turn blue with iodine and which
is soluble in water ; its chemical composition is exactly the same as that of
cellulose and starch, which are ternary bodies, composed of carbon, together with

FOOD OF VEGETABLES. 143

hydrogen and oxygen in tlie same proportions as water. These three bodies, formed
from the same elements in similar proportions, are called isomerous bodies ; the
difference between them consists entirely in the manner in which their molecules
are grouped ; it is therefore simply necessary to derange these molecules to convert
dextrine, cellulose, and starch into each other.

The sugar yielded by the Sugar-cane, Beetroot, and many other vegetables is also
a ternary compound very similar to the preceding ones, containing one molecule
more of water than starch, dextrine, and cellulose contain.

Glucose or grape-sugar only differs from cane-sugar in containing three molecules
more of water. Thus starch or dextrine, with an additional molecule of water,
becomes cane-sugar ; and grape-sugar from which three molecules of water are
abstracted becomes cane-sugar.

Organic acids, such as acetic acid, which is found in the sap of plants, and forms
in sour wine, pectic acid in the gooseberry, tartaric acid in grapes, malic acid in
apples, citric acid in the lemon and other fruits, gallic acid in oak-galls and bark, &c.,
are ternary compounds which contain carbon and the elements of water (oxygen and
hydrogen), plus a certain quantity of oxygen. Oils, essences, resins, chromule or
chlorophyll, are ternary compounds, formed by the combination of carbon with the
elements of water, plus a certain quantity of hydrogen.

Besides these, vegetables contain, especially in their bark, quaternary compounds
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; these crystallize, and are always found
in union with an organic acid which forms a salt with them, whence their name of
vegetable alkalies.

The Poppy contains morphine, narcotine, &c. ; the Nux vomica, strychnine ; the
genus Cinchona, quinine, cinchonine, and cusconine. Experience has proved that the
poisonous and medicinal properties of vegetables reside in the organic alkalies.

Other organic substances frequently found in vegetables are still more com-
plicated ; for, besides oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, plants contain sulphur
and phosphorus : these are albumen, fibrine, and casein ; the proportions of their
elements are similar, although their physical properties are different ; whence the
name ot protein by which chemists designate the essential principle- of all those
substances that are collectively designated albuminous. Protein has been alluded
to under the nucleus ; it constitutes the nutritious element of vegetables, for without
it no blood can be formed, and it is always found in this liquid. Fibrine is a
compound substance, insoluble in water, like cellulose ; it may be looked upon as the
origin of all the parts of a plant ; it always exists in them, and especially in the
seeds of cereals. Albumen coagulates with heat like starch; it constitutes nearly
all the serum of blood and the white of eggs, and abounds in the juices of plants.
Casein, which forms with starch the nutritive part of beans, lentils, and peas,
constitutes essentially, in the milk of animals, the nutriment that the young receives
from its mother. Gluten, which forms the base of leaven or yeast, exists in
most seeds, and is composed of the same elements (less the sulphur and phosphorus)
as albumen, fibrine, and casein.

The elements of carbonic acid {oxygen and carbon), of ammonia {hydrogen and

144 VEaETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

nitrogen), of water [oxygen and hydrogen), and the sulphur of soluble sulphates, supply
most of the materials of vegetables. The carbon of carbonic acid by uniting with
the elements of water forms cellulose, sugar, gum, starch, &c. ; an excess of oxygen
produces vegetable acids (malic, citric, acetic, gallic, &c.) ; an excess of hydrogen
produces chlorophyll, oils, resins ; the azote of ammonia, added to the elements of
water and of carbonic acid, gives rise to vegetable alkalies [quinine, morphine, &c.) ;
finally, sulphur and phosphorus, combined with azote, oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon, form three organic substances of similar composition, namely, jibrine,
albumen, and casern; these supply the animal kingdom with essentially nutritious
elements ; as stated above, they are always found in the blood, united with other
substances, and notably with a certain quantity of phosphate of lime, a salt which
constitutes the solid part of bones.

Humus or mould is the name given to the black carbonaceous matter which
results from the decomposition of organic substances ; vegetable mould is nothing
but cellulose, which burns slowly under the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere,
and changes into carbonic acid, which, dissolving in the water of the soil, passes into
the substance of the vegetable. The decomposition of the mould is assisted by
mineral alkalies [potash, soda, chalk, magnesia), which induce the formation of
carbonic acid, and form with it soluble carbonates, absorbed by the roots ; then,
under the influence of these same alkalies, the water and carbonic acid decompose,
and vegetable acids are formed, more or less oxygenized, with which they combine ;
finally, these acids change, and become sugar, starch, or cellulose.

Thus, vegetable acids are indispensable to the existence of plants, and their
formation depends : 1, on the water and carbonic acid which combine to form them ;
2, on the mineral alkalies which induce this combination. Now these alkaline bases,
which play so important a part in vegetation, reside in hard or soft rocks, named
feldspar, mica, granite, gneiss, basalt, the elements of which are silica, alwmina, potash,
magnesia, lime, &c. ; these bases are liberated by the disintegration or decomposition
of the rocks, of which the debris, more or less changed, constitute arable soil. The
rocks are disintegrated by the water which, having penetrated them, expands in
passing to the state of ice, and thus overcomes the cohesion of their elements.
These elements are then dissolved by water, either pure, or containing oxygen, or
loaded with carbonic acid ; it is thus that the aluminous and alkaline silicates are
disintegrated and dissolved, previous to forming argillaceous soils.

Alkalies, and especially potash, when mixed with soil, are rendered soluble by
the addition of sulphate of lime, as Deherain has proved. Since the sulphate of lime
changes the salts of potash into sulphate of potash, it has been supposed that the
greater solubility of potash after being thus treated is attributable to this trans-
formation; this hypothesis has not yet been practically proved, and we do not know
whether the sulphate acts chemically on the potash, or whether its effects are purely
physical, the object being to liquefy the soluble salts, to preserve them from the ab-
sorbent action of the earth, and to facilitate their absorption by the roots of the plant.
But, whatever be the explanation, this property of sulphate of lime proves the advantage
of adding it to the soil in which leguminous fodders are cultivated [Trefoil, Lucerne,

JSrUTEITION or VEGETABLES. 145

Sainfoin), of whticli the ashes are rich in potash ; while, on the contrary, the addition
of carbonate of lime, which induces the formation of ammonia, is very usefully
employed in the cultivation of cereals, for which azotized manures are necessary.

Silica is useful, because, being powdery and insoluble, it admits air and mois-
ture, alumina, because it retains moisture, around the roots ; lime, because, under the
influence of water acidified by carbonic acid, it replaces the alkaline bases of the
silicates ; hence the importance of marl, which is a mixture of clay and lime. If the
soil is composed of pure silica or of pure chalk, it is absolutely sterile ; if it is wholly
of c^ay, the roots cannot penetrate it. The best soil is that in which clay is mixed
with carbonate of lime and sand {silica), in such proportions that air and moisture
readily permeate it.

Tillage improves the soil by breaking it up, and multiplying the surfaces which
ought to be in contact with carbonic acid, the ammonia of the rain, and the oxygen
of the air, so that the debris of the rocks may be rendered soluble, and form arable
land. The period of fallow is that during which the soil is left to atmospheric
influences. While the land is thus left fallow as a preparation for certain crops, it
may be occupied by some other plant which does not rob the soil of the materials
required for such crops ; this explains the theory of the rotation of crops.

NUTRITION OF VEGETABLES.

Absorption. — The roots are the principal organs of absorption ; they pump up the
liquid into which they are plunged, by means of their permeable cells. The upward
movement of the sap is explained by a recent discovery in physics : — if a tube closed
below by a porous membrane, and filled with a dense liquid, is plunged into a less
dense coloured liquid, there is soon a tendency to establish an equilibrium of density,
and the dense liquid in the tube becomes coloured by the addition of the less dense
liquid outside it, and the two liquids stand at different heights ; that in the plunged
tube rises above its level, and only stops rising when its density is no longer greater
than that in the outer tube. But to produce this equilibrium, the exterior liquid
must receive a certain quantity of that within ; thus there is a double current esta-
blished through the porous membrane ; the one from without inwards, called endos-
mose ; the other, less in degree, from within outwards, called exosmose. . This action
accompanies the absorption of fluid by the roots ; the damp soil contains water laden
with ammonia, carbonic acid, and different salts ; the roots, as well as the stem, are
composed of a series of superimposed cells, some of which are filled with a dense juice,
and others with vessels in which the liquid can easily rise by capillary action ; the
spongioles which terminate the root- fibres having no epidermis, are very permeable,
the water of the soil penetrates them, the juice which they contain is diluted by
this water, and to establish equilibrium the sap rises from cell to cell to the top of
the plant.

Circulation. — When the water of the soil, laden with the carbonic acid, ammonia,
and mineral matters dissolved in it, has peneti-ated the plant, it takes the name of

li

146 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY

ascending sap ; this sap thickens as it ascends, in proportion as it dilutes and dissolves
the materials in the cells ; but to the motive force of the endosmose and capillary
action is added another not less powerful : this is the attraction exerted from above
by the buds, which draw up the food necessary to their development, and by the
already formed leaves, from the surface of which copious evaporation is carried on.
The empty spaces resulting from this evaporation and from the substance assimilated
by the buds, are filled by the sap in the parts immediately below ; these repair their
losses in their tarn, and this action is continued from above down to the roots, for
which the soil is the reservoir.

The buds are the first organs of the vegetable which awake in spring from their
winter torpor ; when they begin to swell, the resulting movement of the sap stimulates
the roots, which recommence their functions ; from this time the ascending current,
assisted by the endosmose, is established through the swollen tissues of the thickened
materials deposited the preceding year. Nevertheless, although it is the buds which
give the roots the signal to recommence their work, the work of the roots is carried
on independently of the influence of the buds ; for these remain closed long after the
sap has begun to rise with remarkable force and abundance. If at the period of
the spring sap an incision is made in a stem, a stream of sap flows from it, and the
proof that neither the buds nor the leaves are the cause of this phenomenon is that
it occurs just the same on a stem deprived of buds and leaves. An example of this
is seen in the tears of the vine, which flow from the stem when the plant is pruned,
and even when it is cut almost to the ground; but as the buds lengthen, and as the
branches resulting from their elongation become covered with leaves, the suction of
the young branch and the evaporation from the surface of the leaves become active
forces, which join those of the endosmose and capillary action to assist the ascension
of the sap.

When the branches are developed and consolidated, the movement of the sap
slackens, but without ceasing ; its only object now is to provide for the daily require-
ments of the plant, and to prepare materials for the vegetation of the following year.
When the spring rise of sap has taken place early, these materials are prepared before
autumn, and then the August sap is produced, which represents a second spring.

In the autumn, the tissues, more and more solidified, dry up ; the leaves, of
which the canals become obstructed by a continual efBux of materials, cease to vege-
tate, and fall ; evaporation is thenceforth arrested, and with it the movement of the
sap ; and finally, life is suspended for several months.

The ascent of the sap does not always take place in the same manner ; in spring
it rises across all the woody tissues ; in old branches, across the sap-wood only. Later,
most of the vessels are empty except of gases ; it is then by the cellular tissue that
the sap rises to support the vegetation.

When the sap, laden with the materials that it has dissolved in its ascending
and diverging march, has reached the young branches, it penetrates their cortical
pith and the parenchyma of the leaves ; there it finds itself in contact with the air
which has penetrated by the stomata into the intercellular spaces ; then it under-
goes important modifications, and loses a large portion of its water, which evaporates

NUTRITION or VEGETABLES. 147

on the outside. The cells of the green parts of the bark and leaves fill with chloro-
phyll. The latex of the laticiferous vessels becomes charged with coloured granules,
and the sap, thickened and enriched with new principles, descends from the leaves
along the inner surface of the bark towards the roots. This descending movement
is easily proved ; it is sufficient to prune the bark of a young branch to see the sap,
if it is coloured, ooze from the upper lip of the incision and not from the lower. If
the stem be tightly corded, after some time the bark swells, and forms a cushion
above the ligament, whUe the stem below will preserve its original diameter. For
this reason the elaborated sap is also called descending sap.

The elaborated sap furnishes the cambium, a gelatinous fluid which permeates
the cellular zone, and in yvhich are formed the elementary organs which combine to
produce growth in the vegetable.

In dicotyledonous stems, the cambium is principally deposited between the
woody and cortical systems, within the layer of laticiferous vessels and the fibres
of the liber, in contact with which the descending sap flows. The young buds
springing from the axil of a leaf are placed in the direction of the flow of latex
from that leaf, and which, accumulating at the base of the petiole, elaborates there
the elements of cambium.

In monocotyledonous stems, the fibres analogous to the liber and the vessels of
the latex, which each fibro-vascular bundle contains, furnish an elaborated sap, which
deposits cambium in heaps dispersed through the stem ; so that their terminal bud
profits by the sap elaborated by the leaves of the preceding bud.

Finally, rain, containing the materials for the food of the vegetable, is absorbed
by the tips of the roots, rises in the stem, crosses the wood system, reaches the
parenchyma of the leaves and the cellular tissue of the barb, where it undergoes the
action of the air, becomes elaborated sap, descends through the bark, deposits a
zone of cambium between the liber and alburnum, and arrives at the tips of the
roots, whence it started ; thus establishing a true circulation.

Oyclosis is a peculiar circulation which Schultz has discovered in the laticiferous
vessels ; he observed that the coloured granules flow in sinuous tracks, being carried
by the latex currents in various directions along the courses of the anastomosing
laticiferous vessels.

Physiologists have proposed different theories to account for the propelling
force which puts the latex in motion ; but Mohl has shown that this motion is not a
vital phenomenon, but that it always arises, either from a rent in the tissue, whence
the latex necessarily escapes, or from a mechanical pressure on the tissue, which
sets the latex in motion; as also that this motion soon ceases.

But if cyclosis is an obscure and doubtful phenomenon, this is not the case with
the intercellular circulation {rotation), which can be observed in the septate hairs of
certain plants (Tradescantia), and especially in the cells of certain aquatics (as
Cha/ra) . Chara is a leafless, frondless acotyledon ; its internodes, whether isolated
or in bundles, consist of cylindrical cells placed end to end ; each internode pro-
duces at its top a whorl of cells similar to itself, which speedily become similarly
septate. If one of these cells be placed under a microscope, and cleared from the

L 2

148 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

calcareous crust which often envelops it like a bark, numerous granules are seen
floating in a transparent liquid within the cell, and forming a current which rises
along one of the lateral walls, then flows horizontally along the upper wall, then
descends along the other lateral wall, and becomes again horizontal along the lower
wall of the cell. It is this intracellular motion which has been called rotation, a
very inappropriate term, for which it would be better to substitute that of cyclosis
(abolished by Hugo Mohl), which expresses much more exactly the circular move-
ment of the sap in the cell.

Respiration. — The carbon of plants is derived from the carbonic acid contained
ill the air ; the roots absorb it with the water of the soil which holds it in solution ;
whilst the carbon of the air enters the leaves through their stomata. Many
experiments prove that the leaves and green parts exclusively possess the power of
decomposing carbonic acid, thus separating the oxygen, and restoring it to the
atmosphere ; they also decompose water and retain the hydrogen ; this power is
only exercised under the influence of sunlight. Now animals are constantly burning
carbon by means of the oxygen of the air, and exhaling carbonic acid, in which
operation they consume an enormous quantity of oxygen ; but plants, by their
respiration, restore the balance, for they provide an inexhaustible store of pure
oxygen, and incessantly repair the loss which the atmosphere has sustained through
the respiration of animals.

The power possessed by leaves of decomposing carbonic acid ceases at night or
in darkness ; then the carbonic acid, absorbed by the roots with the water of the
soil, enters the stem, and remains dissolved in the sap with which the plant is
impregnated ; soon this water evaporates through the leaves, and carries off the
carbonic acid which it held in solution.

The green parts of plants absorb oxygen during the night by a chemical process,
which tends to produce a change in the materials contained in their tissues. To
blanch plants, they must be placed under the same conditions as the green parts of
vegetables are during the night, namely, in continuous darkness ; the carbonic acid
is then not assimilated, the green chlorophyll is not formed, and their tissues con-
tain an excess of water ; and the horticulturist is thus enabled to expel the bitter
principle from stems or leaves.

This exclusive property of the green parts is perhaps due to their having
absorbed the chemical rays of the solar light, which rays may aid in the decom-
position of carbonic acid in the chlorophyll.

Respiration, which is the reciprocal action of the sap upon the air, and of the
air upon the sap, is carried on in the intercellular spaces {lacun^n) beneath the
siomata, where the air comes into contact with the parenchyma. Submerged plants,
which have no epidermis, and whose parenchyma is hence exposed to the fluid,
decompose the carbonic acid which the water always contains, under the influence
of light transmitted through the water ; they fix the carbon and reject the oxygen,
which remains in solution, and supports the life of aquatic animals. Here, as in
the air, the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms reciprocate only under the stimulus
of light; and if the water be too deep, the plant becomes pale and etiolated.

NIJTEITION OF VEGETABLES. I49

Besides the elaboration of sap by the green tissues, other truly respiratory
processes are carried on in the plant for the purposes of assimilation : thus, when
the seed germinates, it absorbs oxygen and liberates carbonic acid; a process
analogous to the respiratory in animals, and which is continued until the first leaves
of the embryo are developed. Similar respiratory processes accompany flowering ;
the petals and stamens absorb, by day as well as by night, much oxygen, and emit
much carbonic acid ; hence the noxious quality of the air in a room full of plants ;
which is greatly increased by the exhalation of carburetted hydrogen, contributed
by the volatile oils to which the perfume of the corolla is due.

Evaporation is a phenomenon analogous to the pulmonary perspiration of
animals, and should be treated of after respiration. Evaporation is one of the
most active agents in the ascent of the sap ; it goes on through all the pores on
the surface of the green parts, but especially through the stomata ; increasing or
diminishing as the surrounding air is drier or moister.

Leaves possess in a slight degree only the power of absorbing the watery vapour
in the air ; and though certain uprooted plants remain fresh for some time, this is
due to their losing little by evaporation. So, too, leaves floating with their lower
surface on the water do not wither, not because they absorb water, but because their
stomata being stopped up, evaporation is arrested.

Excretions.— A plant, after being nourished by the materials of the elaborated
sap, rejects by its leajves, glands, bark, and especially by its root, all useless or noxious
matters. Thus, to express in a few words the nutritive functions of its life, a
vegetable may be said to absorb, breathe, assimilate, perspire, and excrete.

Direction of the Axis. — The stem tends always to ascend, and the root as
uniformly to descend, and even in underground stems the tip of the rhizome always
turns upwards. In the Mistleto, a parasite, the seed, fixed to the branch of a tree,
germinates on the bark, and always directs its radicle towards the centre of the
branch, and its plumule in the opposite direction ; here the tree takes the place of
the soil, and the root obeys a centripetal, the stem a centrifugal force.

Attempts have been made to elude this general law of the direction of axes,
by reversing the seeds of young plants, when the root bends round to the earth, and
the stem turns upwards. A box of damp earth has been so suspended that seeds
could be planted on the lower surface of the earth, the soil being above, air and
light below ; still the stems rose into the earth, the roots descended into the air.

Movements of Leaves and Flowers. — Leaves constantly direct their inner surface
towards the sky, and their outer towards the earth ; if this direction is reversed by
twisting the base of the petiole, the leaf constantly tends to turn round in spite of
all obstacles, and if these obstacles be insuperable, it gradually dies ; if the branch
be reversed artificially, the petiole twists ; if the reversion is natural, as in weeping
trees, the torsion of the petiole is spontaneous, and the inner surface turns towards
the sky ;, if, finally, a leaf be so suspended that its blade is horizontal and its inner
surface is turned downwards, the blade speedily turns round, and resumes its normal
position. This instinct of the leaf depends neither on air nor on light, for it is
displayed in water and in darkness. But with many species, the state of the

150 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

atmospliere, whether gloomy or bright, dry or moist, hot or cold, gives i-ise to
singular movements in leaves and flowers. Thus, during the night the leaflets of the
Bean and of Trefoils rise ; those of the Liquorice and of Hohinias hang vertically.
This phenomenon has been called the sleep of plants; and to prove that this sleeping
and waking depends on the absence and presence of light, plants have been, caused
to sleep at mid-day, by placing them in the dark ; whilst others have been wakened
at night by a strong artiflcial light.

There are various exotic plants, which, waking by day and sleeping by night
in their native country, retain in our houses the habits of their climate, which
being the reverse of ours, they sleep during our day, and wake when the sun has
sunk below our horizon. Tropical plants wake and sleep with us as if we had a
perpetual equinox.' Certain plants exhibit movements induced by accidental external
stimuli; such is the Sensitive Plant {Mimosa pudica). Its periods for sleeping and
waking do not precise^ coincide with our night and day, its waking periods being
subject to vicissitudes depending on the slightest causes : a gentle shake, a breath
of wind, the passage of a storm-cloud, the falling of a shadow, offensive vapours,
the most delicate touch, cause the leaflets to droop suddenly, and closely overlap
each other along the petiole, which then droops also ; but soon after, if the cause
be removed, the plant recovers from this sort of faint, all its parts revive and resume
their first position.

Venus' Fly-trap {Dionwa muscipula) is a small ISTorth American herb, whose
excitability is fatal to the insects which approach it ; its leaves terminate in two
rounded plates, joined by a hinge like the boards of a book, and fringed with
marginal bristles ; on their upper surface are two or three little glands which distil
a liquid attractive to insects';' when a fly touches these, the two plates close sharply
and seize the insect, whose efforts to escape increase the irritation of the plant,
which finally crushes it ; when the insect is dead and all movement has ceased, the
plates expand again, and await a fresh victim. These phenomena] which are"T!he'
effect of excitement, are not so exceptional as might be supposed ; many plants of
our climate offer analogous though much less remarkable examples.

The opening of some fiowers is due to the stimulus of light : most open by day,
though some by night, as the Marvel of Peru (Mirahilis longifiora and Jalapa) ; others
open and close at various hours, and the hour of the day may be ascertained by
watching their habits. Linnaeus arranged his floral dock in accordance with these
periodical changes ; but such a clock, in our variable climate, is often too slow
or too fast ; it can only be correct in the torrid zone, where there are but few
atm.ospheric changes.

The heat and moisture of the atmosphere also influence the daily motions of
flowers : certain species foretell rain by closing in the middle of the day, or by
remaining open in the evening, or by not opening in the morning. Attempts have
been made to construct a floral harometer from these observations, but its perform-
ances are far more irregular than those of the floral clock.

• These statements are opposed to all the established phenomena of plant-life, as known to English
observers. — Ed.

151

PHENOMENA OF REPRODUCTION.

Fertilization. — Under Organographj, the fertilizing action of tlie pollen on tlie
ovules was alluded to, but not explained ; we stall now analyse sonxe details of
this wonderful process, the most important of all departments of Vegetable
Physiology.

The ancients bad confused ideas as to the nature of the stamens ; the botanists
who wrote after the Renaissance hazarded some vague conjectures on this subject ;
and it was only towards the end of the seventeenth century that their true functions
were assigned with precision to the pistil and stamen. Tournefort rejected the fact
of fertilization, and persisted in considering the stamens as organs of excretion.
After his death, the most devoted of his disciples, Sebastian Vaillant, in a discourse
delivered in 1716 at the King's garden, explained the functions of the stamens, and
demonstrated incontrovertibly the phenomena of fertilization in plants. Thanks
to this discovery, the date of which is known, France claims the honour of the
most important discovery which had hitherto been made in Botany. Eight years
later, Linnaeus popularized the doctrine of fertilization by his writings, which were
no less remarkable for their learning than for their logical accuracy and poetic
charm.

A few examples will suffice to prove the necessity of the pollen to fertilize the
ovule. The Bate is a dioecious tree, whose fruit is the principal food of certain
eastern nations. From time immemorial these have habitually suspended panicles
of male flowers on the female plants, when fertilization invariably ensues. These
nations, when at war, destroy their enemies' male Date-trees, and so starve their
owners by rendering the female plants sterile.

When the rainfall is excessive at the flowering season of the Yine, the growers
say that the vine nms, i.e. that the pistils are abortive ; which is owing to the pollen
having been washed away, and fertilization having consequently not been effected.
In newly-discovered Pacific islands, dioecious Gucurhitacece introduced for the first
time have produced female flowers; but there being no males, fertilization has
never taken place. Botanists can prevent or produce fertilization by cutting away
all or some only of the stigmas of a pistil ; in the latter case the ovaries corre-
sponding to these stigmas do not produce seed. A pistilliferous Palm cultivated in
a hothouse at Berlin had been sterile for eighty years, when some pollen from a
staminiferous plant of the same species was sent by post from Garslruhe, by which
the Berlin tree was fertilized; it was then left sterile for eighteen years, after which
time it was again artificially fertilized, and the operation succeeded as at first.

Experimenters have employed other means to demonstrate the physiological
action of the stamen ; they have placed the pollen of one species on the stigma of
a different species, belonging to "the same genus, when individuals have been
produced partaking of the nature of both species. Plants thus produced by cross
fertilization are termed hybrids ; their organs of vegetation are pretty well deve-

152 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

loped, but those of reproduction are imperfect, and their seeds are unfertile after
one or two generations.

Connected with this interesting subject of fertilization is the history of
Cwlehogyne ilicifolia, an Australian Buphorbiaceous shrub, which cannot be omitted
here. Its flowers are dioecious, and for many years female individuals have been
cultivated in Enghsh Botanic Gardens, which, without the co-operation of stamens
(for there is not a single male plant in Europe), have produced seeds which have
germinated, and produced in their turn individuals perfectly resembling the mother
plant. Here the production of fertile seeds without the intervention of pollen is
incontestable. But we do not think that this exceptional phenomenon (which has,
however, been almost authentically paralleled by Hemp and Mercurialis, both
indigenous dioecious plants) will overturn the admitted doctrine of the fertilization
of the ovule by the poUeu ; and we find no difficulty in admitting that Nature has
given to the seeds of certain dioecious plants a power of multiplied reproduction,
which may extend to several generations, such as is proved to exist in the case of
Aphides. Besides, the force of the anomaly presented by Gaelebogyne cannot be esti-
mated at its true value until time shall have shown whether this power is limited or
indefinite.

The period of fei-tilization is that at which the flower exhales its perfume and
appears in its full beauty ; the stamens and pistil then exhibit spontaneous motions,
which in some species are very remarkable. Thus, in the Berheris, the filaments of
the stamens are at first pressed between the two glands of each petal, which as
they spread force the filaments to spread also ; these soon free themselves under
the stimulus of the sun, aided by a slight evaporation which has contracted these
and the glands which retained them ; when they quickly resume their original bent
position and approach the pistil, on which the anthers shed their pollen. This
action, which is efi'ected by the solar rays, may be artificially induced, either by
gently irritating the filaments, or by shaking the fiower ; for the least shake or
slightest touch releases the stamen. The same irritability is observable in Parie-
taria and in Nettles, the filaments of which lie curved back within the calyx, but
instantly spring up, if lightly touched; when the anther, which was previously
pressed down at the bottom of the flower, is carried up, and sheds a little cloud of
pollen. Rue sheds its pollen with less force but with better aim ; it has four or five
petals and eight or ten stamens ; on most flowers there is one stamen which, instead
of spreading horizontally over one or between two petals, bends over the pistil,
against which the filament presses. If patiently watched, the anther will be found
to open and emit the pollen ; when the stamen, having fulfilled its function, falls
back, and another rises to take its place, and so on in succession till all the anthers
have in turn shed their pollen on the pistil. The elasticity of the anthers is not
always sufficient to discharge the pollen on the stigma. The conditions under
which the pollen is discharged are very various ; in many cases the flower is fertilized
before expansion ; in many others, the anthers are placed above the pistil, and the
pollen is brought directly into contact with the stigma ; but it frequently happens
that the position of the stamens is unfavourable to their pollen reaching the stigma,

PHENOMENA OF EEPEODUCTION. 153

when its transmission is effected by the wind, and especially by insects. ■ Butter- "
flies, flies, moths, bees, and often very small Coleoptera may be seen at the bottom
of flowers, eagerly seeking the honey, and thus becoming useful auxiliaries in
the fertilization of the pistil, either by dispersing the poUen with their wings, or
by carrying the pollen of one plant on the hairs of their bodies to another plant
of the same species. Here we must notice a very interesting series of coincidences :
when the anthers open to shed their pollen, the stigma becomes viscous to retain
it ; nectar is distilled by the glands, and nectar-feeding insects make their appear-
ance ; lastly, at the same — often very brief — period, the corolla expands, whose
colour and scent must affect the powerful sight of insects and their subtle sense of
smell.

Mr. Darwin has recently published, on the fertilization of certain plants, experi-
ments which throw a new light on Natural Science, and plainly reveal the marvellous
precautions taken by Nature to prevent the degeneration of species. He has en-
deavoured to give the rationale of the differences observable in the flowers of Primula.
In this genus the same species presents two very remarkable forms : a long-styled, in
which the stigma is' globular and wrinkled, and exactly reaches the mouth of the
corolla-tube, far overtopping the anthers, which only reach half-way up the tube.
In the other form the style is not half the length of the corolla, and the stigma is de-
pressed and soft, but the anthers occupy the upper part of the tube, their pollen is
larger, and the capsule contains more seeds than that of long-styled individuals. This
dimorphism between longistyled and brevistyled primroses is constant ; the two forms
are never met with on the same individual, and the individuals of each form are
about equal in number. Mr. Darwin covered with netting plants of both the long-
styled and short-styled forms, most of which flowered ; but as neither produced seed,
he concluded that insects are necessary to their fertilization. But as, in spite of his
utmost vigilance, he never saw any insects approach uncovered primroses during the
day, he supposes that they are visited by moths, which find abundant nectar in
them. He endeavoured to imitate the action of insects, which, while extracting
honey from flowers, are the agents of their fertilization, and his experiments led
him to very interesting conclusions. If we introduce into the corolla of a short-
styled primrose the trunk of a moth, the pollen of the anthers placed at the mouth
of the tube adheres to the base of Hie trunk, and it may be concluded that this
. pollen will necessarily be deposited on the stigma of the long-styled primrose when
the insect visits it. But in this fresh visit, made to the long-styled primrose, the
trunk descending to the bottom of the corolla, finds the pollen of the anthers which
are situated there ; this pollen adheres to the end of the trunk, and if the insect
visits a third 'flower, which is short-styled, the end of its trunk will touch the stigma
placed at the base of the tube, and will deposit the pollen on it. Besides this it
may be admitted as very probable that in its visit to the long-styled flower, the
insect in drawing back its trunk, may leave on the stigma a portion of the pollen
from the anthers placed lower down, and the flower would be thus fertilized by
itself. It is besides nearly certain that the insect, when plunging its trunk into a
short-styled corolla, will have rubbed the anthers inserted at the top of the tube.

154 TBGETABLB PHYSIOLOGY.

and deposited on the stigma of the flower a portion of its own pollen. Finally, the
corolla of primroses contains many tiny hemipterous insects, of the genus Thrips,
which, moving about the flower in all directions, transport from the anthers to the
stigma the pollen which adheres to them ; by which means again the plant will be
self-fertilized.

In the fertilization of dimorphic species four operations are thus possible : — 1,
self-fertilization of the long-styled flower; 2, self-fertilization of the short-styled
flower ; 3, fertilization of the short- by the long-styled ; and 4, that of the long- by the
short-styled: the two first Mr. Darwin calls homomorphio ; the two others, hetero-
Tnorphic.

Mr. Darwin has artificially fertilized flowers in these different ways, by pro-
tecting them from insects, and he has found in the wild -pTimrose '{Primula veris] and
in the Chinese primrose {Primula Sinensis) that heteromorphic unions produce con-
siderably more capsules and good seeds than homomorphio unions. Thus prim-
roses present two sets of individuals, which, although belonging to the same species,
and both possessing stamens and pistils, are mutually dependent on each other for
perfect fertilization. Mr. Darwin concludes that 'N'ature, in establishing dimorphism
in primroses, and in distributing tbe two forms in equal numbers of individuals, has
evidently had in view the crossing of distinct individuals ; the relative heights of the
anthers and stigmas obliging insects to deposit the pollen of one set on the stigma
of the other. Nevertheless it is impossible not to admit that the stigma of the
visited flower may receive its own pollen. Now it is a well-known fact, that jf the
pollen of several varieties fall on the stigma of one individual, that of one of the
varieties is prepotent, and its pollen takes effect to the exclusion of that of all
the others. Mr. Darwin thinks that it may be inferred from this that in primroses
the heteromorphic pollen, which is known to be the most potent, wiU overcome the
action of the homomorphic pollen whenever the two come into collision ; thus, he
adds, indicating the efficacy of dimorphism, in producing crosses between individuals
of the two forms. These two forms, although both bearing stamens and pistils, are
in this case truly dioecious ; each of them is fertile, though the pollen of each is less
potent on its own stigma than on that of the other form.

Mr. Darwin has studied dimorphism in the different species of Linum, and he
has instituted on L. gi'andiflorum and perenne a series of experiments which confirm
the preceding conclusions.

The scarlet-flowered L. grandiflorum has also the two types of long and short-
styled flowers ; in the short-styled form the five stigmas diverge, project between
the filaments, and rest against the tube formed by the petals. In the long-styled
form, on the contrary, the stigmas are erect, and alternate with the anthers. Mr.
Darwin selected twelve flowers of two long-styled individuals which he fertilized
heteromorphically, i.e. with pollen from the short-styled form ; most produced good
capsules and seeds ; those which were not touched remained absolutely sterile,
although their stigmas were covered with a thick layer of their own pollen. He
next sought to ascertain the probable cause of this sterility, by placing the pollen of
a short- styled flower on the five stigmas of a long-styled flower, and after thirteen

PHENOMENA OF EEPEODUCTION. 155

hours he found the latter discoloured, withered, and deeply penetrated by a number
of pollen-tubes ; he then made the reverse experiment on a long-styled flower, and
this heteromorphic fertilization had the same result as the first. Lastly, he placed
the pollen of a long-styled flower on the stigmas of a similar flower, but belonging
to another plant ; but at the end of three days not a single pollen-grain had emitted
a tube. In another experiment, Mr. Darwin placed on three of the stigmas of a
long-styled flower pollen belonging to the same type, and on the two others pollen
from a short-styled flower. At the end of twenty-two hours these two stigmas
were discoloured and penetrated by numerous pollen-tubes ; the three other stigmas
covered with pollen of their own type remained fresh, and the pollen-grains scarcely
adhered to them. In TAnum perenne, dimorphism is even more obvious that in
L. grandiflorum ; the pistil of the one form is much longer, and the stamens much
shorter than in the other. Mr. Darwin has ascertained, by numerous experiments
on each of the two forms, that the stigmas of one can be impregnated only by pollen
from the stamens of the other.

It is hence absolutely necessary that insects should carry the pollen from the
flowers of one form of Linum to those of the other ; and to these they are attracted
by five minute drops of nectar secreted on the exterior of the base of the stamens :
to reach these drops, the insect is obliged to insert its trunk between the staminal
whorl and the petals. Now, in the short-styled form, if the stigmas, which were
originally vertical and faced the floral axis, had preserved this position, their backs
only would have been presented to the insect, and the flower could never be thus
fertilized ; but the styles having diverged, and protruding between the filaments, the
stigmatic surfaces are turned upwards, and rubbed by every insect which enters the
flower, thus receiving the pollen which fertilizes them.

In the long-styled form of L. grandiflorum the styles diverge very slightly, and
the stigmas project a little above the corolla-tube, so as directly to overhang the
passage leading to the drops of nectar ; consequently, after an insect has visited the
flowers of either form, it withdraws its trunk well covered with pollen. If it then
plunges its trunk into a long-styled flower, it necessarily leaves some of this pollen
on the papillse of the stigmas ; if it plunders a short-styled flower, it still deposits
pollen on its stigmas, the papillae of which are here turned upwards. Thus the
stigmas of the two forms receive indifferently the pollen of both, though fertilization
of each can only be effecited by the pollen of the opposite form.

In the long-styled type of L. perenne the styles do not sensibly diverge, but they
twist so as to reverse the position of the stigmas, whence the inner surfaces are
turned outwards ; thus an insect seeking nectar in the flower brushes against the
stigmatic surfaces, and leaves on them the pollen collected from another flower.

The facts here recorded demonstrate both the object of dimorphism, and the im-
portant part which insects play in the fertilization of plants. Mr. Darwin complains
that certain botanists attribute the transport of pollen to the wind and insects indif-
ferently, as if there were no important difference between the action of these two
agents. Dioecious plants, or even hermaphrodite ones, in the fertilization of which
the wind is a necessary auxiliary, present peculiarities of structure fitted for this

156 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

mode of transport : in some the pollen is powdery and abundant, as in Pines, Spinach,
&c. ; the pendent anthers of others at the. least breath scatter the pollen ; in others
the perianth is wanting, or the stigmas project beyond the flower at the moment of
fertilization ; in some the flowers appear before the leaves ; and some have feathery
stigmas, as Graminece, Mercurialis, &c. Wind-fertilized flowers do not secrete
nectar ; the pollen is too dry to adhere to insects, and the corolla is either absent, or
possesses neither the colour, scent, nor nectar which attract them.

We shall conclude these remarks by mentioning the curious phenomena re-
specting the fertilization of Vallisneria spiralis, which grows submerged in stagnant
waters in the south of France. It is dioecious, but the male plants always grow near
the female ; the female flower, protected by a spathe, is borne on a long peduncle
which rises from a tuft of radical leaves ; and the ovary bears three forked
stigmas. The male flowers are borne on a very short peduncle, and are sessile on
a conical axis enveloped in a spathe. At the flowering period the female peduncle
gradually lengthens, so that the flower finally floats on the surface of the water,
and opens its perianth of six very minute segments. Then the male flowers, which
have hitherto remained submerged, detach themselves spontaneously from their
peduncle, and rise to the surface, where numbers of them may be seen floating
around the female flower, on which the anthers elastically project an abundance of
pollen. After fertilization, the peduncle of the female flower contracts spirally, and
the ovary descends to the bottom of the water to ripen its seeds.

In describing the anther, we spoke of the fibrous cells which, after the
maturing of the pollen, form a layer upon the inner wall ; which layer gets thinner
as it approaches the line of dehiscence, where it disappears. At the moment when
the pollen is ready to be discharged, the moisture of the anther evaporates, its
hygrometrical tissue, pulled difi'erent ways by the variations of the atmosphere,
produces a strain along the line where the fibrous cells are interrupted, and these
by their contraction favour the emission of the pollen. At the same time the cells
of the stigma become viscous, so as to retain the pollen projected on to them from
the anther, or carried thither by the wind or by insects. Thereupon the pollen
swells, through the action of endosmose; the inner membrane ruptures the outer at
one of the points which touch the stigma;. the polUn-tuhe (fig. 413) lengthens,
traverses the interstices of the stigmatic cells, and reaches the conducting tissue
which fills the canal of the style, and which is charged, like the stigma, with a
thick fluid. Still lengthening, the pollen-tube finally enters the cavity of the
ovary, traverses the conducting tissue which lines the placentas, and at last
reaches the ovule (fig. 750), when it enters the micropyle - and comes in contact
with the cell of the nucleus {embryonic sac), its tip resting on the membrane of the
sac, and partly adhering to it. Soon after this contact of the pollen-tube, one,
or offcener two vesicles [embryonic vesicles, fig. 750) usually appear within the
embryonic sac, below the tip of the pollen-tube. These vesicles elongate; the
upper and thinner end adhering to the membrane of the sac. While one of the two
shrinks and disappears, the other develops, and fills more or less completely with
its free end the cavity of the embryonic sac. The embryonic vesicle, which will

PHENOMENA OF EEPRODUCTION.

157

be developed into the embryo, is at first filled with a transparent fluid, but soon
presents transverse septa at the upper contracted part which forms the sunpensor ;
then a longitudinal septum is formed in the swollen part, which answers to the free
end ; on which free end is afterwards developed either one lobe, or two opposite
lobes (cotyledons), and the opposite end becomes the caulicle.

All physiologists concur in the above, but there are different opinions as to the
part the pollen plays. Schleiden contended that the tip of the pollen-tube forms
the embryo by forcing inwards the membrane of the embryonic
sac, folding it around itself, and occupying its cavity, where it
speedily develops into the embryo. Thus, according to Schleiden,
the ovule is merely a receptacle, destined to receive the embryo,
to protect and nourish it, the true reproductive organ residing
in the anther. But a closer examination instituted by the most
skilful anatomists of the French school has repeatedly disproved
the existence of the embryonic vesicle
before the arrival of the pollen-tube. Never-
theless, it is certain that the pollen

ma-

750. CEnotUera longiflora.
Anatropous OTuIe, cut Terti-
cally at the fcoment of ferti-
lization, to show the pollen-
tube, the end of which is in
contact with the embryonic
sac ; within, at the top of
this sac, are two vesicles, one
oC which will wither, and
the other form the embryo
(mag.).

751. Santalima.
Placenta bearing three nuclei,
whence issue thi'ee embryonic
sacs, which receive three
pollen-tubes (mag.).

752. Vertical section of fig. 751
(mag.), showing two of the
embryonic sacs within and
outside the nucleus.

753. Santalum.
Portion of nut, cut Terfcically,
to show the embryonic sac
which has burst the nucleus at
the bottom, and has ascended
to the pollen-tube, the free end
of which itsheaths (mag.).

terially assists in the formation of the embryo by means of its fovilla, which passes
by endosmose from the pollen-tube into the interior of the ovule.

The fertilization of the ovule in SantalacecB presents a quite exceptional
phenomenon, which deserves to be mentioned (figs. 751,. 752, 753). The ovary is
unilocular, and the free central placenta bears several suspended ovules ; each is a
naked nucleus (without primine or secundine). At the period of fertilization, the
nucleus n bursts at the lower part, the embryonic sac se emerges by this opening
and ascends along the whole length of the outer surface of the nucleus, to meet
the pollen-tube tp a little below the top of the nucleus. The latter soon withers,
and the embryonic sac, which alone grows, forms the integument of the seed.

158 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

After fertilization flowers rapidly lose their fresliiiess ; the corolla and stamens
wither and fall; the style dries up, together with the conducting tisaue which
filled it, and that portion of this tissue which abutted on the ovule disappears.
Soon the ovary, receiving the nourishment which was previously distributed to other
parts of the flower, increases, as do the ovules ; many of these become arrested by
the overwhelming development of the others, and the number arrested is often
constant ; sometimes also the septa disappear. Finally, the fertilized pistil becomes
more or less modified in form, volume, and consistency.

Maturation. — This marks the period when the changes which take place in the
fruit, from fertilization till the dispersion of the seed, are completed. Those fruits
which remain foliaceous continue, like the leaves, to decompose carbonic acid and
disengage oxygen by day, whilst by night they absorb oxygen and disengage
carbonic acid. At maturity their tissue dries, their colour changes, their fibro-
vascular bundles separate, and dehiscence takes place.

Those fruits which lose their foliaceous consistency and become fleshy respire
like the preceding until maturity; then the parenchyma is fully developed, its
watery contents are decomposed, and fixed in new combinations ; the cellulose loses
some of its carbon and hydrogen, and becomes starch; and the latter, by the
addition of water, is changed into sugar. Vegetable acids are the equivalents of starch
and oxygen ; to change these acids into sugar, all that is necessary is either that
the carbon assimilated by the plant shall take up their o'sjg&XL, or that water shall
be formed at the expense of the latter. In most fruits these acids are not entirely
converted into sugar, but enter into combination with alkaline bases, thus modifying
their acid flavour. The proportions of acid and sugar vary according to the nature
of the fruit.

When maturation is complete, the fruit disengages carbonic acid formed at the
expense of the sugar, and the latter gradually disappears ; but the decomposing
fruit, by disengaging carbonic acid around it, materially contributes to the nourish-
ment of the young seed. At complete maturity the fruit breaks up, and the seed
thereupon commences an independent existence.

Dissemination is the act by which the ripe seeds are scattered over the surface
of the earth. In capsular fruits the seeds are freed by the dehiscence of the
carpels ; in fleshy fruits they are retained longer.

Nature has infinitely varied the methods tending to disseminate seeds : wind,
water, and frugivorous animals are the principal agents ; and man himself assists,
often unwittingly, by his labours or voyages, in the transport and multiplication of
seeds.

Germination.— The agents in germination are water, air, heat, and darkness.
Seeds bui-ied for many centuries • in dry soil, preserved from the air and from
variations of atmospheric temperature, have been known to germinate and reproduce
their species, when placed under favourable conditions.

Water softens the integuments, penetrates the tissue of the seed, and is

' The statements supposed to prove this are not generally trustworthy. — Ed.

PHENOMENA OF REPRODUCTION. 159

decomposed; its hydrogen is absorbed ; its oxygen, like that of the air, combines
with the carbon of the seed to form carbonic acid, which is set free. Heat is
indispensable to germination ; and in the series of phenomena which accompany
this process, it acts alternately as cause and effect, for a seed is the theatre of
chemical combinations. Light retards germination, by causing the decomposition
of carbonic acid, and hence preventing the formation of this gas. Under a
combination of favourable circumstances, the seed absorbs water, together with the
oxygen of the air ; the albumen, under the chemical action of these agents, loses a
portion of its carbon, and at the same time combines with the elements of water ;
it soon changes into a saccharine, milky, soluble matter, fit to be absorbed by
the embryo; if the albumen has been absorbed previous to germination, the
cotyledons enlarge and nourish the plumule. When the latter has emerged
from the ground and become green, the phenomena are reversed ; the young plant,
instead of absorbing oxygen to combine with its carbon, and disengaging carbonic
acid, absorbs carbonic acid, separates the carbon, and assimilates it.

TAXONOMY.

TAXO'NOMy is the part of Botany wliicli treats oi classification ; i.e. the methodieal
distribution of plants in groups, named Glasses, Families (or Orders), Genera, and
Species. All the individuals or separate beings of the Yegetable Kingdom which
resemble each other as much as they resemble their parents and their posterity, form
collectively a species.

All the species which resemble each other, although differing in certain charac-
ters which become the distinctive sign of each, form collectively a yenus, which takes
the name of the principal species.' Thus, the Cabbage, the Turnip, the Colza, the
Radish, are species of the same genus, which has received the name of Cabbage. As
a necessary consequence, each plant belonging to a genus and to a species has
received two names, that of the genus and that of the species, i.e. the generic and
specifvc name, and we say the Drwm-head Cabbage, the Turnip Cahbaige, the Coha
Cahbage, the Radish Cabbage.

All the genera which resemble each other form collectively a family (or order) ;
thus, the genus Cabbage, the genus Stoch, the genus Thlaspi, the genus Cochlea/ria,
belong to the same family, namely that of Cruciferce.

Those families which are %llied are united into classes -, and thus all the species
composing the Vegetable Kingdom are classified.

But the species itself may be subdivided : individuals of the same species may be
placed under different conditions ; one may vegetate on a barren rock, another in a
swamp ; this will be -shaded, that torn by the wind ; man himself may intentionally
create such differences, and combine them according to his wants. The vegetable
under these diverse influences will finally undergo changes in its sensible qualities,
such as size of root ; the size, consistency, and duration of stem ; the form, colour, and
scent of its floral whorls, the taste of its fruit, &c. But these changes, however con-
siderable, will not destroy the primitive character of the species, which will always
be discoverable throughout its modifications. A collection of individuals of the
same species which have undergone such modifications bears the name of variety.
The characters of a variety, depending on accidental causes, are never constant ; as
soon as the influencing cause ceases, the change ceases, and the primitive species
reappears in its original form. The cultivated Cabbage is an example, of which six

' This holds only in a limited sense. — Ed.

TAXONOMY. 161

varieties are known in France :— 1. tlie Wild Gahhage, wWcli is the primitive type
of the species ; 2. the Common Kale, with a long stem and spreading leaves; 3. the
Scotch Kale, of which the leaves are almost in a head when young, then spreading
and wrinkled ; 4. the Drumhead Cabbage, of which the stem is short, the leave's
green or red, concave, and gathered into a head before flowering; 5. the Kohl-
rabi, the stem of which is swollen and globular below the insertion of the leaves ;
6. the Cauliflower, of which the floral branches are gathered closely together before
flowering; the sap enters this inflorescence exclusively, and transforms it into a
thick, succulent, and granular mass, which furnishes an excellent food. Such are
modifications induced by cultivation ; they are wholly due to the excessive deve-
lopment of the parenchyma, which accumulates, sometimes in the leaves (Drum-
head Cabbage), sometimes only at the edge of these leaves (Scotch Kale), sometimes
at the base of the stem (Kohl-rabi), and sometimes in the peduncles or floral branches
(Cauliflower) .

The seed does not preserve the variety ; it always tends to reproduce the primitive \
type. Nevertheless there are plants of which the varieties are propagated by seed,
provided that the conditions which have modified the species be faithfully repeated ;
such are the Cereals, which form, not varieties, but races, the original type of which
is lost.

The older classifiers arranged plants according to their ^properties or habitats ;
others on characters drawn from the stem, roots, leaves, or hairs. It was at last per-
ceived that the flower, containing the seed which was to perpetuate the species, and
composed of leaves of which the form, colour, number, and connection notably
differ in each genus and species, is the part of the plant which ought to furnish
the best characters for classification. Hence the flower furnishes the basis of the
systems of Tournefort and Linnceus, the method of A. L. de Jussieu, and that of A. P.
de Candolle, which is a slightly modified arrangement of De Jussieu's. Tournefort
established his system on the consistency of the stem, on the presence or absence of a
corolla (and he considered every floral envelope which is not green as a corolla), on
the isolation or the contrary of the flowers, and on the shape of the petals. This
method, which appeared in 1693, and comprised 10,000 species, being based on the
most prominent part of the plant, was intelligible and easy of application, and was
once universally accepted ; but as the knowledge of species increased, many were
found that would not fall into any of its classes, and it was hence abandoned.

The system of Linnseus, which appeared forty years after that of Tournefort,
was received with an enthusiasm which still exists, especially in Germany. He took
as the base of his twenty- four classes the characters furnished by the stamens in their
relations to each other and to the pistil.

M

162

TAXONOMY.

' petaloid

m

Pi

O

1-1

' of herbs
and
shrubs

regular .
irregular

regular

of trees

TABLE 0¥ THE AETIFICIAL METHOD OF TOURNEFOET.

Classes
Campanifokm . . . .

V - lNPFjSrDIBUI.IFOEM . .

rmonopetalous^ ^ 3 Personate

Labiate

Cettch'orm

'si mple ■] EosACEOirs

7 Umbellifekotts . . .

8 Caetophtllaoeotts . .
polypetalous .- (^ ■g Liliaceotjs

10 PAPILIONACEOtrS . . .

1 11 Anomaious . . . .
[ 1 2 Flosctjloits ....

, composite J 13 Semi-flosculotjs . .

i( 14 Eadiate

( 15 STAMIJflFEEOTJS . .

apetalous J 16 Floweeless . . , .

( 17 Flowee-andfeuit-iess

f 18 Apetalous

f^P^*^^!""^ 1 19 Amentaceous . . . .

f monopetalous .... 20 Monopbtalotjs . . .

irregular

I petaloid

polypetalous J . "^ , "
' (irregular.

21 Rosaceous . .

22 Papiliostaceous

Examples
Belladonna,
Bindweed.
Snapdragon.
Sage.
Stock.
Strawberry.
Carrot.
Pink.
Tulip.
Tea.
Violet.
Thistle.
Dandelion.
Easter Daisy.
Oats.
Fe7-ns.
Fungi.
Laurel.
WiUow.
Elder.
Cherry.
jRobinia.

KEY TO THE LINN..EAN SYSTEM.

Classes

Examples

1 stamen

1 MONANBRIA . .

Centranthus.

2 stamens

2 DlANBKIA . .

Veronica.

3 „

3 Teiandria . .

Iris.

4 „

■i Tbteandeia .

Plantain.

5 „

5 Pentajtdeia .

Perixoinkle.

' e ., .,« J

e „

6 Hbxandeia.

Lily.

equal

7 „

7 Hbptandeia .

Horse-chestnut.

8 „

8 OCTANBEIA .

Epilobium.
Laurel.

9 „

9 ESNBANDEIA

10 „

10 Decanbeia . .

Pink.

' stamens

11 to 19 stamens . . . .

11 Dodecanbeia .

Home-leek.

not

20 or more, on the calyx . .

12 ICOSANBEIA .

Strawberry.

adhering'

20 or more, on the receptacle

13 POLTANDEIA

Ranunculus.

f ;„ +!,„

to the

free and

'2 long and 2 short . . . .
4 „ „ 2 „ . . . .

14 DiDYNAMIA .

Snapdragon.

XU lyUD

pistil

unequal

16 Tbteabtnamia

Stock.

same
flower

fin one

16 MONADELPHIA

Malloio.

united by their filaments . . . in two

17 DiABELPHIA

Pea.

in man J

18 POLYADEIPHIA

StJohn'sWrnt.

'' visible ■

, united by their finthers in a cylinder

19 Stnqenesia

Cornflbtoer.

iJ

- stamens adhering to the pistil

20 Gtnanbeia.

Orchis.

V— 1

male and female flowers on the same plant . .

21 MONOSCIA

Arum.

Ph

in

different-

male and female flowers on different plants
flowers with stamens or pistils, or both, on one or
many nlanta

22 DifficiA . .

23 PoLYflAMIA .
94. PTJVDTnniiLrTA

Nettle.

n

_ flowers

Parietaria.

<

imriflllil

p _

.J r

IR..™

TAXONOMY. 163

The first thirteen of the Linnasan classes are divided into orders founded on the
number of ovaries or free styles composing the pistil. In monogynia the pistil is
formed of a single carpel, or of several carpels united into one by their ovaries and
styles ; in digynia there are two distinct ovaries or styles ; in trigynia three ; in tetra-
gynia four ; in pentagynia five ; in hexagynia six ; in polygynia any number above ten.
The 14th class contains two orders : gymnospermia, in which the pistil is composed
of four lobes simulating naked seeds ; angiospermia, in which the seeds are enclosed
in a capsule. The 15th class is said to be siliquose or siliculose, according as the
fruit is or is not three times longer than broad. The 1 6th, 17th, 18th, 20th, 21st, and
22nd classes have their orders founded on the number and connection of the stamens
and styles {triandria, pentandria, polyandria, monogynia, polygynia, monadelphia, &c.).
The 19th class is divided into polygamia cequales, in which all the centre flowers of
the capitulum hare stamens and pistils, and those of the circumference have pistils
and are fertile ; polygamia frustranea, where the flowers of the circumference are
female and sterile ; polygamia neeessaria, where the flowers of the centre are male,
and those of the circumference female and fertile, &c. The 23rd class is divided
into monoecious, dioecious, trioecious. The 24th class is divided into Ferns, Mosses, Algce,
and Fungi.

A complete classification ought to satisfy two oouiditions : the first that of
enabling, one quickly to ascertain the name given by botanists to a plant, and to sepa-
rate it from the rest of the Vegetable Kingdom by differential characters, as salient
as possible. This object ought to be fulfilled by the system, which should be a true
alphabetical dictionary, facilitating research ; and its divisions ought, therefore, to be
established on the most apparent characters, however bizarre and dissimilar they may
be. From this point of view the Linnsean classification is a chef d'wuvre which will
perhaps never be surpassed, in spite of the inconveniences resulting from the not very
numerous difiiculties to be overcome in applying it. Dichotomous keys are systems
which consist in placing before the student a series of questions wherein the choice
lies between two contradictory propositions, in such a manner that, the one being
granted, the other must be necessarily rejected.

The second condition is that of placing each species and genus amongst those
with which it agrees in the most essential points of resemblance : if this object be
fulfilled, the method becomes a true science, its diyisions being founded on the
most important organs, without regard to their number, or to the difiiculty of
observing them. System enables us to discover the name of an individual from
its description ; method enables us to ascertain its position in the Vegetable
Kingdom ; — method is hence the complement of system.

The affinities which should form the basis of every natural method were first
established by A. L. de Jussieu. Before him, Magnol, of Montpellier, had introduced
into Bota,nj families of which the arrangement was founded on the structure of the
calyx and corolla; Rivin had published a classification based on the form of the
corolla, on the number of the seeds, on the form, consistency, and cells of the
fruit ; Bay had classed upwards of 18,000 species, which he divided according to
the number of cotyledons, the separation or aggregation of the flowers, the presence

M 2

164

TAXONOMY.

or absence of the corolla, the consistency of the fruit, and the adhesion or not
of the ovary with the receptacular tube. The problem of a classification by
natural affinities had thus been long propounded ; it was solved by A. L. de
Jussieu, who discovered the grand principle of the relative value of characters. In a
Memoir on Ranunculaceoe, he enunciated and developed the relative and subordinate
importance of the different organs of a plant ; this was followed by his great work on
the Families and Genera of the Vegetable Kingdom ; and the clear principle of the
subordination of characters, which had guided him in his labours, thereupon threw
great light on all other branches of Natural History.

Classes

ACOITIEDOKS

.

1 AcOTrLEDOKIA .

Stame

ns inserted on the receptacle

2 MoifO-HYPOGYNIA

Monocotyledons

,, ,, calj'x

S MONO-PEKISYKIA

„ „ ovary

4 MONO-EPIGYNIA .

Apetalous
flower.

„ „ ovary
„ „ calyx

5 Epistaminia

6 Pekistaminia .

,, ,, receptacle

7 Hypostaminia .

- Stamiuit'erous corolla inserted on the

receptacle

8 Hypocokolua .

CO

;? ?? j5

calyx

9 Pericorollia

ft

W
i-< )

i-

o

Monopetalous

-jqJEpICOBOLIIA

\ Synantheria

-|^-^ { EriCOEOLLIA

flower.

i) }f J?

ovary . ^

o

.

[ Corisakiherta

R

PolypetaloiiS
flower.

Stamens inserted on the ovary

12 EpiPETiEIA

„ „ receptacle
„ „ calyx

13 Hypopbtalia

14 Pbripetaeia

^Male and femal

e flowei

•s on different plants

15 DiCLINIA .

TABLE OF THE NATURAL METHOD OF A, L. DE JUSSIEU.

Examples
Fimffi.
Oats.
Iris.
Orchis.
Aristolochia
Riimex.
Amaranth,
Belladonna.
Campanula.

r Cornjloxoer,

\Ekla:

Carrot.
Ranunculus.
Straiolerry,
Netth.

The successors of A. L. de Jussieu have followed in his path, but have differed
as to the relative value of his characters ; and it has further been shown that single
characters of great importance may in certain cases be equalled, or even surpassed,
by several characters of secondary importance : here quality is replaced by quantity,
much as twenty sous are equal to one franc.

It may, however, be considered as proved, that the most constant characters
should rank the highest; now this constancy especially prevails in the reproductive
organs, and in accordance with the importance of their functions^ therefore the
floral organs have been rightly chosen to group species into genera, genera into
families (or orders), and these into classes. As regaxds constancy of characters, the
reproductive organs observe the following order : — the number of cotyledons, the
cohesion or separation of the petals, the insertion of the stamens, the presence or
absence of albumen and its na.ture, the direction of the radicle, the estivation, the
degree of symmetry in the position, number, and form of the floral whorls, &c.

In addition to the preceding synoptical tables, it is well to give the Arrange-
ment of A. P. de CandoUe, a,s followed in his ' Prodromus of the Vegetable
Kingdom; ' the Classification of Ad. Bronguiart, according to which the Botanical

TAXONOMY.

165

School of the Jardul des Plautes in Paris is arranged; and, finally, the Succession of
the Families established by A. de Jussieu, which we have adopted for our ' Flora of
Gardens and Fields,' and which we shall follow in the present work.

[In this, the English edition, the system of De Candolle is followed ; of which
a synopsis will be given at the end of the work.— Ed.]

ARRANGEMENT OF A. P. UE CANDOLLE.

' Polypetalous corolla, and stamens inserted

on the receptacle

Polypetalous or nionopetalous corolla, and

stamens inserted on the calyx .
Monopetalous staminiferous corolla, inserted

on the receptacle

A single floral envelope, or similar calyx

. and corolla

Visible and regular frnctifieation
, Livisible or irregular „
Celltjlak'' Plants, [ Eoliaceous expansions . . . .

or AcoiriEDOifS. { No foliaceous expansions ....

Exugens.'

Endoffens.'

Classes Examples

1 Tkalamiploral . Banunculus.

2 Calyciflokal . Strawbei-ry.

3 CoEOLLlFLoaAL . Belladonna.

4 MoNOcnLAMYDEorrs Nettle.

5 Phaneeogamio . L-is.

6 Cetpiosamic . Ferns.

7 Foliaceous . . Mosses.

8 Aphyllous . . Funyi.

CLASSIFICATION OF M. AD. BRONGNIAET.

(The Families being enumerated in the description of the Classilication of A. de Jussieu, we here confine
ourselves to the enumeration of the Classes.)

CKYPTOOAMS. — Vegetables deprived of stamens, pistil, and even of ovules. Embryo simple,
homogeneous, without distinct organs, usually formed of a single vesicle.

AMFHICtENS. — No axis or appendicular oi-gans evident; growth peripheric; reproduction by naked
spores. Algce, Fungi, Lichens.

ACROCrENS, — Axis and appendicular organs evident ; stems growing at the extremity only, without

the addition of fresh portions at the base. Reproduction by spores covered by an integument,

but not adhering by a funicle to the walls of the capsules which contain them. MiiscinecB,

F'ilicineee.

PH:A.l!iri3IlOO-A.MS. — Reproductive organs evident, formed of stamens, and of ovules, which are

either naked or enclosed in an ovary. Embryo compound, cellular, heterogeneous or formed of

many distinct parts. Old parts of the living stem increasing by the addition of new tissues.

MONOCOTYLEDONS. — Embryo with a single cotyledon. Stem composed of fibro-vascular bundles
scattered through the mass of the cellular tissue, not forming a regular circle; the living
stem not increasing by distinct concentric zones of wood and bark.

' Provided with cells and vessels.

^ The fibro-vascular bundles arranged in concentric layers, with the youngest outside.

' The fibro-vascular bundles arranged without order, the youngest in the centre of the stem.

' Deprived of vessels, and composed only of cells.

166 TAXONOMY.

Albuminous. — Embryo accompanied by albumen.

Perianth none, or sepals not resembling petals. Albumen farinaceous. Glumaceo!, Junccce,

AroidecE.
Perianth absent or double, with sepals or petals. Albumen not farinaceons, Paiidanece, Phce-

nicece, Lirioidece,
Perianth double, the inner or both petal-like. Albumen farinaceous, Bromeliacem, Scitaminece.
Exalbuminous. — Albumen wanting'. OrchidecB. Fluviales.

DICOTYLEDONS. — Embryo with two opposite, or more (and then whorled) cotyledons. Stem with
fibro-vascular bundles forming a cylinder around a central pith, separable into an inner woody
zone and an outer bark zone, and increasing by concentric layers.
ANGI08FEEMS. — Ovules contained in a closed ovary, and fertilized through the medium of a
stigma.
Gamopetalous. —Petals united.

Peeigyjtotjs. — Stamens and corolla inserted on the calyx. Ovary inferior, Campanulacece,

Asteroidecs, Lonicerinece, Ccrffeineai (^RuhiacecB).
HYPOGYiiroiis. — Stamens and corolla inserted below the ovary,

ANisoGYNOtrs. — Pistil composed of a less number of carpels than there are sepals.

Isostemonous. — Number of stamens equal to the divisions of the corolla, and alter-
nating with them. Asclepiadea, Convolmdacece, AsperifoUece, Salanece.
Auisostemonous. — Stamens partly abortive, four diijynamous, or two, Personata;,
Selacjinece, VerhenacecB.
isocfTNOTJs.^Pistil usually composed of a number of carpels equal to the sepals, Primu-
lacece,. Ericoidece, Diospyros.
DiAiA'PJiTALoVs. — Petals free or absent.

HrpoaTNous. — Stamens and petals independent of the calyx, inserted below the ovary.
raEFECT FLOWERS, having petals, in most of the genera of each class.
Calj X usually persistent after iloweiiug.

Poly steiiionoils.— Stamens usually indefinite in number. Guttiferce, Mahacea.
Oligosteraonous. — Stamens usually definite in number. CrotoninetB, PolygaUm,
Geraniacece, Terehintlmceee, H^pp-idece, JSscttUnecB, Celastrinece, Violacece.
Calyx falling, during or after flowering.

Albumen absent, or very thin. Crucifeue.

Albumen thick, fleshy or horny. Papaveracete, Beyberideoi, Magnoliacem, Ranim-

milnceee.
Albumen double, the outer farinaceous. Nymphmacece.
IMPERFECT FLOWERS.— Corolla always absent. Piperacece, Vrticew, PollfgonecB.
PBEieYNOTJS. — Stamens and petals iuserfed on the calyx,

Cyoloapermous.— Embryo bent around a farinaceous albumen, CaryophfUaceee, Cactacea.
Perispermous.— Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy or homy albumen. CrassUlacea:,

Saxifrayets, Passijloreai, Hamamelidea>, UmheUiferce, SantalacetB, Asarinete.
Aperispermous.— Albumen wanting or scanty. Cucicrbitacece, (Enothera:, Dnphmcecs,
Proteacece, Phamnacem, Mtjrtncece, Rusacem, Leguminosm, Amentacea.
GYMKOSPEBMS.—Ovales naked, that is to say, not contained in a closed ovary and savmounted
by a stigma, but directly receiving the iufluence of the pollen. Coniferts, Cycadea.

TAXONOMY.

167

SUCCESSION OF FAMILIES.

ACCOEDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF A. DB JUSSIEU.

CRTPT0(3^AMS oe ACOTYLEDONS.

CELLULAR.

Angiospoebs.

(Spores enclosed in the mother-cell, which persists,
under the name of theca). Algce, Characea,
Fungi, Lichens.

GrMNOSPOEES.

(Spores become, by the absorption of the mother-
cell, free in a common cavity). Hepatica,

VASCULAR.

I/ycopodiaceo!, Isoetce, JEguisetacecs, Ferns, Salvini-
acea, Marsileacees.

MONOCOTTLEDONOUS
PHANEROGAMS.

AaUATIC AND EXALBUMINOUS.

Naiadem, Fotamece, Zosteracea, Juncaginece, Alis-
macece, Bidomaceee, Hydrocharidece.

ALBUMiNorrs.

Spadicifloeal. (Flowers in a spadix). Lemnacea,
Armdece, Typhacece, Palmacece.

Glttmaceous. (Perianth absent, replaced by
bracts). Graminea, Cyperacece.

ENANTlOBLASTE.a!. (Radicle antipodal to the
hilum). Eriocaulonea, CommelynecR.

HoMOBl,ASiEJ3. (Radicle facing the hilum).

Superpvarian. (Ovary free). Junce<e, Ponte-
deriaceee, Aphyllanthece, Liliacece, Asparagi-
nece, Melcmihaceee.

Inferovarian. (Ovary adherent). Dioscorecs,
Iridece, AmarylHdeee, JlypoxidecB, Hema-
doracecB, Bromeiiacece, Musacecs, Cannece.

ASOHIDOBLASIEJ!;. (Embryo undivided). Orchidece.

DICOTYLEDONOUS PHANEROGAMS.

GYMNOSPEEMS.
Cycadem, Abietinea, Cujyressineo!, Taxinece, Gnetacea.

ANGIOSPERMS.

DICLINOUS.

Penbanihej!!. (Incomplete flowers, that is to sa}',
with one or no perianth). Caauannece, Myvioem,
BetuUneis, Cupulifera, Jnylandece, Salicinece,
Balsamiferce, Platanece, Moreee, Celtidece, TJl-
macece, Urticece, Cannahineat, Cynocrambeee,
CeratophyUece, SmirurecB.

PL0TJSIANTHEJ5. (Flowers with a double perianth).

Ovules 1-2, axile. Euphorbiacem, Empetracece.

Ovules numerous, parietal. Datiscece, Begoni-
ace<B, Cucurbitacea, Nepenthece,

Rhizanthb^. (Parasites on the roots of other
plants). Balauophorem, Cytinea.

§ APETALOUS.
(Flowers with stamens and pistils, and 1 perianth.)

Gtnandrotjs, (Stamens united to the pistil.)
Asarine(B.

Pekigtnotts. Santalace'ts, Loranthace<s, ProteacecB,
Eleagnets, Thymehw, Lmirinea.

Otclospeemejs. (Embryo annular). Polygone.ee,
Phytolaccece , Nyctagineee, Amarantacece, Cheno-
podiacets, Tetragomiacea.

§ POLYPETALOUS.
Ctclospeeme.«;. Portulaee/s, Paronychieee, SilenecB^

Hypogynous.

PLBUEOSPEEMEiE. (Plsjcentation parietal). Fran-
keniaceee, Tamariscineee, ViolariecB, CistinecB,
Besedacece, Capparidece, CrucifercB, Fumariacece,
Papaverace(B, Sarraceniece, Droseracea, Par-
nassiece. .

CHL\MTDOBEASTB.ffi). (Embryo enveloped in the
embryonic sac, which is thickened into an in-
ternal albumen). Nymphceacea, Nelumhiece.

.68

TAXONOMY.

VxosPEKliOTfS. (Plaeeiitation axile). Dilleniacece,
Magnoliacece, Anoiiacecs, Schizanctrecs, Berleri-
dece, Lardkabaleis, Meniqiermaceai, CoriarietB,
Xanthoxylea, IHoamecB, Mutacem, Zygophyllea,
Oxalidece, Linece, Limnanthece, Troprsolea, jRa-
rmnculaccce, Bahamineee, Geraniacem, Malvacea,
StereuKacecB, ByttneriaceiE, Tiliacets, Camelli-
acece,- HypericinecB, Polygalte, Sapindacete, Hip-
pocastanees, Acerinece, Malpighiaceo', Meliacem,
Hesperideis.

Perigijnous.

ExALBUMTNOTTS AxosPEEMS. (Seeds axile, -with-
out albumen). TerebinthaeecB^ Papilionacece,
Ccesalpinece, MimoscB, A7iiydaleee, Spireacea,
Dryadece, Smiguisorhte, Hosacece, Pmnacecs, Cahj-
cantliecB, Granateee, MyrtacecB, LytTirarieis, 3/e-
lastomdcece, Hippuridets, Callitrichinece, Trapem,
SaloragecB, Onagrariecs.

PLETjROSPEBMEiE. Loasecs, Passiflora;, Rihesiea.,
Cactaceee, Mesevihryanthece.

Albttminoits Axospeems. (Seeds axile, provided

with albumen). Crassidacece, FrancoacecB, Saxi-

fragece, Hydrangeee, CunoniaceeB, JEscalloniees,

Prexiaceee, Philadelphieee, Hamamelidecs, Cornecs,

Gmryacece, GunneracecB, Araliacece, XImbellifer<s.

Peri-Tiypogynous.

(Insertion perigynous or hypogynous, often

ambigaious.)
Ithamnece, AmpeKdecs, Celastnnees, Staphyleacaai,

Uttospoi-ece.

§ MONOPETALOUS.

Semi-monopetalotts.

(Petals free in some).

Bricacece, Rhodoracece, VaccinecB, Biapensiece, Epa-
cridecs, Pyrolacecs, Monoiropece, Styracees, Jas-
minecs, Oleinece, Ilicineis, Bbenacees, Myrsinea,
Primulacore, Plumhagineei, Plantaginea.

Etj-monopetalotts.

(Corolla always clearly monopetalous and
stamniferous).

Hypogynous.

Anisandeous. (Stamens 4, dissimilar, or 2 by
abortion). Utrkulariece, Globulunece, Sehginece,
Myoporine(e, Stilbinecs, VerbenncecB, Labiatee,
AcanthqcecF, Sesamece, BignoniacecB, CyHandra-
cea, Gesneriacem, OrobancliecB, Personatm.

IsAN-DKO-os. (Stamens similar, in number equal to
the divisions of the corolla). Solanece, Cestrinece,
Nohnea;, Borraginea, Cordiacea, Hydrophylkce,
Hydroleacece, Polemmiiacece, Bichondrem, Ciis-
cutis, Convolvulacea, Geniianece, Aiclepiadece,
Apoeynea;, Desfontainea, LoganiacecB.

Perigynows.

Bubiacets, Caprifoliacem, Valerianecs, Bipsacece,
Campamdacece, LobeliacecB, GoodeniacetB Bru-
noniacecE, Siylidieeij Gompositce,

ATLAS OF BOTANY.

SECOND PART.

ILLUSTRATIONS AND DESCEIPTIONS OF FAMILIES.

I RANUNCVLACEJE.

(RANUNCtTLACE^, /wssieM,— P^ONIACE^ AND RANUNCULACEiE, BaHlmg.)

Calyx polysepalaus. Coeolla polypetalous, hypogynous, regular or irregular, im-
bricate, sometimes 0. Stamens numerous. Anthees adnaie. Caepbls usually dis-
tinct. Y'&vvs an achene or follicle, rarely a capsule or lerry. Seeds erect, pendulous,
or horizontal. Embeto dicotyledonous, minute, at the tase of a usually homy
albumen.

Heebs, rarely sheubs {Pceonia Moutan), or woody climbers (Clematis). Leaves
radical or alternate, rarely opposite {Clematis}, simple or compound, petiole often
dilated, amplexicaul, or rarely furnished with stipuliforra appendages [Thalictrum,
Ranunculus). Flowees usually terminal, solitary, racemed, or panicled, usually
regular, sometimes irregular (Delphinium, Aconitum), ?, or rarely dioecious by sup-
pression (Clematis). Sepals 3— oO , usually 5, free, rarely persistent (Helleborus,
PcBonia), often petalold, usually imbricate, rarely valvate (Clematis). Petals equal
and alternate with the sepals, or more (JFicaria, Oxygraphis, &c.), hypogynous, free,
clawed, imbricate, deciduous, equal or unequal, various in form, often 0. Stamens
usually many, many-seriate, hypogynotis ; filaments filiform, free ; anthers terminal,
2-celled, cells adnate, extrorse or lateral. Caepels few or many, rarely solitary
(Actoea), free, rarely coherent (Wigella) ; style simple ; stigma on the inner surface of
the top of the style, or sessile ; ovules anatropous, sometimes solitary, ascending with
a ventral raphe, or pendulous with a dorsal raphe ; sometimes numerous, attached
to the ventral suture, 2-seriate and horizontal. Petjit of pointed or feathery
achenes, or of follicles, which are rarely united into a capsule (Nigella), or of t-few-
seeded berries (ActoeaJ. Seeds erect, pendulous, or horizontal ; testa coriaceous in
the achenes, and raphe little prominent ; testa crustaceous land fleshy-fungoid in the
follicles, with the raphe very prominent and almost carunculate. Embeto minute at
the base of a horny, or rarely fleshy albumen (Pceonia).

We have illustrated the family of liaiiunculacem in greater detail than the others, in
commemoration of the fine work of A. L. de Jussieu, read before the Academie des Sciences,
in 1773, which may be regarded as the date of the birth of the Natural System. B. de Jussieu,
the uncle of Antoine Laurent, had long studied the relationships existing between the different
large groups of the Vegetable Kingdom ; but he did not attempt to estimate the relative value of
the characters they presented, contenting himself with arranging in accordance with his views
the flower-beds of the garden of the Trianon, which he formed for the instruction of Louis XV.
Thirty years later, having become old and infirm, his nephew, Antoine Laurent, was charged
with the completion of this garden, and made a special study of Banunculacece, which at once
revealed to him the scientific basis of his uncle's classification. He could not have chosen a
more instructive family in a philosophical point of view, because of the numerous anomalies it

172 1. EANUFCULACE^.

presents in the form and structure of the calyx and corolla of such genera as Cvhimbine,
Aconite, Larkspur, Hellebore, Ranunculus, Anemone, Clematis, Actcea, Thalictrum, &c., which,
nevertheless, all agree in the separation of their sepals and petals, the insertion of their
numerous stamens, the direction of their anthers, the form of their ovaries, and especially in
the structure' of their seed ; all of which, no doubt, led to Antoine Laurent's discovery of the
grand principle of the reZairoe i'i(?we o/c7(araofe/'s. From these he was at once able to reason
out and to formulate the pregnant axiom which his uncle had foreshadowed : that it is not by
the number of characters, but by their value and importance, that the problein of the Natural
Method can be solved. In his paper on lianunculacece he enumerated and developed those
vievrs of the relative and subordinate importance of the organs of plants which other botanists,
Linnaeus included, had fa;iled to perceivp ; together with those principles of a natural classifi-
cation which decided the Academy of Sciences to elect him a member. ' Antoine Laurent,'
says his sou, in the ' Dictionnaire Universelle d'Histoire Naturelle ' (art, Taxonomib), ' supple-
mented this discovery in the following year (1774) by a second paper, in which he extended
his examination of a single family to all others. It hence became necessary to reconstruct the
"Ecole Botanique " of the King's Garden, which was rapidly increasirig under the powerful
influence of Buffon ; and where the method of Tournefort, hitherto adopted, no longer kept
pace with the progress and wants of science. Nor could the system of Linnaeus, though it
prevailed almost throughout the rest of Europe, be accepted in the Paris garden, which was
controlled by Buffon under the directorship of Bernard de Jussieu. The latter was now old
and nearly blind, and as he did not insist on his nephew's following his own arrangement of
the Trianon garden, it would appear that he was not himself fully satisfied with it.' Antoine
Laurent- hereupon adopted the new classification which he had proposed in 1774 to the Academy,
and thus became, as his son expressed it, both the lawgiver and administrator of the law —
legissimul lator et minister}

Prom this memorable epoch dates the commencement of Jussieu's preparations for his
great work on the Families and Genera of the Vegetable Kingdom, upon which he worked
unceasingly and single-handed for fifteen years, analysing all the genera, investigating the
germination of their seeds, and finally embodying his materials in the ' Genera Plantarum,'
which was published in 1789. 'In the Introduction, A. L. de Jussieu enunciates the lucid
principles which guided him, and illustrates their application ; whilst in his co-ordination of
the families and genera, he supplements by profoundly judicious notes the artificial character
inherent in every linear series. He further indicates the manifold relationships that exist
between the various groups of the Vegetable Kingdom ; and the very doubts which he ex-
presses betray that fine instinct for afl&nities with which he was gifted.

Science has advanced since 1789; new types have been added to the i&mWjofBanuncidaceoi, '
without disturbing any of the characters assigned to it by Jussieu. The most recent work on
the subject is the ' Genera Plantarum' of the eminent botanists Bentham and Hooker fil. ;
from which we shall borrow the description of all the known genera oi Baniuiculacece.

Tribe I. Clematide^, D.G. — Sepals valvate, petaloid. Petals 0, or narrow, flat,
shorter th.au the sepals and staminoid. Carpels 1-ovuled ; ovule pendulous, raphe

' Tlie precious mamiscript, wliicli is wholly in the up in Paris in which both the binary nomenclature of

author's handwriting, and which describes the ar- Linnaeus and the natural families established by Jussieu

rangement of this garden, still exists. It is headed are adopted. Thouin adds that the laying out of the

by an observation of its previous possessor, Andr^ Botanic Garden was begun in the autumn of 1773, and

Thouin, Professor of Horticultm-e in the Eoyal Garden, was completed in the following spring, that is, during the

to the effect that this catalogue was the first drawn vacation, so as not to interfere with the Botanical course.

1. EANUNCULACEiE.

173

dorsal. Achenes numerous, often plumose. — Stem herbaceous or woody, climbing.
Leaves opposite. Flowers cymose, sometimes dioecious.

1. * Clematis, — Petals 0, or represented by the outer stamens becoming petaloid. Carpels
numerous. Achenes capitate, sessile or sub-stipitate, tipped by tbe persistent naked or bearded
or feathery style. — Stem woody, climbing, or sub- woody, or herbaceous. Leaves several- (rarely
1-) foliolate, petiole often twining, but not becoming a tendril. Flowers solitary or panioled,
often polygamo-dioecious. Nearly cosmopolitan.

Section I. Flammula. — Involucre 0. Petals 0. Achenes with a feathery tail.

Section- II. Viticella. — Involucre 0. Petals 0. Achenes with a short tail, not feathery.

Section III. Clietropm. — Involucre calyciform, of 2 connate bracts, situated under the flower.
Petals 0. Achenes with a feathery tail.

Section IV. Atragene. — Involucre 0. Outer filaments dilated, and passing into petaloid staminodes.
Achenes with feathery tails.

2. Naravelia. — Petals linear or clavate, quite distinct from the stamens. Carpels nume-
rous. Achenes stipitate on a thick hollow receptacle, terminated by the persistent bearded
style. — Stem woody, climbing. Leaves '2-foliolate, petiole cirrhiform. Flowers panicled.
Tropical Asia.

Tribe II. Anemones, B.C. — Sepals imbricate, usually petaloid, sometimes
spurred {Myosurus). Corolla 0, or petals plane, claw not nectariferous {Adonis) or

Clematis. Clematis.

Achene cut vertically Stamen, oiiter f ace
(mug.). (mag.).

Clematis Titalba.

Clematis.
Acliene (mag.).

CldJTialis.
Flower cut Tertically (mag.).

mr

CIpmalis.
Pistil (raagO-

74

1. EANUJSrCULACE^.

ecfcariferous {Callianthemum, Myosurus). Carpels 1-ovuled ; ovule pendulous, raphe
orsal. Achenes dry, rarely fleshy {KnowUonia). — Stem herbaceous, erect. Leaves
II radical, or the cauline alternate. Mowers often involucrate.

3. *Thalictrum. — Involucre 0. Sepals 4-5, petaloid. Petals 0. Carpels more or less
amerous, on a narrow receptacle ; style short, deciduous, or 0. Achenes often stipitate,
bbed, nei'ved, or winged. — Herbs with perennial rootstock. Leaves 2-3-pinnatisect.
lowers often polygamous, panicled or racemose, dull green, yellow, purple, or whitish,
sually small. Europe, Asia, America.

4. *Anemoiie. — Involucre usually distant from the flower, of three whorled leaflets. Sepals
staloid, 4-20. Petals 0, or represented by the outer stamens changed into stipitate glands,
arpels numerous. Achenes in a head, terminated by the persistent ' naked or bearded style,
-ocapigerous herbs with perennial rootstock. Leaves radical, lobed, or dissected. Flowers
irely yellowish. Stamens shorter than the sepals. Extra-tropical regions.

Section I. Pulsatilla.— 0\xt%v stamens without anthers, gland-like. Achenes terminated by a
;arded featheiy tail.

Section II. Anemone. — Stamens all fertile. Aehenes terminated by a short point, not feathery.

Section III. Hepatica. — Involucre close to the flower, and simulating a calyjc. Axjhenes terminated
r a short st}4e, not bearded.

6, Kuiowltonia. — Sepals 5, herbaceous, deciduous. Petals 5—16, without a nectariferous
dIIow. Carpels numerous. Achenes capitate, fleshy or pulpy ; style deciduous. — -Herbs
'ith perennial rootstock, and the habit of Umbelliferce. Radical leaves sfciffj ternately decom-

Tfialicti'um.

Flower cut vertically

(mag.).

Thalictrum, Diasrram.

Thalictrum

Thalictrum.
Cai-pel entire and cut
vertically (mag,).

1. EANUNCULACE^.

175

pound, cauline small or bract-like, or 0. Flowers greenish or yellowish, peduncles often
irregularly umbellate. Sowh Africa.

6. ^Adonis. — Sepals 5-8, coloured, deciduous. Petals 5-16, often spotted at base, but with
no nectariferous hollow. Carpels numerous. Achenes in a head or spike ; style short, per-
sistent, straight or hooked. — Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves pinnatipartite, multifid,
segments narrow. Mowers solitary, yellow or red. llJurope, Asia.

7. *Calliailtlieiiium. — Sepals 5, herbaceous, deciduaus. Petals 5-15, with a basal nectari-
ferous pit. Carpels numeracis. Achenes capitate; style short, persistent. Alpine, low

Anemone Pulsatilla. Anemone Pi/lsatiHa.
Pistil (mag.). AndBOBCflum and pistil.

Jinem^one Pulsatilla. Diagram. J nemone Pulsatilla,
Stamen (mag.').

Anemone Eepatica.

Carpel entire and

cut vertically (mag.).

An£mone Pulsatilla.
Flovrec cut vertically (mag.).

Anemone ffepjtica.

Fruit and involucre

(mag.;.

Pasque flower.
(Anemone Pulsatilla.)

Anemone nemorosa.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Anemone Pulsatilla.
Ripe actiene cut vertically.

176

1. EANUNCULACE^.

'/J

Adonis. Adonis. Adonis.

Pistil (mag.). Adiene entire and cut vertically (mag,j. Tonng carpel (inag.).

Adonis,
Flower out vertically (mag.).

Myosurus.

Achene cut

vertically (mag.).

Myosurus.
Young carpel (mag,).

Myosurus.
Petal (magi).

Adonis ceslivalis.

Myosurus minimus.

Myosurus,
Flower cut vertically (mag,).

Myosurus,
fc.tamen, outer
face (mag.).

1. EANUNCULACE^.

177

herbs ; rootstock perennial. Radical leaves decompound ; canline few or 0. Flowers wMte.
jEuro^e, Asia.

8. Myosurns. — Sepals 5 (rarely 6-7), prolonged into a spnr below their insertion. Petals
as many as the sepals, narrow, spathulate ; claw filiform, tubular, nectariferous at the top.
Carpels numerous. Achenes minute, in a long spike, laterally attached ; style short, per-
sistent. — Annual, small herbs. Leaves entire, all radical. Scapes 1 -flowered, naked. Flowers
minute. Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand.

Tribe III. RAirtrNCULE^, B.C. — Sepals imbricate. Petals with a nectariferous
claw, rarely {Trautvetteria) . Carpels l-ovuled; ovule ascending, raphe ventral.
Achenes dry. — ^Herbs. Leaves radical or alternate.

Ranunculus. Vertical section ot flower (mag;)

Ranunculus

Ranun-

Pistil

culus.

(mag.)..

Stamen,

outer face

(ma^.).

Ranunculus acris.

Ranunculus.
Achene, entire and cut vertically '"niag.)-

Ranunculus>.
Petal, inner face (mag.)-

N

Ranunculus. .
Upriglit seed (mag.)-

Cet'aiocephalus.
Eipe pistil.

[78

I. EANTJNCULACE^.

J^icana ranuncaloidef.

Ceratoeephalus^
f'lower cut vertically (mag.)-

Ceratocephalva.
Toiing carpel (mag,).

Cercrtocephalus.

Achene

cTit verticnUy (wag.)*

Ficaria.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Ficaria.
Pistil.

Ficaria.
Stflmfeii(mag.),

Ficaria. Diagi'am.

9. Trautvetteria. — Sepals 3-5, concave. Petals 0. Carpels numerous. Achenes capitate,
membranous ; style very short. Embryo rather large. — Herbs with perennial rootstock.
Leaves palmatilobed, cauline few. Flowers in a corymbose panicle. North America and Japan.

10. * EanunculBS. — Sepals 3-5, caducous. Petals as many, or more numerous, with a
basal nectariferous pit or scale. Carpels numerous. Achenes in a head or spike, beaked by
the short style. — Annual, or oftener perennial herbs. Leaves entire or cut. Flowers white,
yellow or red, solitary or panicled. Almost cosmopolitan. — The aquatic species have been
made into a separate genus (Jiatrachium,~) by several modern botanists, on account of their
transversely wrinkled achenes, and habitat. Ficaria has been separated, from having three
sepals, 6-9 petals, and obtuse carpels ; and Geratoaephalus, because the base of the carpels
presents two external gibbosities, and internally two empty cells, and the carpels are further
produced into a horn five to six times as long as the seed.

11. Hamadryas. — Flowers dioecious by suppression. Sepals 5-6, caducous or subper si stent.
Petals 10-12, with a basal scale. Carpels numerous. Achenes capitate, tipped by the shcjrt

I. EANUNCULACE^.

179

style. — Low herbs, witli perennial rootstock, only diifering from Banunculus in the dioecious
flowers. Antarctic America.

12. OxygrapMs. — Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 10-15, with a basal nectariferous pit.
Carpels numerous. A'chenes capitate, beaked by the persistent style. — Low herbs, rootstock
perennial. Leaves radical, entire. Scapes naked. Flowers solitary, golden-yellow. Mountaitis
of extra-tropical Asia.

Tribe IV. Hellebores, D.C. — Elowers regular or irregular {Aconitum, Del-
phinium) . Sepals imbricate, petaloid. Petals small, or irregular and nectariferous,
or {Galtha, Hydrastis). Carpels several-ovuled, dehiscent when ripe, rarely berry-
like {Actcea, Hydrastis), follicular, free, rarely connate into a several-celled capsule
{Nigella). Herbs. Leaves all radical, or the cauline alternate.

Caltha.
Bipe fruit.

Calllia.
Stamen (mag.).

€aXtha. Tomig carpel (mag.).

Caltha yaluairis..

Caltha.
Seed witli fungoid chalaza (mag.).

Caliha.
Flower cut vertically.

Caliha.
Pistil and portion of andrcecium.

13. *Caltha. — Sepals S-oo , equal, coloured, deciduous. Petals 0. Carpels few or many,
sessile ; ovules many, 2-seriate, follicular when ripe. Seeds obovoid ; testa crustaceous,
smooth, raphe prominent. — Glabrous perennial herbs, tufted, or with a perennial rootstock,
Leaves radical, palminerved, entire or crenulate, cordate or auricled, cauline few or 0.
Flowers yellow or white, one or few. Stamens and carpels numerous or few. Europe, Asia,
America, Australia, New Zealand.

14. Calathodes.— Sepals 5, regular, coloured, deciduous. Petals 0. Carpels numerous,
sessile, distinct ; ovules 8-10, 2-seriate near the base of the suture.— A perennial erect herb,

N 2

180

I. EANUNCULACE^.

liabit of TrolUus. Leaves cauline, palmatilobed or dissected. Flowers yellow, solitary.
Eastern Himalaya.

15. Glaacidinm. — Sepals 4, regular, deciduous. Petals 0. Carpels I or few, sessile, slightly
coherent at the base ; ovules numerous, many-seriate along the ventral suture. Follicles
square, with dorsal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, oblong, depressed ; testa finely crustaceous ;
raphe very prominent, alnxost winged. ■ — ^A perennial upright herb. Leaves palmatilobed.
Flowers solitary, ample, lilac or pink. Japan.

16. Hydrastis. — Sepals 3, regular, petaloid, caducous. Petals 0. Carpels numerous, sessile
distinct, 2-ovuled, fleshy when ripe, and forming a head, as in Rubus. — A perennial erect herb.
Leaves palmatilobed, or dissected. Flowers solitary, small, white. S-tamens a little lono-er
than the sepals. North America.

TroUiiit.

TrolUus.

TroWus.

Petal, iiiner

TfoUim.

Pistil.

Fruit.

(ace (mag.).

stamen (mag.)

17. *TrolIius. — Sepals 5-oo , regular, petaloid, de-
ciduous. Petals 5-8, small, clawed, rarely oo , long-hnear ;
blade entire, with a nectai-iferous pit at the base. Carpels
many, free, sessile, many-ovuled, follicular when ripe.
Trottiuseuropa^us. g^g^g oblong, usually angular; testa crustaceous, rather

smooth. — Erect herbs ; rootsfcock perennial. Leaves palmati-lobed or -sect. Flowers solitary
or few, large, yellow or lilac. Burope, Asia, North America.

I. EANUNCULACE^.

181

18. *Helleborus. — Sepals 6,. regular, petaloid or sub-Iierbaceous, usually persistent.
Petals small, clawed, neotariform ; blade furnislied at the base with an inner lip, or a scale.
Carpels many, sessile or subsessile, distinct or coherent at the base, many-ovuled, dehiscing
inwards at the top when ripe. Seeds 2-seriate ; testa crustaceous, shining. — Erect herbs ;
rootstock perennial. Leaves palmati-sect or -lobed, or digitate, cauline few, the upper sometimes
involucriform or all bracteiform. Flowers large, white, greenish, yellowish or livid, solitary
orpanicled. Sepals large. Follicles coriaceous or membranous. Surope and Western Asia.

TJfileborus vujei:.

H. niger.
Petal.

H. nigci'. Flower cut Terticall}^

ff. nifjev. Diagram.

n. niger. Pistil.

R.ifcetidvs. Emnlhis.

Petal. Petal (mag.).

Ei'anthis.

Seed, entire and cut

vertically (mag.).

Branthis hiemalis.

Erantlus. Flower cut Tcrtically.

Eranlhls. Diagram.

182

I. EANUNCULACE^.

19. *ErailtIlis. — Sepals 5-8, regular, petaloid, deciduous. Petals small, nectariform,
clawed ; blade furnished at the base with an inner scale-like lip. Carpels many, distinct,
stipitate, many ovaled, folUcnlar when ripe. Seeds ovoid or sub-globose ; testa crustaceons,
smooth. — Low herbs ; rootstock perennial, tuberous. Leaves radical, palmatisect, cauline
solitary, amplexicaul beneath the flower or peduncle, segments simulating the whorled leaflets
of an involucre. Flower solitary, yellow ; sepals narrow. Europe, and Mountains of Asia.

20. Coptis. — Sepals 5-6, regular, petaloid, deciduous. Petals 5-6, small, cucullate or
linear. Carpels many, stipitate, distinct, many-ovuled, follicular when ripe. Seeds with
crustaoeous shining testa. — Low herbs; rootstock perennial. Leaves radical, temately
dissected. Scapes naked, 1-3-flowered. Flowers white. Europe, Asia, North America.

MgeUa sativa.

Mgella.
Diagram.

N, DaiMlscen^t.
Fruit cut transversely to show
tbe cells and the spurious cells.

21, *l80pyrum. — Sepals 5-6, regular, petaloid, deciduous. Petals 6, very short, nectari-
form or 0. Carpels 2-20, sessile, distinct, 8-oo -ovuled, follicular when ripe. — Slender low
herbs ; rootstock perennial. Leaves temately decompound ; cauline alternate or subopposite,
or 0. Flowers solitary or loosely panicled, white. Petals variable in form. Stamens some-
times reduced to about 10. Europe, Asia, North America.

22. *Nigella. — Sepals 5, regular, petaloid, deciduous. Petals 5, clawed ; blade small,
2-fid. Carpels 3-10, sessile, more or less coherent, many-ovnled, opening when ripe at the top

I. EANUNCULACE^.

183

of the ventral suture. Seeds angular ; testa crustaceous or sub-fleshy, often granular. — Erect
glabrous herbs. Cauline leaves pinnatisect, segments very narrow. Flowers white, blu#,
or yellowish, sometimes involucrate with one floral leaf. TSxirope, WesUm Asia,

J

/

iGaridelUt, Cdlumbine.

Flower cat verticallyCmag,)- •{,A{iuilegia vulgaris.')

Oaridella. . 'Garid 'i .^«„^

Pistil. Seed, entire and'Cnn. veiH/iuniiy (.mag.j.

Columbine.

Seed, entire and cut

vertically (mag.)<

•Garidella,
Bruit.

Columbine. Columbine,

Petal, inner Young pistil

face. (mag,).

Oaridella.
Stamen.

Columbine.
Flower out vertically.

Columbine. Diagram.

184

I. EANUNCTJLACEiE.

226. Graridella. — Sepals 5, petaloid, caducous. Petals 6, 2-labiate. Follicles 2-3, sessile,
coterent at tlie base, and opening at the top ; style very short. Seeds 2-seriate. — Slender
herbs. Leaves finely multifid. Flowers small, white. Mediterranean Region.

23. ♦Aquilegia. — Sepals 6, regular, petaloid, deciduous. Petals 5, like a cornucopia or
hood, attached by the margin of the limb, and nectariferous at the base of the cavity. Lower
stamens reduced to scale-Hke staminodes. Carpels 5, sessile, distinct, many-ovuled, follicular
when ripe. Seeds with crustaceous, smooth or granular testa. — Erect herbs; rootstock
perennial. Leaves ternately decompound. Flowers conspicuous, blue, yellow, scarlet, or parti-
coloured, solitary or panicled. Europe, Asia, North America.

24. * Delphinium. — Sepals 5, petaloid, unequal, subcoherent at the base, the posterior
turned up in a horn or spur. Petals 2 or 4, small, all sometimes united, the two upper pro-
longed into a pointed spur included in that of the calyx ; the two lateral not spurred, or 0.
Carpels 1-5, sessile, distinct, many-bvuled, follicular when ripe. Seeds subfleshy. — Annual
herbs, or with perennial rootstock, erect, branched. Leaves palmatilobed Or dissected.

Larkspur.

Larkspur.

Larkspur.

Larkspur.

Stamen

Ripe

Pistil, witH a

Audroeciutn and

(mag.).

carpel.

stameu (mag.).

pistil.

Larkspur. Flower cut vei-tically (mag.).

Larkfjpur.
Diagi-am

Larkspur.

Seed, entire and cut

vertically (mag.).

Larkspur.
Upper sepal.

I. EANUNCULACE^.

18c

Flowers rather large, in a loose raceme or panicle, blue, purplish, pink or white, rarely
yellow. Filaments sometimes dilated at the base. Ewo^e, Asia, North America.

25. ^Acomtum. — Sepals 5, petaloid, unequal ; posterior large, helmet-shaped, covering the
corolla ; 2 lateral larger than the 2 ^terior. Petals 2-8, small, very unequal, the two upper
with long claws, cncuUate at the top, hidden under the helmet ; the lower minute, filiform,
often 0. Carpels 3-5, sessile, distinct, many-ovuled, follicular when ripe. Seeds with spongy
testa, deeply wrinkled. — Erect herbs ; rootstock perennial. Leaves palmati-lobed or -sect.
Flowers racemed or panicled, blue, purplish, yellow or white j pedicels bracteolate. Filaments
usually dilated at the base. Europe, Asia.

Aconite. (Aconitum Napellus).

Aconite.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Aconite
Stamen (mag.)-

Aconite.
Flower .depri-ped of its calyx,
-petals in a hood , pedic&lled.

Aconite.
Pistil with, one stamen (mag.).

Aconite. Diagram.

Aconite.
Flower cut vertically (mng.)-

26 *Act8ea.— Sepals 3-5, subequal, petaloid, deciduous. Petals 4-10, small, clawed,
spathulate, flat. Carpel solitary, inai.y-ovuled, berried when ripe. Seeds depressed; tes a
crastaceous, smooth.-Herbs ; rootstock perennial, fusiform; stem erect. Leaves ternately

186

I. EANUNCULACE^.

decompound. Flowers small, in short racemes that lengthen after flowering. Stamens longer
than the sepals. Stigma sessile, dilated. Europe, Asia, North America.

Adcea.
Flower cut vearbically (mag.).

Adxa. Act(Ea. Act(sa.

Stamen (mag.). Seed, entire ajid out Tertlically (mag.). Fruit (mag.).

27. Cimicifuga, — Sepals 4-5, subequal, petaloid,
deciduous. Petals 1-8, small, clawed, 2-lobed, or 0.
Carpels 1-8, distinct, many-ovuled, follicular when ripe.
— Herbs, habit and foliage of Actcea. Flowers small, very
numerous, in elongated racemes. Hurope, Asia, North
America.

28. *Botrophis. — Sepals 4-5, petaloid, equal. Petals
0. Outer stamens dilated, terminated by an imperfect
anther. Carpel solitary, 1 -celled; oyules 2-seriate. Follicle
substipitate. — Herbs, leaves 2-3-sect, segments incised,
toothed. Flowers racemose, white. North America.

29. Xanthorhiza. — Sepals 6, subequal, petaloid, de-
ciduous. Petals 5, small, clawed, gland-like, dilated at
the top. Stamens 5, alternate with the petals, or 10.
Carpels 5-10, distinct, sessile, 2-ovul«d on the middle of
the inner suture, opening in follicles when ripe, and

one-seeded by suppression. Seed pendulous. — Shrubs or iinder-shrubs, dwarf ; stem yellow
within. Leaves pinnatisect, proceeding in early spring from a scaly bud. Racemes com-
pound, pendulous. Flowers small, blackish-purple, often polygamous. Stamens short.
North America.

Ad(£a spicata.

Tribe V. VmoTSiEM, D.G.

30. *P8eonia. — Sepals 5, imbricate, herbaceous, persistent. Petals 5-10, conspicuous,
broad, without a nectariferous pit. Carpels 2-5, many-ovuled, girt at the base with a fleshy
disk, which is often spread over the base of the calyx, or forms an irregular cup more or less
enveloping the ovaries. Fruit of coriaceous follicles. Seeds large, albumen fleshy. — Herbs
with perennial fusiform rootstock, or with branching, more or less woody stems. Leaves

I. RANUNCULACEiE.

187

Peony. Calyx, torus, and pistil,

Peony. Fniit.

188 I. EANUNCULACE^.

ample, pinnatisect or decompound. Mowers conspicuous, purplish, white, or red. Europe,
Asia.

RanunctdacecB approach Dilleniacece in the distinct imbricate sepals, polypetalism, hypogyny, polyandry,
adnate anthers, distinct carpels, anatropous ovules, capsular or follicular fruit, erect albuminous seed,
minute basilar embrj'O, and terminal inflorescence. Dtlteniaceee only differ in habit, persistent sepals, and
especially in having arillate seeds. Magnoliacea offer the same analogies and differences ; and are also
distinguished by their habit and their many-seriate petals. Serberidece have, like Manuncnlaccts, distinct
sepals and petals, often nectariferous, adnate anthers, one or more free carpels, and albuminous seed ; but
their flower is iso- or diplo-stemonous, their anthers open by valves, and their embryo is axile and not
basilar. Papaveracets differ in their syncarpous pistil, 2-merous flower and milky juice. Similar
relations exist with NymplueacecB, which further differ in their habit, 1-flowered scape, many-seriate
petals, largely dilated filaments, rayed stigma, and arillate seeds. Finally, some affinity has been discovered
with SarrcKcniece, .which are distinguished by their peltate and petaloid stigma, their radical leaves with
tubular petiole, undeveloped blade, and 1-flowered scape. Rammoulaeea are universally distributed,
but most inhabit temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisphere ; as throughout Europe, from the
sea^shove to the limit of perpetual snow. They are rarer in North America and temperate Asia. Clematis
alone is tropical, and is distinguished from all the other genera by its sarm entose habit and opposite leaves.
Few Ranunculi inhabit the high mountains of the equator. Ranunculus, Caltlia, and Clematis occm- nearly
everywhere. Adonis, Ceratocej)haltts, Erantlm, Helleburus, Qandella, Niyelln, Pcsonia, &c., belong exclu-
.sively to the Old World ; Cyrtorhyncha, Hydrastis, Trantvettena, JBotroplm, and Xanthorhiza are their
New World representatives. Knowltonia inhabits South Africa, Hamadiyas extra-tropical South America,
and Naravelia tropical Asia ; the other genera are dispersed over the northern hemisphere.

Most Ranunculacea are acrid, and more or less poisonous; but these properties are volatile, and
driven off by cooking and drying ; except in some cases, where they are alkaline, and consequently more
fixed and powerful. Their roots, when perennial, contain, besides the acrid, a bitter extractive principle,
contained in various proportions, with a volatile oil, which renders them drastic and emetic. Their seeds
are acrid ; some contain both a fixed and a volatile oil, and are aromatic. Clematis ej-ecta, Vitalba and
Flammuki, are very acrid and vesicant. The juice of the leaves of O. Vitalba is used by beggars to
produce superficial sores and thus excite pity. C. cirrhosa from th-e Mediterranean region, C. crispa from
North America, and C. matiritiana from Madagascar, replace cantharides in those countries. The numeroirs
Ranunculi are often popularly used as vesicants ; the most acrid are R. Thora, an alpine plant, and
R. sceleratus, named by the Romans Sardonia, because it excites convulsive sardonic laughter: slow
cooking dissipates its poisonous properties, and renders it eatable as a potherb. So it is with Clematis Flam-
imda, one of the most acrid species, the young shoots of which may be eaten without danger. Ranunculus
Ficaria, a common plant in damp hedges and woods, is very aerid before flowering, but the mucilage and
starch which are developed later render it eatable. R. al^wstris is a vesicant and strong puroative : yet
the Alpine hunters chew its leaves to keep off giddiness and to strengthen them.

Anemones are equally vesicant. A. nemorosa is used as such in some parts of Europe, and A. helle-
borifolia replaces cantharides among the Peruvians ; as does Knowltonia, of South Africa. The Italians
prepare a rubefacient water with A. apennina, which the ladies are said to use to heighten their com-
plexion. A. ranunculoides, a common northern species, is so acrid that the Kamtschatkans poison their
arrows with it. A. Pulsatilla is the richest in medical properties : though nearly inodorous, yet if bruised,
it emits a vapour that violently iil-itates the mucous membrane of the eyes, nose, and back of the mouth,
owing to the presence of a volatile acid, an alkali named anemmiine, and a volatile oil. In'a fresh state it
is used in paralysis, especially of the retina, in rheumatism, and in obstinate cutaneous diseases.

Thalictmm Jlavum, 'rhubarbe des pauvres,' is administered in jaundice and intermittent fevers.
T. CuTOMiJ is regarded in North America as a powerful alexipharmic. Delphinium Consolida, Larkspur, is
aperient, diuretic and vermifuge ; the seeds of D. Staphisagria are drastic, emetic, and employed exter-
nally in a powder to destroy lice, and in skin diseases. The seeds of the Nigellee are slightly acrid and
aromatic; they are used in the South of Europe jind in the East to flavour bread. Coptis trifoliata is a sub-
arctic plant of both worlds, renowned for its stomachic properties ; it yields a yellow colouring principle.
The root of C. Teota is much celebrated in India and China as a powerful stimulant of the digestive
organs. Hydrastis canadensis yields both a dye and a tonic medicine.

II. DILLENIACE^.

189

Selleborm niffer, fcetidus, mridis, and orientals contain a bitter substance, united to a resinous principle,
which is a drastic purgative, and poisonous in large doses. The Aconites are narcotic acrid herbs, con-
taining an alkaloid called aconitine, combined with a peculiar acid, and resinous or volatile principles; the
leaves and seeds oiAconitum N'a^jelhis and A. paniculatumiae of use in small doses for exciting the glandular
and lymphatic systems, but are very poisonous in large doses. A.ferox^ a native of Nepal, is reputed to
be the most poisonous of all. AcUea spicata was formerly given internally for asthma and scrofula, and
externally for skin complaints. - Cimidfuga serpentana, of a nauseous smell and bitter taste, is in North
America reputed to be a specific against the bite of the rattlesnake. C. fcetida, a widely diffused plant
of cool northern regions, was formerly used in dropsy as a purgative : its name is derived from its supposed
property of driving away bugs. The root and wood of Xanthorhka apiifolia, a North American undershrub,
contain a bitter resin and yellow dye, and are renowned as tonics. Pteonia officinalis was formerly famous
in sorcery: its fresh seeds were used as emetics in epilepsy; and in some countries, necklaces made of
them are still used to ward off' convulsions from children. The Siberian P. anomala has a bitter root
without acridity, smelling of violets, which is very useful in intermittent fevers.

II. DILLENIACE^.

(DiLLENEiE, Salisbury, — Dillekiace^, B.C.)

CandoUea caneiformis.

Candulha. Diagram.

CandoUea.
Pistil (mag.)-

CandoUea. Group
of stamens (mag.)-

DUlenia.
Embi-j'O (niag.)"

CandoUea.

Ovary cut

transversely (mag.).

CandoUea.

Ovule with

its arilla (mag.).

(?) CandoUea.

Seed, with jagged

arilla (mag.).

(?) CandoUea.

Seed cut vertically

(mag.).

CandoUea.
Part of pistil and
andrcecium (mag.).

Sepals usually 5, imbricate, persistent. Petals usually 6, hypogynous, imbricate,
deciduous. Stamens oo, hypogynous. Ovaries usually distinct, 1-celled, 1-several-

' Referred to a var. of ^. Napdlus by Hooker fll. and Thomson (Fl. Ind. i. 57).

190 III. CALYC ANTHER.

ovuled. Ovules anatrofous. Carpels follicular, or herried. Seeds erect or ascending,
usually arillate, alhuminous. Embkto dicotyledonous, minute, straight, axile.

Stem arborescent or frutescentj sometimes climbing, rarely sub--woody or
herbaceous {Acrotrema, Hibbertia). Leaves alternate, very rarely opposite {Hibbertia),
entire or toothed, rarely pinnatifid or 3-fid ; stipules 0, or adnata to the petiole,
and caducons. Flowees 5 , or polygamous, rarely dicBcious, solitary, or racemose,
or panicled, usually yellow. Sepals 5, rarely fewer {Tetracera, &c.), or oo {Empe-
doclea), imbricate, persistent. Petals 5, or fewer {Davilla, &c.), alternate with the
sepals, hypogynous, imbricate, deciduous. ' Stamens oo, rarely definite {Hibbertia,
&c.), hypogynous, sometimes unilateral (Hibbertia), usually free, rarely mon-poly-
adelphous (Hibbertia, Candollea) ; anthers introrse or extrorse, cells linear or sub-
globose, adnate, often separate and overtopped by the connective, opening vertically
or by an apical pore. Ovaeies several, distinct or coherent, sometimes solitary (Em-
pedoclea, D&liocarpus, Delima, &c.) ; styles terminal or sub-dorsal, divergent ; itigmas
simple or sab-capitate; ovules 2 or several, 2- seriate, ascending, raphe ventral, rarely
solitary and erect (Schumacher ia), anatropous or half-anatropous. Carpels some-
times dehiscing by the ventral or dorsal suture or indehiscent, crustaceous or
berried. Seeds solitary or few, ovoid, arillate (except Dillenia), testa crustaceous,
aril pulpy or membranous, cup-shaped, laciniate ; albumen fleshy. Bmbrto minute,
straight, basilar ; radicle near the hilum, inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

(.'andwllea. Dillenia. Acrotrema. Delima.

Plibtiertia. Wormla. Tetracera. Davilla.

Dilleniacca are more or less closelj allied to Magnoliaeea , Anonaee/s, and Manunculacece. (See these
families.)

Di'toMBceffi are chiefly natives of the southern hemisphere. Tropical Amei'icaand Asia possess ahout an
equal numher of species; they are rare in Africa. Dillenia is confined to tropical Asia; Hibbertia and
Candollea are specially extra-tropical Australian. Hitherto none have heen- found in South Africa or tem-
perate South America.

mileniacea; are astringent and some are so used medicinally. The fruits of a very few are acidulous ;
others are reputed tonic stimulants. The leaves of Davilla elliptica, a Brazilian shrub, are vulnerary ;
those of Curatella Cambaiba, applied to uloei-s, are detergent. Thtracera Tigarea, of Guiana and th«
Antilles, is a sudorific and divu-etic; a decoction of it is given for syphilis; and a vinous infusion of its
seeds is said to be eificacicus in intermittent fevers, chlorosis, and scurvy. The astringent bark of Dillenia
serrata is employed in Asia for ulcerated sores. The acid but uneatable fruit of D. speciosa serves to season
dishes; and a syrup of the juice of the unripe fruit allays coughs, assists expectoration, and cures angina
and aphthee; its bruised bark is applied as a cataplasm in arthritis, and, like that of other species, is used
for tanning.

III. CALYCANTHEJE, Lindl.

Corolla 0. Stamens numerous, inserted on the calyx. Carpels numerous, free,
inserted within the receptacular tube. Embryo dicotyledonous, exalbuminous. Stem
woody. Leaves opposite, exstipulate.

Shrubs with 4-angled stems. Leaves opposite, petiolate, entire, exstipulate.

III. CALYC ANTHER. 1(>1

Flowers g , regular, appearing witli the leaves or earlier, terminal or axillary, often
sweet-scented or aromatic. Calyx coloured, segments numerous, many-seriate, im-

Chimonanthus, Plower.

Galycanthus l(Evigalus.

^7

Chimonanthus.
Carpel, entire and cut vertically (raag.)«

Chimonanthus. Flower cut vertically.

Chimonanthus. Diagram.

Chimonanthus.
Flower-bud tmag.).

bricate, all alike, or the outer bracteiform and the inner petaloid, rising from a
receptacular cup (calyx -tube of old botanists), short, urceolate. Corolla 0. Stamens
numerous, inserted on a fleshy ring lining the calyx-throat, outer fertile, 'inner
sterile, persistent or deciduous, free, or coherent at the base ; filaments short, subu-
'late or filiform ; anthers extrorse, 2-celled, ovoid or oblong, adnate, dehiscence longi-
tudinal. Ovaries numerous, inserted on the inner wall of the receptacular cup, free,
1-celled, 1-ovuled; styles as msmj a.s ovaries, terminal, simple, filiform or compressed,
subulate ; stigmas undivided, obtuse, terminal ; ovules solitary, or rarely two, of which
one is smaller, superimposed, ascending from the bottom of the cell, anatropous,

192 IV. MAGNOLIACE^.

raphe ventral. Achenes numerous, included in the receptacular tube, accrescent,
herbaceous, sub-fleshy, ovoid or oblong. Seed solitary, upright ; testa membranouis.
Embeto exalbuminous ; cotyledons foliaceous, convolute ; radicle superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Chimonautlius. Calycanthiis.

The affinity of Calycanthets with Myrtaaets will be pointed out in the description of the latter. They
also approach Granatecs in their coloured calyx, the number and insertion of the- stamens, the carpels
enclosed in the receptacular tube, exalbuminous embryo, convolute cotyledons, woody stem, generally
opposite leaves and terminal flowers ; they are distinguished by their apetalous flowers, extrorse anthers,
free and one-ovuled o-variea, and dry fruit. They have also some affinity with Monimiaceee, from their
apetalous flowers, two-seriate calyx, numerous stamens inserted on the calyx-throat, numerous free
ovaries inserted on the inner wall of the receptacular cup, one-celled and one-ovuled anatropous ovules,
simple styles, woody stem and opposite leaves ; but in Monimiacecs the flowers are diclinous, the perianth
is calycoid, the ovule is pendulous, the fruit is a drupe and the embryo small in a copious albumen.
Finally, Calycanthus has been compared with Rosa; but its four-angled stem, opposite exstipulate
leaves, sterile stamens and extrorse anthers readily distinguish it,

Calycanthits, of which two species are known, inhabits North America ; Chimonanthus grows in Japan.
Calycanihece are aromatic, and the bark of Calycanthus floridus is used in America- as- a stimulating tonic.

IV. MAGNOLIACEJ^..

(MAGifOLi^, Jussieu. — Magnoliace^, B.G. — Magnolie^ et Wintebe^, Br.)

Elcwehs § . SEPALS usually 3. Petals 6-oo , free, hypoyynous. Stamens oo,
hypogynous ; anthers adnate. Cakpels' usually oo, distinct or coherent, l-celled, l-2-oo -
ovuled. Ovules anatropous. ALBtrMBN copious, not ruminate. Embryo dicotyle-
donous,' straight, minute, basilar. Stem woody. Leaves alternate.

Teees or SHETJBS. Leaves alternate, simple, coriaceous, entire or rarely lobed
(Liriodendron), penninerved, reticulate, sometimes minutely pellucidly dotted ;
stipules membranous, convolute in bud, or opposite, rarely {Drimys, Illicium).
Flowees ? , or very rarely incomplete (Tamiannia), usually large, terminal or axil-
lary, solitary, rarely racemose or fascicled. Sepals 3, rarely 6, or 2-4, usually
petaloid, free, imbricate, deciduous. Petals 6-oo , inserted at the base of a stipiti-
form torus, 1-2- co-seriate, imbricate, deciduous. Stamens oo, several-seriate,
inserted with the petals ; filaments free ; anthers 2-celIed, adnate, extrorse {Lirioden-
dron, Brimys, Illicium), or bursting laterally, or introrse {Magnolia, Talaumd,
Mic/ieZm, &c.), dehiscence longitudinal or transverse {Tasmannia). Ovaeies oo or
few, sometimes many-seriate in a head or spike, free or rarely coherent {Manglietia),
sometimes whorled at the top of the receptacle {Illicium), always l-celled ; styles con-
tinuous with the ovary, stigmatiferous within and near the top ; ovules on the
ventral suture, either 2, collateral or superimposed {Magnolia, Liriodendrmi), or
more and 2-seriate {Michelia, Manglietia) ; pendulous, rarely erect at the base of the
cell, and solitary {Illicium), anatropous. Eetjit various: carpels subpedicelled, free
or coherent, either 2-valved and capsular, with dorsal or ventral dehiscence {Mag-

IV. MAGNDLIACEiE.

193

'' /]

Magnolia purpurea^

--'-nh

Magnolia.
Antb.er.

Magnolia,
Transverse section
of seed, showing
,th.erapliie (white).

Magnolia.
Fruits and seeds suspenaed outside the pericarp.

Magnolia, Diagram,

Magnolia.
Seed with fleshy testa,
cut verticalljr (mag.).

M. purpurea.
Flower cut vertically.

Jllmum.
Carpel cut verticaUy.

lUidutn.
Ripe carpel, entire and open (mag.) ■

194 IV- MAGNOLIACE^.

fllicium, Taxmannia,

llUc'mm. Seed witt crnBtaceous testa, Tasmannia. Cajyx and pistil cut

Fruit. OTt vertically (mag.). Tlower (mag.). vertically.

nolia, Mickelia, Manglietia, Illicium), or indetiscent and fleshy (Drimys), or woody and
breaking transversely at the base {Talauma), or a samara (Liriodendron) . Seeds
sessile or funicled, often suspended outside the pericarp {Magnolia} ; testa fleshy
[Magnolia) or crustaceous (Illicium). Embeto minute, straight, at the base of a
fleshy copious albumen ; radicle and cotyledons very short.

Tribe I. MACtNOLiEJE, B.C. — Mowers g . Carpels imbricate, many-seriate, in a
head or spike. — Stipules enveloping the leaves.

PEINCIFAL (JENEEA.
Talaama. Magnolia. Liriodendron. Michelia.

Tribe II. iLLiciBiE, D.C. — Mowers ? or polygamous. Carpels whorled and
1-seriate, or solitary. — Leaves minutely pellucidly dotted, exstipulate.

PEIKCIPAL GESEEA.
Drimys. Illicium. Tasmannia.

Tribe III. TB0CH0DE]<f dee^,' Benth. et Hook. fil. — Sepals and petals 0. Mowers
polygamc-dicecious. Carpels whorled, 1-seriate.

6ENEEA.
Trochodendron. Euptelea. Cercidiphyllum.

MagnoliaoetB, -which are very near Schimmtrece, AnmiaceuB and Myriaticeai (see these families), are
equally connected with Dilleniacets, hy their hypogynism, seBtivation, polyandry, adnate anthers, free
ovaries, anatropous ovules, capsular fruit, albuminous seed, straight minute basilar embryo, woody stem
and alternate leaves. DUleniacem differ only in the quinary flowers, the often unilateral and polyadelphous
stamens, the erect or ascending ovules, and the arillate seed. Magnoliaceee also approach SanuncukceeB,
through Ditteniacees ; but are easily distinguished by their habit. Magnoliece are chiefly North American ;
they are also numerous in subtropical Asia, .Japan and India. IlKciece are scattered over America, Eastern
Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and the Moluccas.

The properties of MagmUacets resemble those oiAnonacecs, but their leaves and bark are more intensely
bitter, owing to extractive resinous principles. The pericarps and seeds contain a fixed oil, with an ofteii
acrid aroma. The fi-uits are rarely eatable, but many are tonic and stimulant, and are sometimes used as
condiments. Michelia Champaca is cultivated throughout tropical Asia, on account of its sweet-scented

' This tribe, which embraces three species of very contains two species, one Assamese, the other Japanese
anomalous structure, has been added to Moffnoliacecs Trochodendron one, and Cerciiiphylhim two, all from
by Bentham and Hooker fil. (Gen. PI. i. 964). Euptelea Japan. — Ed.

V. SCHIZANDEE^. 195

flowers, which, however, become fcetid as they wither ; all parts of the tree are aromatic, bitter, and acrid ;
an infusion of its powdered bark is a powerful emmenagogue ; its young buds are administered in urethritis,
and its powdered leaves are recommended for gout, and are applied as a lotion in rheumatic and arthritic
pains ; lastly, -its seeds, which contain a very acrid substance, are rubbed, with ginger and galenga, over
the region of the heart, to cure infantile intermittents. The bark of Talauma (Aromadendron) elegans is a
renowned stomachic in Java ; its slightly bitter leaves are antispasmodic and antihysteric. Of the Asiatic
deciduous-leaved species, Magnolia Ttclan has been cultivated from time immemorial in China, and its
very bitter seeds used as a febrifuge ; and the Himalayan M. Catnpbellii, a lofty tree with large red flowers,
is one of the most splendid plants hitherto discovered. The principal American species are M. grandiflora,
aurieulata, and macrophylla, of which the bitter and slightly aromatic bark is a tonic. The fruit and seeds of
M. glauca and aowninatn are stimulants. The bitter, pleasantly aromatic bark of the Tulip-tree (Lirio-
dendron tulipifera), which attains a height of 100 feet in North America, is regarded as an excellent sub-
stitute for cascarilla and quinine.

In lUicieee, which, from their punctate pellucid leaves and 1-seriate whorled cai-pels, rather form a
distinct order than a tribe of MagnoUaceee, the aroma of the volatile oil and resin supersedes the bitterness,
and gives them stimulating virtues; as in Dritnys Winteri of Antarctic America, D. Oranatmm of New
Granada, D. axillaris of New Zealand, the Tasmannias of Australia, and especially the ' Badiane ' (Illicium
anisatuin), a Chinese shrub, the fruit of which, called Star Aniseed from its smell and whorled carpels, is a
powerful stimulant, which enters into the composition of Dutch aniseed cordial. /. religiosum, transported
from China to Japan, and perhaps only a variety of the latter, possesses the same properties, but in an
inferior degree.

V. SCHTZANDRE^.

(ScHizANDEB^, Blume. — Magnoliaceaktjm tribe III., Benth. et Hook, fil.)

Sarmentose glabrous sheubSj with mucous Juice. Leaves alternate, simple,
penninerved, entire or toothed, sub-coriaceous, often pellucidly dotted {8cMzand/ra),
exstipulate. Floweks diclinous, axillary, solitary^ small, usually scented. Pebianth
ternary, multiple ; sepals and petals hypogynous, 9-12-15, 3- oo-seriate ; passing
gradually from the small outer to the petaloid inner. Flowers S : Stamens go, or
5-15, distinct, or united into a globular mass ; filaments very short, thick, free or
coherent ; anthers adnate, cells short, rounded, more or less separated by the connec-
tive. Flowees ? : Caepels qo, in a head (Eadsura) or spike {Schizandra] ; stigmas
sessile, decurrent on the inner edge of the ovary; ovules 2-3, superimposed,
pendulous, anatropous. Beeeies indehiscent. Seeds sunk in pulp ; albumen oily,
copious. Embeto minute, straight, basilar ; cotyledons divaricate ; radicle near the
hUum, oblong, superior.

PRINCIFAL GENEEA.
Schizandra. Kadsura.

This little family, annexed by Bentham and Hooker fil, to Magnoliacece, is in fact only distinguishable
from them by its climbing stem, exstipulate leaves, diclinous flowers, and fleshy 2-3-seeded carpels.
It also approaches Menispermece, Lardimbahce, and Anonaoete (see these families). Schizandrece inhabit
Eastern temperate and tropical Asia; one species grows in the warm regions of North America. The
mucilaginous berries of some are eatable, but tasteless.

o 2

196

VI. ANONACE^.

Schizandra coccinea ^..

Schizandra^ Fruit.

VI. ANONACEjE.
(Anon^, Jussieu. — Gltptospbem^, Ventenat.—AsoNAC'SiM, Dunal.)

Flowebs ? . Sepai/S 3. Petals usually 6, 2-seriate, hypogynous, most often
valvate. Stamens oo, rarely defimte, hypogynous [on a large torus — Bd.J, many-
seriate ; anthers adnate. Ovaries ttsually many, distinct, 1-2- co-ovuled ; ovules
erect or ascending. Fktjit a capsule or herry [very rarely capsular — Ed.J . Albumen
ruminate. Embeto minute, basilar.

Trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing, generally aromatic, witli acrid juice.
Leaves alternate, distichous, plaited in vernation, simple, entire, penninerved,
pubescent wben young ; petiole usually jointed or swollen at the base ; stipules 0.
Flowers 9, rarely diclinous, solitary, or fascicled on axillary peduncles, rarely
lateral or leaf-opposed ; corolla membranous, coriaceous or fleshy, greenish purple or

VI . ANONAOEiE.

197

Asimina triloba..

Asimina.

Asimina.
Trans-^rae section of Transverse section of

anther. carpel (mag.).

AsimtTia..
Slower cut verfcicaUy (mag.)-

Asimina.

Seed, entire and cut

vertically-

Asimina,

Adnate anther, dorsal and

yentral face (mag.).

Asimina.
Pollen-grain.

Asimina.

Very young carpel, entire and

cut vertically.

Asimina.
Embryo.

Asimina. Fruit.

198 vi. anonace:^.

yellowish. Sepals 3, rarely 2 {Disepalum), distinct or united at the base, or coherent
in a 3-lobed or -toothed calyx (Oyathocalyx), valvate or imbricate in bud. Petals
usually 6 2-seriate, rarely 4 2-seriate {Disepalum), or only 3 1-seriate {Unona), rarely
coherent {Hexalohus), hypogynous, valvate, or rarely imbricate in bud. Stamens in-
definite, multi- seriate on a thick torus; anthers adnate, 2-celled, cells dorsal or
lateral, opening by a longitudinal slit, contiguous or separate, usually concealed by
the overlapping dilated tops of the connectives ; rarely definite, vrith the anthers not
concealed by the connective, hardly or not at all dilated (Miliusa, Orophea,
Bocagea, &c.). Carpels oo, rarely definite {Asimina, Xylopia, Bocagea, &c.), or
solitary {Oyathocalyx), distinct, or rarely coherent {Anona, Momdora), sessile on the
top of the torus ; style short, thick, or ; stigma thick, capitate, or oblong, some-
times furrowed or 2-lobed or radiate (Monodora) ; ovules 1-2, erect, basilar, or 1- ex,
fixed either to the suture, or very rarely all over the walls of the ovary {Monodora),
anatropous, raphe ventral, micropyle inferior. Eipe Caepbls sessile or stipitate,
distinct, or united into a oo-ceUed fruit {Anona), or 1-celled (Monodora), dry, fleshy
or pulpy, indehiscent or 2-valved. Seeds with copious ruminate albumen. Embryo
minute, basilar ; radicle near the hilum, inferior.

PEINCIPAL GENERA,

* Uvaria.

EUipeia.

Guatteria. Duguetia.

Artabotrys.

Hexalobus.

UnoDa.

•Asimina. Polyalthia.

Anaxagorea.

Popowia.

Oxymitra.

Goniothalamus. Mitrephora.

Monodoi'a.

RoUinia.

*Anona.

Melodorum. Xylopia.

Miliusa.

Orophea.

Alphonsea.

Bocagea. *Eupomatia.

The genus Eupomatia, which is closely allied to An<maeeeB, presents remarkable anomalies of structure.
Sepals and petals imited into a conical mass, inserted on the upper edge of a turbinate torus, from which
it is transversely separated like an operculum. Stamens numerous, perigynous; inner many-seriate,
sterile, petaloid ; outer few-seriate, linear-lanceolate ; connective longer than the anther-cells, acuminate.
Ovary inferior, buried in the torus, and composed of several thick carpels ; ovules numerous, inserted on
the ventral . suture ; styles connate, terminated by a plane stigma, hollowed into as many areolae as there
are carpels. Fruit a truncate berry, crowned by the margin of the torus. Seeds angular. — The sterile
inner stamens are connivent, and very closely imbricate over the stigma, which .are thus shut oif
from communication vrith the outer fertile stamens, rendering fertilization impossible; but, as
E. Brown observed, they are gnawed by insects, whose introduction thus assists the transport of the pollen
to the stigma.

Anmacem are near Myristice<s (see this family). They approach ScMzandrete, Lardizabalecs and Meni-
spermea in the ternary arrangement of the calyx and corolla, hypopetalism, extrorse anthers, berried fruit,
copious albumen, basilar embryo (at least in Lardizabale(s and Schizandreai), alternate leaves and axillary
flowers ; but in Schizandreee the flowers are diclinous, the aestivation imbricate, the ovules pendulous, the
radicle superior, and the albumen is not ruminate. The aifinity with Magnoliacea rests on the same
features, and the diagnosis on the same differences; besides which, in the latter, the leaves are stipulate,
and the seeds have generally a fleshy testa (^Magnolia). Anonacees are also near DiUeniacees in hypo-
petalism, polyandiy, adnate anthers, polygyny, erect anatropous ovules, copious fleshy albumen, basilar
embryo, woody stem and alternate leaves; but in DiUeniacece the leaves are sometimes stipulate, the
flowers are terminal and quinary, the aestivation is imbricate, and the albumen is not ruminate.

Anonarem are nearly all tropical. Some {Asimina) reach 33° N. latitude in America. Asia and
America possess about the same number of species ; somewhat fewer are met with in Africa. Anona and
ItoUinia have not yet been observed in Asia. Several Anonas inhabit Africa.

VII. MENISPEEME^. 199

The bark of Anonacem is usually more or less aromatic and stimulating; in some species the taste is
acrid and almost nauseous ; the leaves possess similar hut less powerful properties, the fruits are aromatic
and hot {Xylopia), or nearly inodorous, and these alone are eatable. The Malayans use the bark of
several Anonaceee, reduced to pjilp, for bruises and rheumatic pains, and the fruit of others as a stomachic.
With the flowers of Uvaria odorata, and with other aromatics and Curcuma root, they prepare an ointment
with which they anoint themselves, to ward off fever in the rainy season. European women in
India, it is said, macerate these scented flowers in cocoa-nut oil, as a hair oil. The root of Polyatthia
maorophylla is strongly aromatic, and the Javanese mountaineers use an infusion of it in eruptive fevers ;
they also use the fruits of P. mbcordata to allay nervous colics. AHabotrys suaveolens grows in nearly
all the islands of the Malay Archipelago; from- its infused leaves is prepared an aromatic medicine,
which is very efiicacious in inducing reaction during the cold stage of cholera. The aromatic fruit of
Xylopia grandi/lora furnishes the Brazilians with a condiment and a stimulating drug ; that of X. frutescens,
a shrub found throughout tropical America, is used as pepper by the negros ; that of X longifoUa, which
grows on the shores of the Orinoco, is reckoned one of the best substitutes for quinine. X. cBthiopioa
furnished the ancients with Ethiopian pepper, before black pepper was introduced from India. The
Asmninas of STorth America are remarkable for theiiT nauseous odour ; the leaves of A. triloba are used to
hasten the ripening of abscesses ; its berries are eatable, but its seeds are emetic. Many species of Anona
produce agreeable fruits, much esteemed in the tropics, as the Peruvian Cherimoya {Anona CMrimolia),
the Sweet Sop {A. squamosa), and (the Custard-Apple (A. muricata). The West Indian A^ netioulata has a
mucilaginous, astringent,,disagreeably tasted fruit, and is employed as an anti-dysenterio and vermifuge.
All these are natives of America; whence they have been transported by man to the Old Wojld.

VII. MENISPERME^.

(Menispebma, Jussieu. — Menispeemoide^, Ventenat. — Meuispbirme^, D.G.)

Flowers diceciows. Sepals usually 6, free, 2-seri!it6, imbricate^ Petals %po-
gynous, usually 6, imhricate, 2-seriate. Stamens mserted on the receptacle, equal and
opposite to the petals, rarely more or fewetr, sterile or in the § flowers. Carpels
usually 3, rarely oo, distinct, 1-ovuled, rudimentary or in the $ flowers. Drupes
with the stylary scar often basal. Seeds albuminous or not. Embryo usually curved ;
radicle facing the stylary sca/r, — Stem usually woody, climbing or twiming. Leaves
alternate, exstipulate.

Stem climbing ; branchlets finely striate, sometimes twining, woody, or suffru-
ticose, rarely herbaceous and springing from a woody rbizome {Gissampelos) . Leaves
alternate, exstipulate, usually palminerved, entire or palmilobed or peltate, rarely
compound {Burasaia), petiole spuriously jointed at tbe base, and sometimes at tbe
top. Elowees dioecious, small, in a panicle, raceme or cyme, rarely solitary, some-
times accompanied by cordate bracts (Gissampelos). Sepals usually 6, 2-seriate,
sometimes 9 3-seriate or 12 4-seriate, rarely 4 {Gissampelos), sometimes 4 or 8
(Menispermum), very rarely 5 (Sarcopetalum), usually distinct, very rarely coherent
{SyncUsia, Oyclea). Petals usually 6, 2-seriate, imbricate, but equal and simulating
a single series, smaller than the inner sepals, rarely 4 or 8 (Gyclea), very rarely 1, 3,
or 6 {Stephania), or 2 {Gissampelos), or {Anamirta, Abuta, &c.), very rarely united
{Gissampelos). Stamens as many as petals, usually 6, opposite to the petals, very
rarely 3 {TricUsia, &c.), or 4-8 {Oyclea), or 9 {Limacia, &c.), or oo {Menispermum) ;

200

VII. MENISPEEME^:

Menispermum canadense.

Menispennum canadense.
Raceme of fruits.

Slephania,

Staminnl

column, anther

peltate at the top,

with circular
dehiscence (mag.).

Cocculus.
Young carpel,
cut vertically

(mag.).

Memtpeimum
Vertical section of carpel and seed (mag.).

M. canadense.
llipe cai'pel (mag.).

M. canadense,'^
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

M, virginicum. M. virginicum. Coscinium. Coscinmm.

■Tetfil 'mag.). Fruit. t? flower without corolla (mag,). J flower (mag.).

Slephania.
^ flower (mag.).

VII. MENISPEEMEiE. 201

filaments more or less free, or united in a monadelphous column ; anthers various,
free or united, usually extrorse, 1-2-celled, dehiscence longitudinal, transverse, or
circular {Stephania). Carpels usually 3, rai-ely 6 {Goscinium, Sarcopetalum, Fi-
braurea), or 9-12 {Tiliacora, Sciadotenia), or 2 4 {Menispermum) , or 1 {Gissampelos,
Oyclea, Stephania) ; styles terminal, simple or lobed, often becoming basilar from the
curvature of the ovary ; ovules solitary ' in the carpels, half-anatropous, peltately
attached to the ventral suture of the carpel, or very rarely anatropous ; micropyle
superior, chalaza facing the base of the ovary. Ripe carpels drupaceous, sessile, or
stipitate ; scar of style subterminal, excentric, or more often sub-basal ; endocarp
■ straight, or «ften curved like a horse-shoe, with its ventral surface intruded as a
hemispherical, peltate, or flattened projection, to which the seed is ventrally
attached. Seed of the form of the cavity, concave or furrowed on its ventral surface ;
testa thin, membranous ; albumen more or less copious, sometimes ruminate {Ana-
mirta, Ahuta, &c.), or {Puchygone, Bctryopsis, Tridisia, &c.). Embeto usually
curved, rarely straight (Anomospermum) ; radicle facing the scar of the style ; cotyle-
dons linear and contiguous, or large and thict, or foliaceous and divaricate.

, PRINCIPAL GENEEA.

Aspidocarya. Parabsena. Tinospora. Jateorhiza. Anamirta.

Coscinium. Tiliacora. I^imacia. *Cocculus. Menispermum.

Stephania. * Gissampelos. Oyclea. Pachygone. Hyperbasna.

Tricliaia. Fibraurea. Centitaxis. Antitaxis. Burasaia.

Menispennece are closely allied to Anonacece, Lardkahahee, Berherideai, and 'ScMzandreee. They are
connected with LardimbalecB by their hypopetalism, two-seriate sepals and petals, usually monadelphous
stamens, extrorse anthers, distinct and fleshy carpels, woody twining stem, alternate exstipulate and
sometimes compound leaves {Burasaia), and diclinous racemed flowers ; but in Lardizahalece the carpels
nearly always contain several ovules scattered over the walls of the ovary, and the embryo is minute, at
the base of a very abundant horny albumen. Berheridecs are similarly related, but differ in their g flowers,
free filaments, the dehiscence of their anthers, their solitary carpel, erect stem, penninerved leaves,
&c. Anonacecs are connected with Menispermete by their woody stem, alternate and «xstipulate leaves,
often diclinous flowers, hypogynous 2-seriate petals, extrorse anthers, free often 1-ovuled and fleshy
carpels ; they are distinguished from them by their habit, inflorescence, aromatic odour, rarely climbing
stem, penninerved leaves, ruminate albumen, &c. Schizandreee approach Menispermecs in their woody
climbing stem, alternate exstipulate leaves, diclinous flowers, several-seriate sepals and petals, extrorse
anthers, and free carpels, fleshy when ripe ; they are distinguished by the 2-ovuled ovaries, the straight
minute embryo at the base of an abundant albumen, and the penninerved leaves.

Menispermecs principally inhabit the intertropical regions of both worlds. Few are met with in North
America, Western Asia, South Africa and extra-tropical Australia ; none in Europe.

This family has severaLspecies used in medicine ; some possess a bitter principle in their root, which
stimulates the digestive organs; others are acrid and diuretic. Many contain in their herbaceous organs
an abundant emollient mucilage. The pericarp of some is narcotic, acrid, and very poisonous. Cocculus
palmiitws is a tropical African and Madagascar perennial, whose turnip-shaped root (the Calumba-root of
commerce) is one of the most efiieacious of tonics, and prescribed for obstinate colic, dysentery and sick-
ness ; it is adulterated with other roots from India and Barbary, which bear its name without having its pro-
perties. C. peltatm, of Malabar, and C. Jlavesnens, of the Moluccas, are the best substitutes for it. Among
the Brazilian Menispermeee with a bitter tonic root, are Cocculus platyphylhis, cinerascens, and Cissampelus

' Two in Fibrfiurca, of which one alone is further developed. — En.

202

YIII. BEEBEEIDEiE.

uvalifolia. C. Vareira is a southern Brazilian shrub, the root of which, called ' Pareira Brava,' is woody, in-
odorous, of a taste at first mild, then bitter and somewhat acrid ; it was formerly renowned as a lithotriptic,
and is still used in Martinique against the bite of the Trigonocephalus. CissamjJehs Caapeba, from the
Antilles, and C mannWaMa, from the Mascarine islands, are used as substitutes for the Pareira Brava.
The root of Coscinium fenestratum, of Ceylon, is a stomachic. The negros of Senegambia employ that
of Coccidus Bakis as a diuretic and febrifuge. The roots of Cissampelos glaherrimus and ebracteattis are ad-
ministered in Brazil in cases of snake-bites. Cocculus erinpus, of the Moluccas, contains a glutinous and
bitter juice, -commonly used by the Indians in intermittent fevers, jaundice, and intestinal worms.

The bark of several species is extremely bitter ; some yield a yellow dye. Anamirta Coocuhis is a
tropical Asiatic shrub, whose extremely poisonous fruits are used in India to intoxicate and poison fish,
which fl,re thus obtained in abundance, but are sometimes dangerous to eat, the narcotic principle con-
tained in the seed (pierotoxine) being scarcely less deleterious than strychnine. In England beer is some-
times adulterated with Coocidtts indieits.

VIII. BERBERIDE^.

(Bebbeeides, Jussieu. — Beebeeidb^, VerdtenaL — Berberace^, Lindl,]

Barberry.

Vertical section of

ovary (mag.)-

Barberry,

Seed, entire and cut
vertlcaUy (maff.)*

Barberry.
{Berbeins vulgaris.)

Barberry. Diagram.

VlIT, BERBEEIDE^.

203

Barberry,

Petal showing its two

glamds (mag.)..

Barberry.

Pistil with a petal and

BtajBaen (mag.).

Barberry,
Normal leaves in the axil of a spinous leaf
with abortiTe blade.

Spimeditim.
Pistil (mag,). Epimedium dlpinnm.

Inner petal (mag.).

Barberry.
Pistil (mag.).

Barberry.
Dehiscing stamen (mag.).

Epimedium..
Flower (mag.).

Vertical' section of flower (mag.).

Caul<^hyllujii.
Carpel opening before
maturity, to emit two
upright basilartavnlfes;

204

Vni. BEEBERIDEiE.

Cavlophyllum.

Caulophyllum.

BerheHdopsis.

^

Fruit, leaving naked two seeds,

Fertile drupe-like seed, cut

Androecium

one of which, is abortive, the

vertically, borne on a well-

BerheridopsU.

and pistil

Berbe7-idopsis,

other globular amd drupe-like.

developed funicle.

Flower (mag.).

(ijiag.).

Pistil (mag.).

Sepals 3-4-9, 1-3-seriate. Petals hypogynous, 4-6-8-9- co, 1-2-S-seriate.
Stamens as many as the petals, hypogynous. Anthebs extrorse, usually opening by
valves, bursting from below upwards. Carpel solitary, 1-celled, several-ovuled. Fetjit
a herry or capsule. Seeds albuminous. Embeto dicotyledonous, small, axile.

Heebs or SHETTBS 'witli cylindric stem and branches, juice watery. Leaves
sometimes simple (1-foliolate), or pinnate, with, usually spiny teeth, occasionally
reduced to simple or branching spines [Berberis), sometimes 2-3-pinnate {Epime-
dium, Nandina, Leontice, &c.), sometimes palmilobed {Diphylleia, Jeffersonia) ; stipules
2, petiolar., minate, caducous. Flowees ? , regular, very rarely without perianth
{Aehlys), axillary, solitary {Jeffersonia, Podophyllum), or in racemes [Berberis, Bpime-
dium, Leontice), panicles (Bongardia), cymes {Diphylleia), or spikes {Aehlys). Calyx
of 3, 4, or 9 1-3-seriate sepals, often petaloid, quite distinct, sestivation imbricate.
Petals inserted on the receptacle, as many as' the sepals in the several-seriate
calyces, double in the 1-seriate calyces, biglandular at the base {Berberis), or with a
nectariferous pore at the claw {Bongardia), or nectariform {Leontice, Caulophyllum,),
or hooded or lengthened into a spur (Epimedium), .or like the sepals {Aceranthus,
Diphylleia). Stamens inserted on the receptacle, usually ae many as the petals,
very rarelj'- twice as many {Podophyllum) ', filaments free, short, flattened, often irri-
table ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse, opening by two valves raised from below upwards,
or sometimes by two longitudinal slits {Nandina, Podophyllum). Caepbl solitary,'
1-celled ; style terminal, very short, often .0 ; stigma usuallj^ large, peltate, umbili-
cate ; ovules numerous, ascending from a parietal placenta, or few, erect and basal or
sub-basal, anatropous. Beeet or capsule fleshy or membranous, indehiscent, some-
times dehiscent {Epimedium, Vancouveria, Jeffersonia) ; sometimes the ovary breaks
up .after fertilization, and disappears when ripe, leaving the drupe-like seeds exposed
{Caulophyllum). Seeds ovoid or globose, erect or horizontal; testa crustaceous, mem-
branous or fleshy ; hilum sublateral, near the base, sometimes carunculate ; albumen
fleshy, or sub-horny. Embeto straight, axile ; cotyledons flat, elliptic ; radicle longer
than the cotyledons.

' The very anomalous Chilian genus Berberidopsis parietal placentas. It is referred to Bixacecs by
is a climter with three carpels connate into a 1-cellecl
ovary, with many almost orthstropous ovules on three

parietal placentas.
Baillon. — Ed.

IX. LAEDIZABALE^. 205

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Berberidopsis. Berberia. *Mabonia. *Leontice. *Naiidina.

Oaulophyllum. Vancouveria. *Epimedium. Aceranthus. Dipbylleia.

Jefferaonia. * Podophyllum. Achlys.

Berheridece are closely allied to Lardkabalecs (aee tbat order) ; the genua Berheridopsia, of which the
1-celled ovary, with three parietal placentas, is an exception to the normal Bm-beridece, establishes the
passage of these to Lardizabalece, through the genus Decaisnea, of which the carpels with two series of
ovules gape when ripe. Berbm-idecB also approach MagnoUacece in their hypopetalism, the distinct several-
seriate sepals, the adnata anthers, albuminous seed, straight embryo, woody stem, and alternate leaves
with caducous stipules ; but Magnoliaceee differ in their habit, scented wood, polyandry, and the number
and mode of dehiscence of their carpels. Berberidece resemble JRanunculacece (see this order), and slightly
Papaveracecs, which differ in habit, millsy juice, terminal inflorescence, polyandr}', introrse anthers, and
the structure of the fruit and seed. Berberidem have also some analogies with Anonacece, founded on the
ternary arrangement of the flower, the free sepals, hypogynous 2-seriate petals, isostemony {Bocagea),
adnate anthers, thick capitate and often sessile stigma, the erect anatropous ovules, and berried fruit ;
but AnonacecB are distinguished by their habit, their distichous entire often climbing stem, terminal
usually polyandrous flowers, the ternary carpels, and ruminate albumen.

Berberidets grow in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, the Andes, and extra-tropical
South America. They are absent from tropical and South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

The benies and herbaceous parts of Berberidece contain free malic acid ; the root and bark of several
species yield a yellow bitter extractive (berbeiine) possessing properties analogous to those of rhubarb.
This ia especially the case with the common Barberry (Berbeiis vulgaris), a shrub which grows on calcareous
soils in Europe and Northern Asia; the tincture yielded by the bark of its root and stem is purgative, and its
yellow colour induced doctors formerly to administer it for jaundice; its acid berries form a very pleasant
preserve, and the young acid astringent leaves are used to strengthen the gums. B . fascicularis (Mahonia)
is esteemed in California for its mildly acid berries. The wood of the Indian and South American
Berberis is used aa a dye. [B. Lycium, the Lyeimn indicum of Dioscoridea, is used to this day in India
for ophthalmia.— Ed.] The root of Cauhphylhcm thalietroides is valued as a sudorific in North America,
and its seeds form a substitute for coffee. Bongardia Chrysogonum grows in Greece and the East; its
leaves are eaten like those of sorrel ; its root was formerly considered an alexifer. The powdered root of
Leontice Lemitopetahim, a plant of Asia Minor, ia used at Aleppo as a soap for cleaning stuffs; the Turks
also use it as a corrective for an overdose of opium. Podojjhyllum pcltatum, from North America, connects
Berbendea with Papateraceee ; ita herbaceoua parts are narcotic and poisonous ; its root contains a bitter
gum-reain, which purges as effectively as jalap ; its berries are very acid, but may be eaten with
impunity, as may those of P. himalayetise [which are insipid. — Ei).]l

IX. LARDIZABALEJi, Br.
(Menispbemaceaeum trihus, D.C^Beebeeideaeum tribus, Benth. et Mook. fil.)

Twining, or rarely erect shetjbs [Decaisnea), branches striate. Leaves alternate,
compound, 2-3-ternate (Lardizabala), or 3- 5-foliolate [Boquila, Parvatia), or pinnate
(Decaisnea), or digitate {Akebia, Eolbcellia) ; leaflets toothed or sinuate, petioles and
petiolules swollen at the base and top, exstipulate. Tlowees diclinous or poly-
gamous, in solitary or fascicled axillary racemes, naked or bracteolate. Flowbes $ :
Caltx coloured, 6-phyllous, 2-seriate, or rarely 3-phyllous (Alcebia), gestivation im-
bricate, the outer sepals often valvate. Petals 6, inserted on the receptacle, much
smaller than the sepals, or 0. Stamens 6, inserted on the receptacle, opposite to

206

IX. LARDIZABALE^.

Lardizahdla.
Flower-bud (mag.).

SolboeUia latifoha:

Lardizahala.
Diagram ^ .

Lardizahala.
Expanded flower (mag.)-

Lar^zahala.
Pistil.

Lavdizabala hiternata.
I'mit,

(S)

Lardizahala.
Diagram 9*

Lardizahala,
Transverse section of ovary.

Lardizahala,
Seed, entire and cut transversely (mag.)-

Decaisnea.

Transverse section

of carpel.

the petals ; filaments cylindric, monadelplious or rarely free {Akebia, Holbcellia) ;
anthers extrorse, apiculate, very rarely muticous [Akebia). Ovaeibs rudimentary,
2-3 or more, fleshy. Flowees ? , a little larger, calyx and corolla as in the $ .
Stambns 6 ; anthers imperfect or 0. Ovaeibs 3, rarely 6-9 {Ahebia), distinct, sessile,
1-celled ; styles short or obsolete ; stigmas terminal, papillose, peltate, obtuse or
conical; ovules many, rarely few {Boquila), inserted all over the wall in separate
alveolae, or 2-seriate along the ventral' suture (Decaisnea), anatropous or campylo-
tropous. Eipe caepbls baccate, indehiscent or dehiscent (Decaisnea). Sbeds
buried in the pulp, testa thin. Embeto usually minute, at the base of a copious
fleshy-horny albumen ; cotyledons flat.

X. NYMPH^INE^. 207

GENERA.

Lardizabala. Boquila. Paivatia. Decaisnea. Stauntonia.

Holboellia. Akebia.

LardizabalecB approach Serberideee in their hypopetaliam, petaloid sepals and 2-seriate petals, isoste-
monism, extrorse anthers, berried fruit, albuminous seed, alternate componiid leaves, and racemed flowers ;
they differ in their diclinism, united filaments, anthers dehiscing longitudinally, and several carpels.

For the affinity with Menispermece, see that order. Lardizahalets also approach Magnoliacece in their
ternary perianth, hypopetalism, extrorse anthers, free carpels, albuminous seeds, and basilar embryo ; but
in MagnoliacetB the stem is not twining, the leaves are always simple and stipulate, the flowers are usually
5 and polyandrous, the ovules are constantly attached to the ventral suture, and the ripe carpels are follicles
or samaras. The afiinity is more marked with Schizandreee, which are sarmentose shrubs with alternate
exstipulate leaves, diclinous flowers, ternary free bypogynous perianth-segments in 2-several series,
extrorse anthers, free berried carpels, seeds sunk in the pulp, copious albumen, and basilar embryo ; but
in Schixaitdreee the leaves are simple, often pellucidly dotted, the stamens are numerous, the carpels 2-
ovuled, and the ovules attached to the ventral suture.

The majority of Lardkabalecs inhabit India, China, and Japan ; Lardkabala and Boquila are
Chilian.

Lardixahalem contain neither a bitter nor an aromatic principle ; their hemes are mucilaginous and
eatable ; the flowers of many are scented. The Nepalese eat the fruits of HolbcsUia latifolia, and the
Chilians those of Lardimhala and Boquila ; [those of Decaisnea are sweet and fleshy, and very
grateful. — Ed.]. The shoots of Lnrdimbala, passed through fire and macerated in water, form cords of
great strength,

X. NYMPHJElNEJi, Brongniart.

Sepals 3-^5. Petals 3- oo, hypogynous or perigynous, i.e. inserted at different
heights on a torus enveloping the ovaries and more or less united with them. Stamens
usually numerous, inserted with the petals. Ovaeies several, free or coherent. Fetjit
a berry bursting irregularly, or an indehiscent nut. Seeds furnished with a double
albwmen, or ra/rely exalbuminous. Aquatic hbebs.

Aquatic heebs ; rootstoch perennial, submerged, tuberous, creeping, with some-
times milky juice, emitting leaves and 1 -flowered scapes, rarely floating branches
{Brasenia). Leaves alternate or opposite, long-petioled, blade floating, rarely
emerged {NehbmUum), usually cordate-peltate, sometimes oblong or linear [Barclay a),
often dissected and capillary in the submerged leaves [Cabomba). Flq-webs large § ,
regular, usually floating, rarely emerged [Nelumbium] ; peduncles axillary, 1 -flowered.
Sepals usually 4-5-6, rarely 3 [Cabomba, Brasenia). Petals imbricate in aestivation,
usually numerous, rarely 3 [Cabomba) ; sometimes all free and hypogynous [Nwphar) ;
sometimes all, or the inner only, inserted at different heights, on a torus enclosing
the carpels. Stamens oo, or rarely. 6 [Cabomba), inserted as the petals ; anthers
erect, connective continuous with the filament, cells adnate, Qpening by a longitudinal
slit, introrse, or rarely extrorse [Cabomba). Oaepels co, or 8-10, rarely 3-4 [Ca-
bomba), sometimes distinct [Cabomba, Brasenia), sometimes cohering in a whorl, and
forming a several-celled ovary, either free and superior [Nuphar), or adherent to the
torus, and then inferior or half-inferior [Nymphcea, Victoria, Euryale, &c.), sometimes
sunk without order in the alveolse of an obconic torus [Nelumbium) ; stigmas either

203

X. NYMPH^INE^.

distinct {Nelumhium, Cabomba), or united into a radiating or annular disk {Nymphma,
Euryale, Victoria) ; ovules anatropous, attached to the ovarian walls, or pendulous
either from the ventral suture {Cabomba, Brasenia), or from the top of the cell
{Nelmnbium) . Ripe carpels indehiscent, distinct, or united into a fleshy, pulpy,
or spongy fruit. Seeds arillate or naked ; albumen copious, floury or fleshy, or
very rarely {Nelumbium). Embryo straight, enclosed in the embryonic sac, sunk
in the albumen, and thus forming a second albumen ; cotyledons thick ; radicle
very short.

2\'vphar. AndroEcium and pistil.

Sujihar. Fruit.

White Water-Lily. Part of flower.

X. ISrYMPH^INE^.

209

SuB-OEDEE I. NYMPH2EACE2E.

(Htdeochaeidum genera, Jussieu. — NYMPHjEACEiE, Salisbury.)

Sepals 4-6. Petals oo, pluri- seriate, hypogynous {Nuphar) or perigynous, i.e.
inserted at different heights on the torus enveloping the carpels {Nymph<Ba), or
epigynous, i.e. inserted on the top of the toi-us [Buryale, Victoria, Barelaya), the
inner narrower than the outer, and passing gradually, in some genera, into stamens
{Nymphcea, Victoria). (In Barelaya the coherent bases of the petals are inserted on
the top of the torus which envelops the carpels, the calyx remaining free.) Filaments
often flattened (especially the outer) and sub-petaloid, usually prolonged above the

ajithers. Cakpels whorled, coherent,
and forming a several-celled superior
ovary {Nuphar), or half- inferior {Nym-
phwa), or inferior (Victoria, Euryale,
Barelaya); styles connate into a peltate
radiating stigma, longer than the
torus, sessile or stipitate, more or less

Caiiomba,
Base of the seed, showing
the embryo enveloped by
the albumen (mag.).

Cabomba. Fruit.

Cahomba CarQlinatia*

Cabomba,
"Vertical section of
a carpel (mng;).

Cabomba.

Seed, entire and eut longitudinally

(m.ig.).

210 X. NYMPH^IlSrEiB.

depressed in the middle, with sometimes a central umbilicate gland {NymphcBo) ; ovules
usually numerous, inserted on the walls of the septa. Teuit a several-celled berry,
bursting irregularly when ripe, rarely separating into distinct carpels. Seeds often
furnished with a saccate pulpy aril {Nymphoea, Euryah) ; albumen farinaceous.

GENEEA.
Nuphar. *Nympliiea. Bnrolaya. *Euryale. 'Victoria.

SUB-OEDEE II. CABOMBEM.

(Cabombe^, McAarc^.— HTDEOPELTiDBiE, D.O.— Cabombace^, Asa Gray.)

Sepals 3-4. Petals 3-4, hypogynous, persistent. Stamens 6, 12, or 18 ;
filaments subulate ; anthers extrorse or lateral. Ovaeies 3-2-4, or 6-18, free,
whorled, inserted on a narrow torus, narrowed into styles, stigmatiferous at the top
{Gahomha), or throughout their length {Brasenia) ; ovules 2-3, pendulous. Eipe
oabpels enclosed in the persistent calyx and corolla, often solitary by arrest,
follicular, indehiscent. Seeds with a fleshy copious albumen.

GENEEA.
Catomba. Brasenia*

S ue-oedee III. HEL UMBONE^.
(Nelumbonb^, Bartling. — Nelumbiace^, Lindl.)

Sepals 4-5. - Petals and stamens oo, hypogynous, seyeral-seriate at the base
of the torus ; filaments filiform, dUated above ; anthers introrse, connective prolonged
beyond the cells as a flat or clubbed appendage. Ovaeies several, sunk separately in
the pits of a fleshy, obconic, flat-topped torus ; style short ; stigma terminal, sub-
dilated ; ovules 1-2 in each ovary, pendulous from a basilar funicle, which ascends
along its wall, and is free above ; raphe dorsal. Nucules sub-globose, indehiscent.
Seeds exalbuminous, testa thin, Embeto floury, plumule foliaceous.

GENUS.
Nelumbium,

NympkceinecB approaoli the polypetalous hypognoiia apocarpous families, although the principal genera
are syncarpous, and the ovary is adherent to the torus. The sub-order of JVymphceacecs is allied to
Papaverncees in the many-ovuled ovary with placentas on the septa, radiatingatigmas, polyandry, and
truly milky juice ; but is distinguished by its frequent perigynisra or ejngynism, aquatic habitat, and
especially the embryo with its enveloping sac being immersed in a superficial caTity of the amylaceous
albumen ; the latter ia almost the only character which distinguishes Cahomhea from Sanunculacecs.
Nymphceacea have also a real affinity with Sarfacetiiacece (see that order).

The species of Nymplusa are dispersed over nearly all regions ; Nvphar is confined to the extra-tropical
northern hemisphere ; Barclaya and Euryah inhabit tropical Asia j Victoria, equatorial America. The three
or four species of Ca6oJ«ie(Ss are American ; J?/-ase»iifl is also found in India and Australia. \_Neluinbium
inhabits the southern United States, tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia, — Ed.]

Some species of this family were venei'ated by the ancients, not only for the magnificence of their
flowers and leaves, carpeting the surface of the tranquil waters, but also on account of their utility. Their
young rootstooks contain abundance of starchy, mucilaginous and sugary matters, which render them

X. NYMPHiEINE^.

211

J^elumbium luteum. Leaf, flower, and carpels sunk in an alveolate receptacle.

Nelumbium.
Fruit, entire and cut.

Nelum^ium.

Vertical section of receptacle

and carpels.

Nelumhium,
Pistil, entire and cut (mag.).

Nelumhium.

Plumule with coiled leaves

(mag.).

NelutnUum.
Anther (mag.).

nutritive j in the adult rootstock these principles are replaced
by gallic acid. The flowers, which have a peculiar scent, are
narcotic. The seeds, filled with a floury albumen, are edible ;
the negros of Nubia use them as millet, and the Egyptians
still eat the seeds and rootstock of M/mphesa Lotus and
ceerulea. N, alba is the greatest ornament of still waters in
the northern hemisphere j its mucilaginous and somewhat acrid
rootstock is administered in some countries for dysentery,
and its flowers are reputed to be anti-aphrodisiac. Nuphar
luteum is indigenous, like the preceding; its flower exhales an alcoholic odour, and is said to have
the same soothing properties as Nymphcea j its leaves are astringent, and are given in Germany in cases

p 2

Nelumbium.

Embryo with spreading

lobra (mag.).

Nelumbium.
Embryo, one lobe re-
moved to show the
plumule (mag.).

212 XI. SAEEACENIACEtE.

of liEemorrhage ; it is also used by nurses to reduce the secretion of milk, and its rootstock is
eaten in Russia and Finland. The same is the case with the rootstock and seeds of Euryale ferox,
a native of India, and cultivated in China under the name of Kiteou. The Marnru, dedicated to the
Queen of England (Victoria regia'), is the most beautiful of the Nymphaacece ; it inhabits the tranquil
waters of the lagunes formed by the overflow of the large rivers of South America. Its leaves are floating
and peltate, their circular blade is 12-15 feet in girth, and its edge 2^-6 inches high ; the upper surface
is of a brilliant dark green, the under of a red brown, furnished with large reticulated prominent
cellular ribs, full of air, and bristling, like the petiole and peduncle, with elastic prickles. The flowers,
which rise a few inches above the water, are more than 30 inches in circumference : at first of a pure white,
in twenty-four hours they successively pass through pale pink to bright red ; they exhale an agreeable scent
during the first day of their blossoming ; at the end of the third day the flower withers and sinks into
the water to ripen its seeds. The fruit, which is inferior, attains when ripe the size of a large depressed
apple, covered with prickles. The seeds, which are known in the province of Corrientes as toater maize,
are rich in starch, and are roasted by the natives, who consider them excellent food. Brnsenia peltata is
used in North America as a mild astringent. Ndumbium speciosum was the Lotus of the Egyptians; its leaves,
peltate and saucer-shaped, are represented on their monuments and the statues of their gods; its pink
fiowers resemble enormous tulips, and its fruit-bearing peduncles served as a model for the columns of
their buildings. This species grows in several parts of Asia, as far as the mouths of the Volga, but is
no longer met with in Egypt; its seeds, formerly called JEgyptian leans, still serve as food to the Indians
and Chinese, who also use its petals as an astringent. N. luteum inhabits the large rivers of Louisiana
and Carolina.

XI. SARRACENTACE^, Endlicher.

Perennial heebs, inhabiting the turfy spongy bogs of North America and Guiana.
EooT fibrous. Leaves all radical, with a tubular or amphora-shaped petiole ; blade
small, rounded, usually lying on the orifice of the petiole. Scapes naked, or fur-
nished with a few bracts, 1-flowered {8arracenia, Darlingtonia), or terminated by a
'few-flowered raceme (Heliamphora) . Flowers large, nodding. Sepals 4-5, free,
very much imbricated at the base, sub-petaloid, persistent. Petals 6, free, hypo-
gynous, imbricate, deciduous, rarely {Heliamphora). Stamens qo, hypogynous, free ;
filaments filiform ; anthers 2-celled, versatile, opening by 2 longitudinal slits. Ovaet
free, 3-5-celled, placentas prominent at the inner angle of the cells ; style terminal,
short, sometimes dilated at the top, as a 5-angled or -lobed petaloid parasol with
5 radiating nerves {Sarracenia), or 5-fid, lobes narrow, spreading, reflexed, stig-
matiferous {Darlingtonia), or obtuse and terminated by an obscurely 3-lobed stigma
{Heliamphora) ; ovules numerous, many-seriate, sub-horizontal, anatropous, raphe
lateral. Capsule 3-5-celled, loculicidally 3-5-valved. Seeds od, small; testa
crustaceous, sometimes loosely reticulate {Darlingtonia), or membranous and winged
{Heliamphora) ; albumen copious, fleshy. Embkto minute, near the hilum.

GENERA.
Sarracenia. Darlingtonia. Heliamphora.

This little family approaches Papaveracecs in hypopetalism, polyandry, numerous ovules, capsular
fjuit, fleshy copious albumen, and minute basilar embryo ; but Papaveracets differ much in habit, proper
juice, caducous dimerous calyx, and one-celled ovary with parietal placentation. Sarraneniacece are con-
nected with Nymphceaceai by the same characters, and also by the always radical leaves, one- flowered

XL SAEEACENIACBiE.

213

Sarracenia.
Fruifc, entire and cut transversely.

Sarracenia.
Pistil and part of andrcecium.

Darlingionia,
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

214

XII. PAPAVBRACE^.

scape, and ac[uatic habitat ; but NijmphaacecB differ in their numerous several-seriate petals, placentation,
sessile stigma, and double albumen. Certain affinities or analogies have also been indicated, which link
iSarracOniacece with DroseracecB, Fyrolacem, Nepentheee, and Cephalotece.

[All are natives of America, and chiefly of the United States. Darlingtonia inhabits the Rocky
Mountains, and JJeliamphora the Rorunia Mountains of Venezuela. j^ hu-xJ^

Of the properties of Sarruceniacece little is known. Sarracenia rubra has been vaunted in Canada as a
specific against small-pox, but has not proved such. The pitcher-shaped leaves are effective insect traps :
a sugary secretion exudes at the mouth of the pitcher, and attracts the insects, which descend lower in
the tube, where they meet with a belt of reflexed hairs, which facilitate their descent into a watery
fluid that fills the bottom of the cavity, and at the same time prevent their egress. — Ed.]

SV^

XII. PAPAVERACEJ^, Jussieu.

Poppy. Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Poppy. {Papaver Rhoeas.)

Poppy. Fruifc,

Poppy. Diagram.

Poppy.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Poppy.
Floffer-bud (mag.).

Poppy.
Transverse section of ovary (mag.).

Poppy.
Pistil (mag.).

XII. PAPAVEE,A.CEiE.

215

Glaucium. Diagram.

€flaucium fiavum.

Glaucium.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Olaucium.
PlOA'er cut vertically.

; Crossosoma.
Diagram and part of flower.

Vi

? C)

\A

Zleconopsis.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

Platystemon,
Aggregated carpels.

221G

XII. PAPAVERACEiE.

Sschsclioltzia.
Eschscholtzia. Flower without the petals,
Fruit. cut vertically (mag.).

Eschscholtzia.
Flower-bud and pistil.

Roemeria.
Seed, entire and cut yertlcally (mag.).

Sepals 2, rarely 3. Petals double or multiple the numher of the sepals, free,
regular, usually hypogynous. Stameis'S oo, hypogynons, free. Ovary 1-celled, with

XII. PAPAVEEACE^. 217

parietal placentas, many-ovuM. Fbuit capsular or siliquose. Seeds albuminous.
Embryo minute, basilar.— Stem, herbaceous. Leaves alternate.

Annual or perennial heebs, rarely suffrutescent {Bocconia, Dendromecon) ; juice
milky, yellow, -white, or red, rarely watery {Eechscholtda, Hunnemannia, Platystemon,
&c.). Leaves alternate, simple, penninerved, toothed or pennilobed. Infloees-
CENCE terminal; peduncles usually 1-flowered, rarely bearing an umbellate cyme
{Ghelidonium) or panicle {Bc-cmiia, Macleya). Flowees 5 , regular, yellow or red,
very rarely blue [Meconopsis Wallichii, &c.). Sepals 2 (rarely 3), free, or very
rarely coherent into a cap {EschschoUzia), lateral, overlapping each other, caducous.
Petals hypogynous, very rarely perigynous {EschschoUzia), equal, free, usually
double the number of the sepals, rarely 8 or 12, 2-3-seriate [Sanguinaria], rarely
{Bocconia, Macleya), often crumpled before expansion, the outer equitant on the inner.
Stameks hypogynous, very rarely perigynous {EschschoUzia), free, usually oo many-
seriate, rarely 4-6 1-seriate {Platystigma, section Meconella) ; filaments filiform ; anthers
2-celled, basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal. Carpels connate into an ovoid or oblong
1- celled ovary ; placentas 2- co, parietal, sometimes prolonged into vertical incomplete
septa {Papaver), sometimes marginal and filiform {Ghelidonium, Argemone, Rcemeria,
&c.) ; style short or obsolete ; stigmas as many as placentas, persistent, jnore or less
connate, sub-sessile, or arranged in rays on the surface of an orbicular disk formed by
the styles, and which crowns the ovary {Papaver) ; ovules anatropous, ascending or
horizontal, micropyle inferior, raphe superior or lateral. Eipe caepels very rarely
distinct {Platystemon), generally connate into a capsule, or one-celled siliqua,
rarely 2-celled owing to a cellular development of the placentas {Glaucium) ; opening
either by valves between the placentas {Papaver), or in two or four valves separating
from below upwards {Ghelidonium), of from above downwards, leaving the placentas
exposed {Glaucium, Stylophormn) ; rarely fleshy when young {Bocconia, Sanguinaria) .
Seeds usually numerous, rarely definite {Macleya), or solitary {Bocconia), globose or
ovoid, sub-reniform {Papaver), or crested along the raphe {Ghelidonium, &c.) or not ;
albumen copious, oily. Embryo minute, basilar ; radicle near the hilum and centri-
fugal.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

* Platystemon. Platystigma. * Papaver. * Argemone. 'Meconopsis.
Stylophoruni. 'Sanguinaria. * Bocconia. * Glaucium. Eoemeria.

* Chelidonium. Hunnemannia. * Eschsoholtzia. Dendromecon.

Papamraceee are closely allied to Fainariacecs, which are only distinguished by their irregular petals,
their definite, usually diadelphous stamens, and their non-oleaginous albumen. They approach CrueifercB in
their flower formed on the binary type, in hypopetalism, parietal placentation, capsular siliquose fruit,
polyandry (Megacarpad), and oily seed ; but Cmdferce are usually tetradynamous, their ovary is two-
celled, their ovules ai-e campylotropous, and their seed exalbaminous. Papaveraceee are also near
RanunculacecB, Berlerideee, and NymphceacecB (see these families). One monotypal Oalifornian genus,
Crossosoma, placed among ManunculacecB, approaches Papaveraceee in its monosepalous calyx, polyandry,
perigynous petals and stamens (as in JEschscholtzia), and in the separation of the carpels (as in Platystemon) ;
it differs in its isomerous calyx and corolla, and multifid aril enveloping the seeds.

Papaveraceee inhabit the temperate and subtropical regions of the northern hemisphere ; but few are met
with in the tropics or southern hemisphere. Some species are now dispersed over cultivated ground through-
out the world. The most important of the Papaveraceee with milky juice is the Papaver somnifermn, an

218

XIII. FUMAEIACEiE.

annual herb, a native of Asia. Its juice, obtained by a superficial incision of its capsule, and thickened
by exposure, is opium, a substance containing several principles, and notably an alkaloid {morphine),
■whose powerful properties render this one of the most valuable of drugs. Taken in a large dose, it is a
deadly poison ; but habit rapidly weakens its action, and by degrees considerable quantities can be swallowed
with impunity. Orientals, and especially the Chinese, drink, chew, or smoke opium to procure intoxica-
tion, the daily renewal of which becomes a want, which they satisfy at any price ; when they soon fall
into a state of physical and moral degradation, from which nothing can rescue them. •

In the north of France a variety of P. Bomniferum is largely cultivated, the seeds of which are
blackish when ripe, and yield by expression a bland oil, used like olive oil, and known as iiiMte oil and
oholum. The petals of the Field-Poppy (P. JRJiaias) are mucilaginous, emollient, and slightly narcotic.
Chelidonium mqjus is a perennial herb, found in cultivated spots. The yellow and acrid milky juice,
which fills all parts of the plant, is used in Europe to destroy warts and to remove specks on the cornea;
it is regarded in Brazil,' either rightly or wrongly, as eifioacious against the bite of venomous serpents.
The juice of Argemone mexicana possesses, it is said, the same virtues. The root of Snnguinaria
canadensis, which contains a red juice, is acrid and bitter, and colours the saliva of a bright red ; sedative
properties similar to those of J)igitalis are attributed to it, and its narcotic seeds are considered equally
powerful as those of Datura Stramonium (Thorn- Apple).

XIII. FDMARTACEJE, D.C.

Ilypeconm.
Pistil (mag.)-

Tlypecoum
procumhens.

Hypecoum,
Flower (mag.).

Ilypecoum. Ifypecoum.

One of the inner petals (mag.). One of the outer petals (mag.)*

> There is probably some error here, Chelidonium not being a native of Brazil. Ed.

XIII. FUMARIACBiE.

219

Fumaria.
Fama/ria officinalis^ Flower (mag.)-

Fumaria, Fumaria. Fumaria.

Diagram. Inner petals (mag.)* Outer petals (mag.).

220

XIII. FUMAEIACE^.

Dicentra speclabilis.

Dicentra.
Dismembered flower, b, bracteoles ;
s, sepals ; pe, outer petals ; pi, inner
petals ; st, stamens.

Ceratocapnos.

Seed cut vertically

(mag.).

Ceratocapnos pal(SsUna^

Ceratocapnos. Fruits of different shapes on the same plant.

Herbaceous, annual or perennial, usually glaucous plants, with watery juice.
Stem sometimes tuberous, rarely sarmentose. Leaves alternate, cut. Tlowees
§ , irregular, terminal, in a raceme or spike, or sometimes solitary. Sepals 2, antero-
posterior, free, petaloid or scale-like, imbricate in bud, caducous. Petals hypogy-
nous, 4, free or connate at tbe base, 2-seriate, the 2 outer lateral, alternate with the
sepals, differing from the inner and equitant upon them, equal [Hypecoum, Dicentra,
Adlumia) or unequal, one being spurred or gibbous, the other flat, 2 inner petals
placed crosswise to the outer, oblong-linear, sub-callous, and coherent at the tips,
which enclose the anthers and stigmas. Stamens rarely 4, free, with 2-celled anthers
(Hypecoum), usually 6, united by their filaments in two bundles opposite to the
outer petals, and each composed of 3 anthers, of which the 2 lateral are
1-celled, and the median is 2-celled {Fumaria, Sarcocapnos, Corydalis, Adlumia,
Dicentra) ; anthers extrorse, dehiscence sometimes lateral {Hypecoum) . Ovakt free ;
style simple, sometimes 2-fid {Hypecoum) ; stigma, usually forming two crenulated

XIV. CEUCTFEEiE, 221

lobes ; ovules half-anatropous, one or several on parietal placentas. Fkuit siliquose,
many-seeded, 2-TalFed {Oorydalis, Adlumia, Dicentra), or vesicular {Oysticapnos), or
1-2-seeded and indehiscent {Fumaria, Sarcocapnos), or jointed and divided by trans-
verse septa into 1-seeded indebiscent cellules {Oeratocapnos, Hypecoum). Seeds
horizontal, bilum usually naked, sometimes stropbiolate {Dicentra, Corydalis) ; albu-
men fleshy. Embeto usually minute, nearly straight, basilar, often only visible at
the moment of germination, and having apparently only one ova,l cotyledon {Oory-
dalis) .

aENERA.

Hypecoum. * Dicentra. Pteridophyllum. 'Adlumia. * Corydalis.

Sarcocapnos. *F-amaria.

Fumanaceee are so closely allied to Papaveracece (see that family), that many modern botanists have
united them, for they differ chiefly in the dissimilarity between their inner and outer petals, and in their
definite stamens. Like Papaveracees, they approach Cruciferce in their corolla, hypopetalism, parietal,
plaoentation, curved ovule, and the structure of the fruit, but differ in their irregular flowers with two
sepals, diadelphous stamens, albuminous seed, and minute and basilar embryo. They inhabit the temperate
northern hemisphere, and especially the Mediterranean region and North America. Some {Cysticapnos,
Phacocapnos) inhabit South Africa ; none have been observed in the hot regions of the tropics.

Most Famariace(B contain in their herbaceous parts mucilage, saline substances, and a peculiar acid
or acrid juice, so combined that they are classed among tonic and alterative medicines. The Common
Fumitory {Fumaria officinalis) occurs everywhere in corn-fields and on rubbish heaps; its juice is bitter,
stomachic, and depurative. The roots of Corydalis bulbosa imifabacea are sub-aromatic, very bitter and
slightly astringent, and employed .as emmenagogues and vermifuges. The rather bitter and very acrid
foliage of C, capnoides is a reputed stimulant.

XIV. CRUCIFEBJi:.

(Teteapetal^, Ray. — Siliquose, Magnol. — Ceucifoemes, Tournefort. — Teteadt-
NAMiE, L. — Antiscoebutic^, Crantz. — Cruciate, Roller. — Ceucipee^, Adanson.
— Beassicace^, Lindl.)

Sepals 4. Petals 4, hypogynous. Stamens 6, tetradynamous. Ovaet sessile,
2- {rarely 1-) celled, with 2 parietal placentas. Eeuit a siliqua or silicula, or yiut or
lomentum. Seeds exalbuminous. Embeto oily, bent, rarely straight.

Usually heebs, rarely suffruticose, v^ith watery juice, often rather acrid ; hairs
when present simple or stellate, or fixed by the middle, very rarely glandular.
Stem cylindric or angular, sometimes spinescent. Leaves simple, alternate, rarely
opposite, entire, lobed or dissected, the radical often runcinate, and the cauline often
auricled at the base ; stipules generally 0. Flowees 5 , in a raceme, rarely solitary
on a scape; racemes usually terminal, corymbose when young, rarely bracteate.
CoKOLLA white, yellow, or purplish, rarely blue or pink. Sepals 4, free, 2-seriate,
the 2 outer opposite, antero-posterior, answering to the placentas, the 2 inner
lateral, often larger, and gibbous at the base, imbricate in bud, very rarely valvate
{Ricotia, Savignya, &c.). Petals 4, hypogynous, rarely {Armoracia, Lepidium
{some), Cck-damine (some), &c.), arranged crosswise, usually entire, equal, or the outer

222

XIV. CEIJCIFEEiE.

Parolinia.
Siliqua with valves

prolonged

into forked horns

(mag.).

Cochlearia,
Pistil (mag.).

Cochlearia o^cmalis.

CochleaHa,
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Cochleana.

Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show the accurabent
cotyledons (mag.).

XIV. CEUCIFEEJi].

223

Lunaria.
Seed, cut botb ways to show the accumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Lunaria biennis.

Lunaria. Seed (mag.)-

Barharea, Diagram.

JSrysimum. _ Barharea.

Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show the inciimbent cotyledons. Seed, entire and cut yertically (mag.).

Araiis.

Seed

cut transversely

(mag.).

cut transversely
(mag.).

AraUs.
Wingocl seed, (ntire and cub vertically (mag.).

Tetrapoma barharoefolia.
Transverse section of the
silicule, showing the four
placentas and the incom-
plete septa (mag.).

Tetrapoma.

Silicule with four

valves.

224

XIV. CEUCIFEEiE.

Vesica7'ia utriculaia.

Erophila.
Silicule Placentas and
(inag.). septum (mag.)-

En'uca.

Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show the cotyledons

folded lengthwise, and accumhent.

Vesicaria.

Silicule, entire and without its valves

(paag.).

Megacarpma polyandra^
AudroGcium.

Hstil (mag.)'

Gi'emolobus sinuatu's.
Silicule (mag.).

XIV. CEUCIFBE^.

225

Iberis. Iberis. Iberis.

Flower cut Tertically Andrcecium and Silicule -without
(mag.). pistil (mag.). its valves.

Thlaspi arvense.
Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show the accumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Iberis amara.

Xfestia paniculata.
entire, and cut both ways to show the incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

JEthionema saxatile.

Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show the incumbent

cotyledons (mag,).

Lepidium,
Seed, entirC) and cut botti ways to show the 3-partite and
incumbent cotyledons.

Capsella.
Shepherd's Purse Placentas

{Capsella Bursa-pastoi-is) and septum
(mag.). (mag.).

Capsella.

Transverse section of

silicule (mag.).

Capsella.

Andrcecium and

pistil (mag.).

Capsella.
Silicule (mag.).

Isatis Unctoria.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Isatis.
Fruit, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Q

Capsella.

Silicule without its

valves (mag.).

Myagrum.
Silicule, entire and cut veitically (mag.).

226

XIV. CEUCIFERiE.

Thysanocarpus elegans.
Silicule with
tte circnmference ClypeoUt cyclodonta.

perforated (mag.). Silicule (mag.).

JBunias. JBunias,

Silicule, entire aad cut vertically Seed, entire, and cut vertically to
(mag.)' show the coiled cotyledons (mag.).

Myagi um perfoUatum Seed, entire, and cut both ways to show
the incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Bunias.
Pistil (mag.).

Ci-ambe.

Silicule cut

vertically (mag.).

Ct'ambe.

Pistil and nectaries

(mag.).

Crambe marifima.
Flower cut vertically (mag.)-

Cramhe.
Audroecinm, pisti], and nectaries (mag.).

XIV. CRUCIFER^. 227

larger, variously imbricate in bud. Glands sessile at tbe base or on the circum-
ference of the torus, usually 4, opposite to the sepals, or 2 or 6, or forming a con-
tinuous variously lobed ring, sometimes 0. Stamens hypogynous, 6, of which 2 are
short, and opposite the lateral sepals, and 4 longer facing the placentary sepals,
and close together in pairs, or coherent ; sometimes reduced to 4 or 2 [Lepidium
(some), Gapsella (some), Senebiera (some)), rarely oo [Megaearjpcea polyandra) ; fila-
.ments subulate, the longest sometimes 1-toothed, or arched, rarely dilated or appen-
daged {Lepidostemon) ; anthers 2- (very rarely 1-) celled [Atelanthera], introrse,
dehiscence longitudinal, basifixed, cordate or sagittate, sometimes linear {Parrya) or
twisted {Stanley a)'. Ovaet of 2 connate carpels (very rarely 3-4, Tetrapoma), placed
right and left of the floral axis, sessile, rarely stipitate (Warea, &c.), placentation
parietal, usually 2-celled by cellular plates springing from the placentas, and dilated
into a false vertical septum ; sometimes 1 -celled, with parietal, basilar or apical placen-
tation ; sometimes divided into several superimposed cellules by spongy transverse
septa {Raphanus) ; style simple, or dilated, or appendaged, below the stigmas ; stigmas
2, opposite to the placentas, erect or divergent, or united into one, sometimes decur-
rent on the style ; ovules co, or few or solitary, pendulous or horizontal, very rarely
solitary and basilar in the 1-eelled ovaries {Glypeola, Dipterygium), or apical {Isatis,
Tauscheria, Uuelidium) , campylotropousorhalf-anatropous, raphe ventral, andmici'o-
pyle superior. Fkuit elongated (siliqua), or short {silicula), usually 2-celled, or 1-
celled from arrest of the septum {Isatis, Clypeola, Galepina, Myagrum, &c.), usually
with 2 valves separating from the placentas, rarely with 3-4 valves {Tetrapoma),
sometimes indehiscent from the cohesion of the valves {Raphanus), rarely transversely
divided into 2 one- or more-seeded joints, of which the upper (Erucaria, Morisia, &c.),
or the lower {Grambe, Rapistrum, Gahile, Enarthrocarpus) is indehiscent. Seeds sub-
globose or margined or winged ; testa cellular, usually becoming mucilaginous when
moistened. Embeto oily, curved, very rarely straight (Leavenworthia), exalbuminous
or very rarely enveloped in a layer of fleshy, albumen {[satis, some) ; cotyledons sub-
aerial, usually plano-convex, accumbent {Pleurorhizew) or incumbent {Notorhizem)
relatively to the radicle (which is usually ascendent), rarely oblique, sometimes
folded in two along their length and embracing the radicle {Orthoplocem), rarely
linear, and folded twice transversely {Diplecolobew), very rarely linear and coiled
transversely upon themselves {Spirolobece).'

Teieb I. ORTHOFLOGEm, B.C.
Cotyledons longitudinally conduplicate, embracing the dorsal radicle.

PEINCIPAIi GENERA.
•Brassica. Hirschfeldia. Enicastrum.

Moricanclia. Galepina. * Crambe.

Enarthrocarpus. * Raphanus. Eaphani.strum.

O 2

Sinapis.

Eruea.

Diplotaxis.

Vella.

Morisia.

Eapistnim.

228

XIV. CEUCIFEE^.

Tribe II. PLATYLOBEM

(Pleukoehize^ et Notgrhize^, DXj.)

Cotyledons plane. Radicle lateral or doa'sal.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
(Siliq)iose Platyloheee.')

* Hesperis.

* Maloolmia.

* Cheirantbus.

*MattMola.

* Erysimum.

* Barbarea.

Sisymbrium.

AU'iaria.

*Nastnrtium.

* Arabis.

* Cardamine.

Dentaria.

{Siliculose Platylobece.)

*Luiiaria.

* Favsetia.

- * Aubrietia.

*Vesicaria.

* Alyssum.

Clypeola.

Peltavia.

Draba,

Erophila.

* Armoracia.

* Cochleariai.

Tetrapoma.

Neslia.

*Myagi'um.

* Camelina.

Biscutella.

MegacarpEEa.

*Lepidium.

Hutchinsia.

'Iberia.

Teesdalia.

* yBthioneraa.

Tblaspi.

Capsella.

Caliile.

Isatis.

Anastatica.

Tribe III. SPIROLOBE^, D.G.
Cotyledons linear, Qoiled transversely npon themselveSr Radicle dorsal.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
*Buiiias, * Schizopetaluffl.

Tribe IV. DIPLECOLOBE^, D.G.
Cotyledons linear, folded twice transversely upon thenaselves. Radicle dorsal.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Coronopus. Subnlaria. 'Heliophila.

CLASSIFICATION OF CEUCIFEE^.

By Bentham aitd Hooker pil.

Series A. — Siliqua long or short, dehiscent throughout its length. Valves con-
tinuous within, rarely septiferous, plane or concave, not compressed, in a perpendicular
direction to the plane of the septum. Septum the same breadth as the valves.

Tribe I. ARABiDEiE. — Siliqua narrow, long, seeds often 1-Seriate. Cotyledons
accumbent. Matthiola, Cheiranthus, Atelanthera, NasfMrtium, Barbarea, Arabis, Gar-
damine, LoncJiophora, Anastatica, &c.

Tribe II. Altssine^. — Siliqua often short, large, seeds 2-seriate. Cotyledons
accumbent. Lunaria, Farsetia, Aubrietia, Vesicaria, Alyssum, Draba, Erophila, Coch-
learia, &c.

Tribe III. Sistmbrie^. — Siliqua narrow, long, seeds often 1-seriate. Cotyle-

XrV. CEUCIFEE^. 229

dons mcumbent, straight or coiled, or transversely folded. ScMzopetalum, Helens,
Malcolmia, Streptoloma, Sisymbrium, Gonringia, Erysimum, Heliophila, &c.

Teibb IV. Camblinb^. — Siliqna short or long, oblong, ovoid or globular. Seeds
2-seriate. Cotyledons incumbent. Stenopetalum,, Braya, Camelina, Tetrapoma,
Subularia, &c.

Teibe V. Bkassicb^. — Siliqua short or long, dehiscent throughout its length,
or at the top only. Cotyledons folded longitudinally. Brassica, Sinapis, Erucas-
trum, Hirschfeldia, Diplotaxis, Eruea, MoHcandia, Vella, Garrichtera, Succovia, &c.

Series B.-^Siliqua short, dehiscent throughout its length. Valves continuous
within, very concave, compressed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the
septum. Septum usually very narrow.

Teibb VI. Lepidine^. — Cotyledons incumbent, straight or bent, , or condupli-
cate longitudinally, or coiled upon themselves. Gapsella, Senebiera, Lepidium,
JEthionema, Campyloptera, &c.

TjiiBE VII. Thlaspide^. — Cotyledons accumbent, straight. Gremolohus, Bis-
cutella, Megacarpwa, Thlaspi, Iberis, Teesdalia, Hutchinsia, Iheridelta, &c.

Series C. - Siliqua short (rarely long), indehiscent, not jointed, often crustaceous
or bpny, 1-celled, 1- (rarely 2-) seeded, or 2-4-celled with parallel 1-seeded cells.
Pedicels often very slender, drooping in fruit. Seed often furnished with a thin
albumen ; testa not mucilaginous.

Teibb VIII. IsATiDBiE. — Characters of the series. Peltaria, Glypeola, Isatis,
Tauscheria, Neslia, Galepina, Myagrum, EucUdium, Bunias, Zilla, &c.

Series D. — Siliqua transversely 2-jointed, short or long ; lower joint indehiscent,
emptj or longitudinally 2-celled, 2-oo-seeded; upper joint indehiscent, 1-celled,
1-seeded, or 2- co-celled, with parallel or superimposed cellules. — Siliqua always
upright or nearly so, pedicel straight.

Tkibe IX. Cakiline^. — ^Characters of the series. Gramhe, Muricaria, Bapis-r
trum, Gahile, Enarthrocarpus, Erucaria, Morisia, &c.

Series E. — Siliqua long, not jointed, indehiscent, cylindric or moniliform, 1-
celled, manj-seeded, or with several 1-2-seriate, 1-seeded cellules, separating when
ripe.

Tkibe X. EAPHANEiE. — Characters of the series. Raphanus, B'O-ffenaldia,

Anchoniuw,, Parlatoria, &c.

«

A Cruciferous flower is not strictly symmetrical in relation to the floral axis. The arrangement of
th« caljx and corolla at first appears to follow the quaternary type,' four sepals alternating with four
petals ; but the slightest examination shows that the two antero-posterior sepaM are inserted lower than
the two lateral ; the petals, however, evi-dently form a single whorl. The exceptional structure of the
androecium has given rise- to many contradictory theories. The two lateral stamens are shorter and lower
than the other four, which are in pairs, and alternate with the two lateral./ It is these two pairs of long-
stamens which have especially exercised the sagacity of botanists. De CandoUe, and after him Seringe,
Saint-Hilaire, Moquin-Tandon, and Webb, admit the quaternary type for the calyx aud corolla, and
extend it equally to the androecium, where, according to them, each pair of lond stamens represents a

230 XIV. CEUCIFEE^.

double stamen. This theory does not acconnt foT the lower position of the two antero-posterior stamens
relatively to the lateral sepals, nor for the situation of the short stamens opposite to the carpels, which
would be contrary to the laws of alternation.

Later botanists (Lestiboudois, Kunth, Lindley, and then J, Gny, Schimper, Wydler, Krause,
Duchartre, Chatin, Godron) advocate an entirely different theory. They do not admit the doubling of the
long stamens ; they aifirm, contrary to the organogenic observations of Payer, that in the very young
flower each group of twin stamens springs from two distinct protuberances, separate from each other and
exactly opposite to the petals. They consider the androecium to be composed of two quaternary whorls :
1st, the lower whorl, represented by the two lateral stamens only, and which is an imperfect one, from
the constant arrest of two stamens which should be developed in front of the antero-posterior sepals ;
2ndly, the upper whorl, composed of the four large stamens which were originally developed opposite to
the petals, but which approach each other afterwards, so as to form two pairs. As to the pistil they
consider it to be normally formed of four carpels opposite to the four sepals, an arrangement which is
observable in the genus Tetrapoma. Thus the original plan of the flower may, according to them, be
formulated as follows : four sepals, four petals, four outer stamens, of which two are never developed, four
inner stamens, and four carpels, of which the two antero-posterior are developed in Tebapoma only ; all
these whorls exactly alternating with each other.

More recently, A. G. Eichler has published (in 1865), in the ' Flora of Brazil,' the result of his
researches. He afiirms, with De Gandolle, that each pair of long stamens results from the splitting up,
or chorisis, of a single stamen, because, according to his organogenic researches, the protuberance from
which each pair of stamens springs is originally simple, and only divides afterwards. With regard to
the two-celled anthers of the twin stamens, which, according to the partisans of the non-development
theory, ought to he one-celled, Eichler avers that this objection is valueless ; that the question here is
not of a doubling, which divides an entire organ in two halves ; but of a chorisis, which results in a
sort of multiplication of the organs ; and that, further, in the genus Atelanihei-a the long stamens are
constantl}' one-celled.

With regard to the polyandry observable in some species of Megacarpaa, in which the androscium
is composed of 8-16 stamens, we may, according to Eichler, admit that it results from an unusual
multiplication of the long stamens, and that the chorisis has been extended to the lateral stamens. We
must, besides, remember that this tendency to multiplication (which is really exceptional, and not found
in all the species of Megacarpma) also appears in CleomeiB, a tribe of Capparidem, a family closely allied
to Cruciferm ; their androecium, which is normally hexandrous, and arranged lilte that of Crudferm,
presents in some species of Cleome four stamens, and in Polanisia eight or oo, collected in antero-
posterior bundles, the two lateral remaining solitary, or very rarely being represented by stamens.
According to Eichler's organogenic observations, the anterior sepal appears first, and then the pos-
terior, after which the two lateral sepals appear together ; the four petals then appear simultaneously,
and occupy four points, diagonally crossing the lateral sepals. The androecium first appears as two large
obtuse gibbosities, opposite to the lateral sepals, which remain simple, and become the short stamens.
Soon after their appearance the two similar antero-posterior gibbosities appear, inserted higher than the
preceding, larger and more obtuse ; and these, enlarging more and more, gradually divide into two
protuberances, which finally become tvro long stamens. Never, says Eichler (who energetically maintains
his opinion against that of Duchartre, Chatin, and Krause), never are these stamens, when young, exactly
opposite to the petals ; they are, on the contrary, then nearer to the median line, an arrangement which is
still more obvious in some hexandrous Capparidete. He affirms, contrary to the observations of Chatin,
that in Cruciferce with fewer than six stamens {Lepidium mderale, latifolium, virginianum, &c.) the lateral
stamens are inserted lower than the two antero-posterior, which proves that the latter do not belong
to a lower whorl, as the incomplete-development theory demands. Eichler consequently regards the
theory of chorisis as true, but his application of it ditfers from that of De Candolle, in that the latter
makes three tetramerous whorls (androecium, corolla, and calyx), while Eichler only admits one, i.e.
corolla, and assigns a binary type to the androecium and calyx ; and his view of the composition of the flower
would be : — two antero-posterior sepals, two lateral sepals, four petals diagonally crossing the lateral sepals,
two short lateml stamens, two antero-posterior stamens (each doubled), and two lateral carpels valvately
juataposed.

The family of Cniciferce is closely allied to Capparidem, Papaveraeem, and Fumariacece (see these

XIV. CRUCIFER^.

231

families). It also approaches Resedacees in habit, a3stivation, hypopetalism, parietal placentation, curved
ovule, and exalbuniinous seed.

Cnicifercs are dispersed over the vrorld ; reaching, in the polar regions and on the highest mountains
the limits of phsenogamic vegetation. Most of the genera and species inhabit the South of Europe and
Asia Minor ; they are rarer in the tropics, in extra-tropical and temperate North America.

The name Antiscorbutics, given by Crantz to the plants of this family, designates their most important
property. They contain, besides oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, a notable quantity of sulphur and azote.
These elementary bodies form by their various combinations mucilage, starch, sugar, a fixed oil, albumine,
and especially the elements of a peculiar volatile and very acrid oil, to which Crucifers ovs^e their stimu-
lating virtue. When dead, these ternary and quaternary products rapidly decompose to form binary
compounds, and especially hydro-sulphuric acid and ammonia, the fcetid odour of which is insupportable.

The principal edible species is the Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), which has been cultivated from the
most ancient times, and which yields varieties or races known under the names of Colza, Kail, Cabbage,
Savoy, Cauliflower, Broccoli, &c. The Rape (JB. Rapu) and the Turnip (B. Napus) have a fleshy root, rich
in sugar and albumine ; and their seeds eon-
tain a fixed oil, used for burning. The Eadish
' (Raiihanus), of which two species are
cultivated, the one with a root black outside
and white within ; the other (Small Radish),
with a white, pink, or violet root, is used
as a condiment.

At the head of the antiscorbutic
Crucifers must be placed the Cochharia
officinalis, a biennial herb which inhabits
the shores of the seas and salt lakes
of the .North of Europe ; its congeners of
the European Alps, the Mediterranean
region, Asia, and North America, possess
similar properties, but in a less degree. The
Garden Creiss {Lepidium sativum) andWater
Cress (Nasturtium officinale) are also used
as condiments. Lepidium oleraceum, which
grows on the shores of New Zealand, is
an excellent antiscorbutic, and also an
agreeable vegetable, which has proved
invaluable to seamen ; Cardamine hirsuta,
amara_ and pratensis, indigenous species,
which rival "Water Cress, have an acrid and
slightly bitter taste ; C. asurifolia replaces
Cochharia in Piedmont ; C. nasturtioides
is eaten in Chili as cress is in France ;
C. maritima, which grows on the shores of
the Atlantic and Mediterranean, has fallen
into disuse ; but C. americana has in North
America and the Antilles a great reputa-
tion as an antiscorbutic. Barharea vulga-
ris (Winter Cress), an indigenous plant, of
an acrid and piquant taste, has been unj ustly
abandoned. Sisymbrium officinale, another
common indigenous species, was formerly
used as a cough medicine. S. Alliaria, whose bruised leaves exhale a strong odour of garlic, was long
employed as a vermifuge, diuretic and depurative.

Sea-kale {Crambe maritima), which grows on the shores of the Atlantic and British Channel, is now

Rose of Jericho
{Anastatica hierochuntica.)

232 XV. CAPPAEIDE^.

cultivated; its spring slaoots are blanched, and when cooked have so.uewhat tlie taste of Caiiliflowera .
C. tatarica inhabits the sandy plains of Hungary and Moravia ; its large root, commonly called Tartar
bread, is eaten, cooied or raw, seasoned with oil, vinegar, and salt.

Black Mustard (Sitiajiin nigra) grows in fields throughout Europe. Its powdered seeds ai'e used as a
condiment and rubefacient ; it contains a fixed and very acrid I'olatile oil, to which latter its pungent
quality is due. But this volatile oil does not exist there ready formed ; it is produced by the action of a peculiar
albumine (myrosine) on the myronic acid contained in the seed ; it is this acid which becomes the volatile
oil ; and to effect this change the albumine must be soaked in cold water, which, by dissolving it, renders
it fit to change the acid into a volatile oil. AVhite Mustard {S. alba) contains principles analogousto those
of the preceding species, the mucilaginous testa of the seed being superadded to an active principle,
which stimulates the digestive organs. jS. chinensis is valued in India as much as S. mgra.

Horseradish {CocJilearia rusticana or Annoracia) is cultivated in all gardens of central Europe; its
root contains much sugar, starch, fatty oil, and albumine, and is eaten as a condiment. The acrid ■
principle which it contains, and which is developed by the action of water, like that of Sinapis, gives it
antiscorbutic properties.

The seeds of the Wild Radish (Itaphanistnitn arveiise), oi Eruca sqtiva, of Mithridate Mustard ( Thlaspi
arvense), and of Honesty (Lunariii redimva), indigenous plants, have fallen into disuse, in spite of their
stimulating acridity. Those of Camelina sativa contain a fixed oil, used for burning.

The leaves of "Woad (Isatis tlnctoriii), a herb common throughout France, yield a blue dye, similar
to indigo, but inferior, with which the Picts and Celts used to paint themselves ; and from these early
times blue has remained the national colour for our royal robes.

Anastatica hierochwitica is a small annual which grows in sandy places in Arabia, Egypt, and Syria.
Its stem branches from the base, and bears sessile flowers, which give place to rounded pods ; as these
ripen, the leaves fall, the branches harden, dr3', and curve inwards, and the plant contracts into a rounded
cushion, which the autumn winds soon uproot, and carry even to the sea shore. Thence it is brought to
Europe, where it fetches a high price, on account of its hygrometrio properties ; if the tip of its root be
placed in water, .or even if the plant be exposed to damp, the pods open and the branches uncurl, to close
afresh when dry. This peculiarity, together with its native country (whence its name. Rose of Jericho),
has given rise to the popular superstition that the flower expands yearly on the day and hour of Christ's
birth. Women sometimes place the plant in water at the commencement of labour, hoping that its
expansion may be the signal for their deliverance. Many other plants possess a similar hygrometrio
property ; ' as certain Comjwsita of the genus Asteriscus, Plantayo cretica, Sela,ginella circinalis, &c.

XY. CAPPARWE^.

(Capparides, Mssieu. — Cappakideje, Fewiewoi.— Capparidace^, Lindl.)

Sepals 4-8, free or ■coherent. Petals hypogynous or perigynous, 4-8 or 0.
Stamens usually 6, or oo, hypogynous or perigynous. Ovary usually stipitate and
1-eelled, ivith parietal placentas. Ovules curved. Fruit a siliquose capsule, or herry.
Seeds exalhuminous. Embryo arched or folded.

Herbaceous annual, or rarely perennials, often shrubby, sometimes arborescent
{Morisonia, Oratwva, &c.), witb watery juice. Stem and branches terete, glabrous,
glandular, cottony, or rarely scaly {Atamisquea, Gapparis). Leaves alternate, or very
rarely opposite {Atamisquea), petioled, simple or digitate, leaflets entire, very rarely
toothed (CTeome), or lobed [Thylachium] ; sffpuZes usually or inconspicuous, setaceous

' In England, Mesembryanthemiim capsules are sold as the Rose of Jericho; as is the Mexican Schginella
Icpklophylla. —En.

X.V. CAPPAEIDE^.

233

Capparis. Capparis.

Sbamen (mag.). Embryo coiled (mag.)

Caper.
( Capparis .spin osa . )

m

C'leome.

Fruit, entire and stripped

of its valTcs.

Capparis. Diagram^

C'leome. Diagram

Capparis.
Flower cut vertically.

Cappai'is,
Fruit cut transversely.

Capparis.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Crisiatella.
Flower cut vertically.

or spinescent (Cwpjparis), Flowers g , very rarely dioecioiis {Ajpo^phyllum)^ regular
or sometimes sub-irregular, axillary, fascicled, solitary, or in a terminal raceme or
corymb. Sepals 4-8, sometimes free, 1-2-seriate, subequal or unequal ; sometimes
variously connate in a tubular calyx, sometimes closed and opening irregularly {Cleome,
Thylachmm, Steriphoma) , aestivation imbricate, or rarely valvate. Petals usually 4,
rarely {Thylachium, Boscia^ Niebuhria^ &c.), very rarely 2 {Cadaba, Apophyllum) or
8 {Tovaria), sessile or clawed, aestivation imbricate or twisted, very rarely valvate
(BitcMea), inserted on the edge of the torus. Torus short or long, symmetrical or
unsymmetrical, or discoid, or prolonged behind into an appendage, or depressed, or
narrowed into a pedicel, or lining the bottom of the calyx, edge glandular or fringed.
Stamens inserted at the base or top of the torus, usually 6, rarely 4-8 {Polanisia^

234 XV. CAPPAEIDE^.

Cadaba), often in multiples of 6 or 8, all fertile, or some sterile {Dactylwna, Cleome,
Polanisia, &c.) ; filaments filiform, sometimes thickened at tlie top {Cleome), free or
united to the torus, or connate at the base {Gynandropsis, Cadaba, Boscia, &c.) ;
anthers introrse, 2-celled, oblong or ovoid, basi-dorsally fixed, dehiscence longi-
tudinal. OvAET usually stipitate, rarely sessile, 1-celled, or sometimes 2-8-celled by
false septa springing from the placentas [Morisonia, Gapparis, Tovaria, &c.) ; style
usually short or 0, simple (3, and hooked in Roydsia) ; stigma usually orbicular,
sessile ; ovules numerous, fixed to parietal placentas, campylotropous or semi-anatro-
pous, rarely solitary (Apophyllum). Fbttit a capsule, siliquose and 2-val7ed, or a
berry, very rax-ely a drupe {Roydsia). Seeds reniform or angular, often sunk in the
pulp of the fleshy fruits, exalbuminons, or very rarely albuminous {Tovaria) ; testa
smooth, coriaceous or crustaceous. Bmbeto curved or arched ; cotyledons incumbent
or accumbent, folded, coiled or indupjicate, rarely flat.

Teibe I, GLEOMEM.
Fruit a 1-celled capsule, usually siliquose. Mostly annual herbs.

PBINCrpAL GENEEA.
* Cleome. Isomeris. * Polanisia, * *Gynandropsi3.

Tbibe II. GAPPAREM.
Fruit a berry or drupe. Shrubs or trees.

NERA.

Eitchiea.

Cappartdea approach Crucifei'CB in the numher of sepals, petals and stamens, the cestivation, the
ovaiy with parietal plaoentation, with or without a false septum, the campylotropous ovules, siliquose
fruit, exalhuminous seed, curved emhr3-o, and acrid volatile principles. They scarcely differ, except in the
sometimes perigyuoiis insertion, the never tetradynamous stamens, the usually stipitate ovary, and the
often fleshy fruit. They are equally closelj' allied to Moringeee (which see).. They also resemble TropcBohm
in their habit, exalhuminous seed, and acrid principle. Hesedacece are separated only by their habit and
the structure of their fruit. Capparidece are distributed nearly equally over the tropical and subtropical
regions of both hemispheres ; the frutescent species are mostly American.''

The herbaceous capsular Capparidece rival Cruciferce in their stimulating properties, which depend on
an acrid volatile principle. The species with fleshy fruit, which are mostly woody, possess this acridity
in their roots, leaves and herbaceous parts; their bark is bitter, and some have a pleasant fruit. Cleome
gigmitea is used as a rubefacient in tropical America. The herbage of Gynandropsis pentaphylla, a native
of the tropics in both worlds, has the qualities of CocMearia and Lepidium, and its oily seed is as acrid as
that of Sinapis. Polanisia fellina and icosandra, natives of India, are epispastics and vermifuges; the
fresh juice is used as a condiment. Cleome lieptaphylla and polygama, American plants, have a balsamic
odour, whence they have been reputed vulneraries and stomachics. Polanisia graveolens, a native of North
America, and a very foetid plant, possesses the same qualities as Chenopoditim anthelminthicum.

Among the Capparidece with fleshy fruit, Capparis spinosa must rank first. It is a shrub of the
Mediterranean region, the bitter, acrid and astringent bark of whose root has been esteemed from the
most ancient times for its aperient and diuretic qualities. The flower-buds, preserved in salt and vinegar,

' Tovaria has been transferred to Papaviracece by Eichlor. — En.
'' As many are natives of the old world as of the new. — En.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Morisonia.

Mjerua. Boscia. Roydsia.

Niebuhria.

Cadaba. * Capparis. Tovaria.'

XVl. MORINGE^.

235

are known as Capers, and much iiaed as a condiment. Other species of Cappaiis from
Greece, Barbary and Egypt, are similarly used. Cajjparis sodada is a native of tropical
Africa ; the negresaes eat its acidulous and stimulating fruit, which they believe will
make them prolific. The bitter and astringent bark of Cratcevu Tapia and c/ynandra,
American trees, is reputed a febrifuge. Their fruit, which has an oily odour, is
eatable. C. Nmala, of tropical Asia, produces succulent and vinous berries; its
acidulous leaves are diuretic.

XVI. MORINGEM Endlicher.

Moringa.
Part of fruit cut vertically.

Moringa.
Seed, entire and cut Tertit
(raag.)-

Mo/'inga.
Ovule (mag.).

Mor'mqa. Moringa.

Embryo cut vertically (mag.). Anther (mag,).

Morivga.
Flower cut vertically (mag.)-

Mor'mga,
riower-bnd {ma,g.)\

Moringa,
Fruit.

236 XVII. EESEDACEiE.

Trees. Leaves 2-3-imparipinnate ; leaflets very caducous ; stipules deciduous.
Flowers ^ , irregular, in panicled racemes. Calyx 6-partite, with oblong subequal
segments, imbricate in bud. Petals 5, inserted on the calyx, linear-oblong, the two
posterior rather the longest, ascending, imbricate in bud. Stamens 8-10, inserted on a
cup- shaped disk lining the base of the calyx ; filaments flattened at the base, connivent
in a tube which is split behind, united above the middle, free above and below,
unequal, the posterior longest, all fertile, or those opposite the calyx-segments
shorter and imperfect; anthers introrse, 1-celled, ovoid-oblong, dorsally fixed,
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet pedicelled, l-ceUed, with three parietal slender
placentas ; style terminal, simple, thickened [tubular, open at the truncate top] ;
ovules n,umerous [bi-seriate] , pendulous, anatropous, [raphe ventral]. Capsule
siliquiform, S-many^angled, torulose, 3-valved, valves with the placentas on the
middle. Seeds 1-seriate, separated by spongy septa, ovoid-trigonous, angles apte-
rous or winged; chalaza apical, corky. Embkto straight, exalbuminous ; cotyledons
plano-convex, fleshy [plumule many-leaved] ', radicle very short, superior.

ONI,Y GENUS.
Moiinga.

The genus Munnga kas been by some botanists placed in Papilionacece on account of a slight resem-
blance in the flower, which, however, indicates wo true affinity. Hooker [following Lindley] compared it
with Violayiete, which resemble it in their irregular flower with unequal dorsal petal, in their perigynous
insertion, tubular style, one-celled ovary with three parietal nerviform placentas and anatropous ovules;
but MmingecB are widely separated by habit, one-celled anthers, and exalbuminous seeds. It is amongst
Capparidem that we must search for the real aiflnities of Moringets, through tbeir polypetalous imbricate
corolla, perigynism, stamens more numerous than petals, stipitate one-celled ova^ y, parietal placentation,
siliquose capsule, exalbuminous embryo, alternate leaves -and caducous stipules; to which must be added
the acrid root, leaves, and bark, which are common to botli families, recalling the smell and taste of the
Horse-radish, and associating Morinya also with Crnciferre, themselves so closely allied to Capparidece.

Moringece are tropical Asiatic, Arabian and Madagascan trees. The best known species is Moringa
ajitera, of which the seed, called Ben nut, yields a fixed oil, of much repute in the East, because it does not
become rancid [and used by perfumers and machinists from its not freezing. The root otM. pterg{/osperma
is used .as a stimulant in paralysis and intermittent fevers; .and a colloid gum, like tragacanth, exudes in
great quantities from its bark. — Ed.].

XVII. RESEDACEJE, B.C.

Calyx 4-8-j3ari'iie. Petals generally hypogynous, 4-8 {rarely 2 or 0). Stamens
^-iO, inserted within a fleshy disk. Carpels usually united into a 1-celled ovary.
Fruit a capsule or berry.. Seeds exalbuminous. Embryo curved.

Annual or perennial HERBS, sometimes UNDershrubs, rarely shrubs {Ochradenus),
juice 'watery, stem and branches terete. Leaves scattered, simple, entire, 3-fid or
pinnatipartite ; stipules minute, gland-like. Flowers ? , rarely diclinous, more or
less irregular, in a raceme or spike, bracteate. Calyx persistent, 4-8-partite, more
,or less unequal, aestivation imbricate. Petals alternate with the calycinal lobes,
4-8, rarely 2 (Oligomeris) , or (Ochradenus), hypogynous, or rarely perigynous
[Randonia), entire, or S-'Oo-fid, simple, or furnished with a basal scale, free, or rarely

XVII. EESEDACE^.

237

Mignonette.
(Reseda odoralct.)

Reseda.

Reseda.

Reseda.

j'lower seen in front

Flower seen at the back

Flower witUout the petals

(mag.).

(mag.).

(mag.).

Reseda.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Ochradenus.
Mpshy fmit (mag.),

Randonia afrieana.
Diagi'am,

' IZexeda. Reseda. Reseda, Reseda. Reseda.

Diagram. Calyx, disk, and yoitng pistil (mag.). Young fruit (mag.). Eipe fruit. Fruit laid open (mag.).

Reseda.

Reseda^

Reseda.

Stamen, inner

Seed, entire an:d cut

one of the posterior

face (mag.).

Tertically (mag.).

petals (mag.).

Reseda. Reseda. Reseda.

One of the lateral One of the anterior Transverse section

petals (mag.). petals (mag.). of ovary (mag.).

sub-coherent (OUgomeris), equal or unequal, open in aestivation. Disk hypogjnous,
sessile or stipitate, more or less concave, fleshy, often prolonged behind, rarely
(OUgomeris). Stamens 3-40, inserted vfithin the disk, rarely perigynous [Randonia],
not covered by the petals in sestivation ; filaments equal or unequal, often pendulous,
free or rarely connate at the base [OUgomeris) ; cmthers introrse, 2 -celled, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovaet sessile or stipitate, of 2-6 carpels, sometimes coherent into a

238 XVIII. CISTINE^.

1-celled ovary, closed or gaping at the top, with many-ovuled parietal placentas,
more rarely distinct, or sub-coherent at the base, many-ovuled and with basilar
placentation, gaping [Gaylusea], or 1-2-ovuled and closed (Astroearpus) ; stigmas
sessile, terminating the 2-lobed top of the carpels ; ovules campy lotropous or half-
anatropous. Fruit usually a capsule, indehiscent, closed or gaping at the top,
rarely a berry {Oehradenus) , sometimes follicular (Astroearpus). Seeds reniform,
exalbuminous, epidermis membranous, adhering to the testa, or detaching when
ripe ; testa crustaceous. Embeyo curved or folded ; cotyledons incumbent ; radicle
near the hilum.

GENERA.
Astroearpus. Randonia. Caj'lusea. *Keseda. Oehradenus. Oligomeris.

The small family of Resedacece is allied to Cniciferai and Capparidecs (see these families). It also
approaches Moringew in its irregular polypetalous flowers, fleshy disk, stamens more numerous than the
petals, parietal placentation, capsular fruit, exalbuminous embryo, alternate stipulate leaves, and finally in
the acrid principle found in the root of several species ; but Moringem are separated by their habit,
arborescent stem, two-three-pinnate leaves, straight embryo, filaments united into a tube above the
middle, and one-celled anthers.

Most Resedacece grow in southern Europe, northern Africa, Syria, Asia Minor and Persia. Some roach
the Indian frontier; a few inhabit central and northern Europe. Three species belong to the Cape of
Good Hope.

Mesedacea, so named because sedative qualities were formerly attributed to them, are no longer used
in medicine, in spite of the acridity of their root, which contributes, with other characters, to bring them
near Cntciferce and CapparidecB ; the root of Meseda hitea in particular has the odour of the Radish, and was
long reckoned an aperient, sudorific and diuretic. Dyer's Weed {R. hiteola) has iutenselj' bitter leaves, and
all parts yield a yellow dye much in demand. Mignonette (R. odoratd), a plant whose origin was long
considered unknown, but which Griffith asserts to be a native of Affghanistan, is extensively cultivated
for its sweet scent.

XVIII. CISTINE^.

(CiSTi, Jussien. — Cistoide^, Ventenat. — C1STINE..3E, D.G. — Cistace^, Lindl.)

Petals 5—3, hypogynous. Stamens 00, hypogynons. Ovaet l-celled, with 3-5
parietal placentas. OYVh^s orthotropous. Style simple. CavsvIjE with th& placentas
on the centre of the valves. Seeds albuminoiis. Embrto bent, coiled or folded.

Herbs, undesshrubs, or shrubs ; stem and branches terete or sub-tetragonous,
often glandular, pubescent or tomentose, with simple or sometimes stellate hairs.
Leaves simple, opposite, rarely alternate, sometimes whorled, entire, sessile or
petioled ; stipules foliaceous, free at the contracted base of the petiole, or when
the petiole is amplexicaul. Flowers ? , regular, terminal, solitary, or in cymes or
unilateral racemes, peduncle outside of the axil of the bracts. Sepals 3, twisted in
bud, often furnished with 2 usually smaller calyciform bracts. Petals hypogynous,
5, very rarely 3, or {Lechea), twisted in aestivation in an opposite direction to the
sepals, scarcely clawed, spreading, very fugacious. Stamens 00, hypogynous ; fila-
ments free, filiform ; anthers 2-celled, introrse, ovoid or lanceolate, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovabt free, sessile, l-celled, or with 3-5 imperfect cells formed by

XVIII. CISTINE^.

239

Helianthemuv^
Flower.

HeUanthernvm.
Flower without its corolla (mag.)-

Uelianthemum.
Vertical section of flower (mag.)-

Helianthemum guttatum.

Cistus Ladanum.

Seed, entire and cut

Helianthemum.

Helianthemum.

Helianthemum.

Helianthemum

vertically (mag.).

Pistil (mag.).

Diagram.

Stamen (mag.).

Fruit (mag.).

placentiferous septa only united at tlie bottom of the ovary ; placentas 3-5, parietal,
or fixed to the half-septa, 2— oo-ovuled ; style simple ; stigmas 3-5, free, or united in a
head ; ovules with short or longer funicles, usually ascending, orthotropous, or half-
anatropous. Capsule membranous or coriaceous, opening to the base, or above
only, into 3-6 half-placentiferous valves. Seeds with crustaceous testa, and floury
or sub-horny albumen. Embeto excentric or sub-central, bent, coiled, or folded,
rarely nearly straight (Lechea) ; hilum and chalaza contiguous, diametrically opposite
to the radicle, except in some species {Lechea), in which the funicle is adnate to the
seed.

GENEEA.
* Cistus. * Helianthemum. Hudsonia, Lechea.

Cist,ine<B ave near Droseracea, ViolariecB and Bixinecs in polypetalism, placentatiou, capsular fruit
with seminiferous valves and albuminous seeds; they are polyandrous like Bixinece and Dioncea, and the

>40 XIX. VIOLAEIE^.

ilbunien of these latter is floury. But, besides the different habit, Droseracem have extrorse anthers,
inatropous ovules, and a straight embryo; Violaricm proper have irregular imbricate isostemonous flowers,
inatropous ovules, straight embryo, and fleshy albumen; Blxinerr scarcely differ save in the anatropous
ivules. There is a decided affinity between Cistinea: and Hypericinem (which see). They bare also
)een compared with Capparidcce, from which, however, they differ in habit, fugacious petals, albuminous
!eed, etc.

CistinecB mostly inhabit the Mediterranean region ; some grow in North America ; a very few in central
Europe and eastern Asia, and still fewer in South America.

The herbage of Ckiinem is slightly astringent ; some CV.sfo' yield a balsamic resin, named ladanum, which
s used in perfumery. Helianthemam mJi/are, a species of central Europe, is sometimes administered as a
imlnerary.

■ XIX. VIOLARIEJS.

[Genera Cisi'is affinia, Jussieu. — -Ionidia, Ventenat. — Violakib^, D.C. — Violace^,

Lindl. — Violet, Br.)

Petals 5, more or less unequal, hypogynous or slightly perigynous, imbricate.
Stamens 5, inserted lihe the petals. Otart 1-celled, placentation parietal. Style simple.
Fruit a capsule with the placentas on the centre of the valves, or rarely an indehiscent
berry. Seeds albuminous. Embryo straight.

Herbs, undershrubs, or shrubs, rarely sarmentose [Agation). Leaves alternate,
rarely opposite [lonidium, Alsodeia), simple, petioled, usually involute in bud, some-
times arranged in radical rosettes, and spotted with brown below {Viola cotyledon and
rosulata) ; stipules free, foliaceous, or small, usually deciduous in tbe woody species.
Flowers 5 ■> often dimorpbous and apetalous, irregular or sub-regular, pentamerous,
or very rarely tetramerous {Tetrathylacimn) , axillary, solitary or in a cyme, panicle
or raceme ; pedicels usually 2-bracteolate. Sepals 5, distinct, or connate at tbe
base, usually persistent, equal or unequal, sestivation imbricate. Petals 5,
hypogynous or slightly perigynous, alternate with the sepals, sestivation imbricate
and convolute, sometimes equal or subequal, clawed, connivent, or cohering in a
tube at the base {Paypayrola, Tetrdthylacium, Gloiospermum, Sauvagesia) ; sometimes
very unequal, the two upper exterior, the two lateral within the others, and not
clawed, the inner (lowest by the reversal of the flower) larger, clawed, and prolonged
into a hollow spur below its insertion. Stamens 5, inserted on the receptacle or
bottom of the calyx ; filaments very short, dilated, free, or sometimes connate at the
base [Leonia, Gloiospermum, Alsodeia, &c.) ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, connivent, or
coherent round the ovary, cells adnate by the back to the inner surface of the
connective, and opening by a longitudinal slit ; connective prolonged above the cells
in a membranous appendage, those of the 2 or 4 lower stamens (in the irregular
flowers) gibbous and glandular on their dorsal face, or prolonged into filiform spurs,
which are included in that of the lower petal. Ovary free, sessile, often girt with a
basal annulus, 1-celled ; placentas parietal, slender, generally 3, rarely 2 {Hymen-
anthera), or 5 {Melicytus), or 4 {Tetrathylacium) ; style simple, sometimes thickened
at the top, or bent with a dorsal stigniatic cavity, or of various form, sometimes

XIX. VIOLARIEiE.

241

Heai'tsease. ( Viola tricolor,)

Heartsease.
Vertical.sectiou of flower (mag.).

Sauvagesia erecta.
Andrcecmm and^istil'dnag,). (Tribe .:rery near Vioiariece.^

Hearbsease,
Viagra,!^

Heartseas,e.,
DeliiBcent fruit.

Seed, entire and cut vertically
(mag.).

Transverse section of
ovary (mag.)-

Heartsease.
Young fruit. ■

Pistil.

Appendiculate
stamen (mag.).

subulate with a terminal stigma, rarely S-S-fid, or style with 3-5 free stigmas
(Melicytus) ; ovules auatropous,. usually naany, yerj rarely 1-2 {Tsodendrion, Hymen-
anihera, 8cyplielland/ra) , Feuit a capsule, often opening elastically by as many
seminiferous valves as' there are placentas; or an indehiscent berry {Leonia, Tetra-

242 XIX. YlOLAEIBiE.

thylacium, Melicytus, Hymenanthera) . Seeds ovoid or subglobose; testa crustaceous
or membranous, raphe sometimes thickened and separating when ripe; albumen
fleshy, copious. Embeto axile, straight ; cotyledons flat, broad or narrow ; radicle
eylindric, near the hilum.

Tkibe I. VIOLEJE.
Corolla irregular, lower petal dissimilar. Fruit a capsule.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
* Viola. lonidiiira. Agation.

Tbibe II. PAYPAYEOLEM.
Petals subequal, claws contiguous, and sub-coherent in a tube. Fruit a

capsule.

PEINCIPAL GENERA,

Isodendiion. Paypayrola, Amphirrhox.

Teibe III. ALSODINEyE.
Petals equal or subequal, very shortly clawed. Fruit a berry or capsule,

PRINCIPAL GENERA,
Alsodeia, Leonia. Hymenanthera. Melicytus,

Sauoagesiece, of whicli we have given a figure near Violariea, are so closely allied to them that several
botanists have united them. They are distinguished only by the presence of five- co staminodes placed
outside the stamens, and by the three valves of the capsule being seminiferous on their edges. Violariece
also approach Droseraceee in isostemony, the one-eelled ovary with parietal placeutation, the capsule with
placentlferous valves, and the albuminous seed ; but in Droseraceee the anthers are extrorse, the styles are
distinct, the embryo is minute and basilar. They have the same affinities with Frankmiacete, which have
also a simple style and an axile embryo, but their calyx is tubular and elongate, their anthers are extrorse,
their ovules ascending, their leaves usually opposite and exstipulate. They are also connected with
Oisti7iecB (which see).

The herbaceous species of the tribe Violets principally inhabit the northern hemisphere; they are rare
in the temperate regions of the southern hemisphere and in the tropics ; the woody species of this tribe
are chiefly natives of ec[uatorial America. The other tribes inhabit the intertropical region of both worlds,
and especially of America. Hymcnantlmra inhabits Australia and New Zealand.

The active principle of Viohce (violine) is a substance analogous in properties to emefine (see CeplveBlis),
the emetic and laxative properties of which it shares. Violine is principally found in the root and
rootstock, from which, as well as from the leaves, has also been extracted a peculiar acid ; and the scented
petals contain a volatile oil. The root of the European violets, and especially of the Sweet Violet {Viola
odoratd),\s slightly bitter and acrid, recalling the taste oi- Ipecacuanha; the flowers, which are sweet-
scented butnauseous in taste, are used in syrup and infused as emoUients'and cough-mixtures. The stem and
leates of the Wild Pansy (V. tricolor) are frequently administered as a depurative tisane in cutaneous
disorders. The American Violets ( V. pedata and palmata) are similarly employed. V. ovata is a reputed
specific against rattlesnake bites. Some species of lonidiimi, in South America, are used as substitutes for
Ipecacuanha; the root of I. Ipecacuanha especially, the White Ipecacuanha of commerce, is a powerful
emetic, peculiarly suited to lymphatic temperaments. The root of Anchietea salutaris, a small Brazilian
tree, is purgative, and useful, like our wild Pansy, in skin affections. lonidium microphyllum, a species

XXI. BIXINE^. 243

growing at the foot of Chiiiiborazo, is supposed to yield the root called CuichuiichuUi, prescribed by the
Americans for tubercular elephantiasis.

The medical properties of Alsodinecp are very obscure, and entirely differ from those of Violea. The
leaves and bark of Alsodeia Cunpa, which grows in New Granada, are bitter and astringent. The leaves of
A. castanecefolia and Loholobo, Brazilian species, are mucilaginous, and are cooked and eaten by the negros.

XX. CANELLACEJ^}

Glabrous aromatic trees. Leaves alternate, quite entire, penninerved, pellucid-
dotted ; stipules 0. Flowees 5 , regular, in terminal, lateral, or axillary cymes ;
hracteoles [s&pals of some authors) 3, orbicular, close under tlie calyx, much imbricate,
persistent ; sepals {petals of some) 4-5, free, thick, deciduous, much imbricate, the
inner narrowest. Petals {petaloid scales of some) as many as the sepals, thin,
imbricate or 0. Stamens hypogynous ; _y?Zamewfe connate into a tube ; anthers 20 or
fewer, linear, adnate to the outer surface of the tube, longitudinally 2-Yalved. Disk
0. Ovary free, 1-celled ; .placentas 2-5, parietal, 2- or more-ovuled ; style short,
thick; stigmas 2-5; ovules horizontal or ascending, almost anatropous. Beeky
indehiscent, 2-many-seeded. Seeds with a shining crustaceous testa ; albumen,
oily and fleshy. Embryo- straight or curved ? , radicle next the hilum ; cotyledons

oblong.

■GENERA.

Canella. Cinnamodendron. Cinnamosma.

A very small order, placed by Martins near Outtifera;, included by Lindley under PiUospo7-ece, and
placed by Miers near MoffiioUacecs ; but according to Bentham and Hooker fll. it has less afEnity with any
of the above orders than with Viulariea and Bixinece, differing from the first of these chiefly in the absence
of stipules, aromatic properties, and more numerous anthers, which are extrorse, and adnate to the staminal
column.

Canellacece, of which only five species are known, are natives of tropical America, with one Madagascan
species ; all are highly aromatic. The Oanella bark of commerce is the Wild Cinnamon of the West Indies,
and is a well-known carminative and stomachic ; it is exported from the Bahamas as ' White-wood bark,'
on account of the white appearance of the trees when stripped of the baric ; the inner layers alone are
used, and yield by distillation a warm aromatic oil. The bark of a Brazilian species is used as a tonic and
antiscorbutic; it is prescribed in low fevers, and made into a gargle is useful in eases of relaxation of the
tonsils.

XXI. BIXINEJE.

(Bixine^, Kunih. — -Bixacb^ et Cochlosperme^, Endlicher. — Flacourtiace^ et
Pangiace^, Lindl. — Placourtiane^, L. C. Richard, D. Glos.)

Sepals distinct or connate, usually inibricate. Corolla polypetalous, hypogynous,
or 0. Stamens usually 00, hypogynous or sub-perigynoiis. Ovary free, usually 1-
celled, placentation parietal. Style simple, or divided to its base. Beery or capsule
with half-seminiferous valves. Seeds albuminous. Embryo usually straight, axile.

' This order is omitted in the original. — Ed.
B 2

244

XXI. BIXINEiE.

Jiixa.
Plower cnt Tei'tically (mag.)-

Jiixa.
Dia^-am.

Blxa*
Ovule (mag.)-

Bixa. Xylosma,

Seed, entire and cut Tertically Pistil, entire and cut veit
(mag.). t""^^^-

_ Jiixa.

Transverse sc

of seed.

XXI. BIXINE^. 245

Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, tootlied, rarely entire, sometimes
palmilobed or compound {Goddospermum, Amoreuxia), sometimes pellucid-dotted;
stipules minute, caducous or 0. Flowers 5 or unisexual, regular, axillary or
terminal, solitary or more often fascicled, or corymbose, racemose or panicled.
Sepals 4-5, or 2-6, free or connate, sestivation imbricate, rarely sub-valvate {Aeara,
&e.), or united into 2 more or less regular valves {Pangium, &c.). Petals bypogy-
nous, as many as sepals, or oo, sestivation imbricate and twisted, deciduous, or 0.
STAMEiiTS bypogynous, or obscurely perigynous, indefinite, or rarely definite (Azara,
Erythrospermum, &c.) ; anthers opening by slits, or rarely by an apical pore {Bixa,
Cochlospermum, &c.). ToRUS often glandular, thick, or dilated {Xylosma), sometimes
adnate to tbe calyx base, rarely annular and adnate to tbe ovary [Peridiscus). Ovary
free, usually 1 -celled, with 2- oo parietal placentas, sometimes several-celled {Fla-
courtia, Amoreuxia, &c.) ; styles as many as placentas, united, or more or less free ;
ovules 2- 00 on each placenta, anatropous or half-anatropous. Fruit fleshy or dry,
indehiscent, or opening by seed-bearing valves. Seeds usually ovoid or pisiform, rarely
reniform, or cochlear and velvety {GocJilospermum), smooth, or pulpy on the outside
{Bixa, Dendrostylis) ; albumen fleshy, more or less copious. Embryo axile, straight
or curved ; radicle near the hiluni ; cotyledons large, usually cordate.

Tribe I. BIXEjE.

Flowers ^ , or rarely polygamous. Petals large, without a scale, twisted iii
bud. Anthers linear or oblong, opening by 2 terminal pores, or short valves.
Capsule dehiscent; endocarp membranous, separating from the valves.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
Cochlospermum. * Bixa,.

Tribe II. ONCOBEJS.

Flowers dioecious or polygamous. Sepals and petals imbricate, the latter most
numerous and without a scale. Anthers linear, opening by slits.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Oncoba. Dendrostylis.

Tribe III. FLAGOUBTIEJE.

Flowers g or dioecious. Petals 0, or equal to the sepals, imbricate, without a
scale. Disk surrounding the stamens or the ovary. Anthers short, linear, opening

by slits.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Lsetia. *Azal'a. Erythrospermum, Xylosma.

Ludia. Scolopia. Flacourtia. Aberia.

246

XXI. BIXINEiE.

TeibeIV. PANG-JEJE.
Flowers dioecious. Petals witli a scale at tlie base.

PRINCIPAL GENERA
* Kiggelaria. ' rangium. Hj'dnocarpus.

Gynocardia.

Pangium eduie.

entife RUd cat verticalTy (ma;g.).

Pauc/iuni.
Pistil cut transversely.

The normal Bixinece are
allied to Cistinece by sestiva-
tion, insertion of the petals,
polyandrj', one-celled ovary,
and parietal placentation ; but
CistineeB differ in their shorter
and orthotropous or sub-
orthotropous embryo, and
their usnally floury albumen.
Vixinece bear some relation
to Cajjparidece, but are sepa-
rated by their albuminous
seeds. They differ from Tiliucccs in the one-celled ovary and placentation. The oligandrous Bixine(S
approach Violariecc, -which are separated by their irregular corolla and connivent anthers. They also
approach PapayacecE, through the tribe of Pamjieai. Stxinets inhabit the tropical regions of both worlds.
Tlie most important cf the tribe Bixiecs is the Arnotto (Bix'a Orellana), a tropical American tree,
cultivated throughout the tropics ; the reddish pulp of its seeds smells of violets, and is bitter and astrin-
gent. A refreshing decoction is prepared from it, which is considered antifebrile, and is also used in cases
of hEeraorrhage, diarrhoea and gravel. The aromatic bitter seeds aind root are reputed stomachic. The
seeds, steeped in hot water and allowed to ferment, furnish a red dye, which by evaporation becomes a
solid paste, the arnotto of commerce, used largely by painters, and especia;lly dyers, as also to colour butter
and wax ; the Caribbeans formerly tattooed themselves with it to prevent mosquito bites. The soft wood
of Bixa serves as tinder to Indians, who obtain fire by rubbing together .two pieces of wood of different
species. ' Cochlospermum insigne, which grows in Brazil, is supposed to cure abscesses in the viscera. The
root of C. tinctorium, which contains a yellow dye, is useful in amenorrhcea. The gum of the East Indian
C Oossypmm, called Cuteera, is used as a substitute for tragacanth. The fruit of Oncoha, which
inhabits tropical Africa from Nubia to the Oape de Verd, yields a sweet and eatable pulp. Lcetia apetala,
from tropical America, secretes a balsamic resin similar to sandarac. The more or less acid juicy berries
of Flaoourtia cataphracta, sepiaria, sapida and inermis, Asiatic species, and of F. Bmnontchi, are eatable.
The bitter shoots of F. cataphracta taste like rhubarb, and are used as a tonic. The Cingalese use the
fruits of Ilydnocarpiis inebrians to intoxicate fish.

?:XII. PITTOSPOREiE.

247

pistil (mag.)

of ovai-y.

Samyda.
£eed and arilla
(mag.).

Samyda.
Flower cnt vertically (mag.).

Samyde^ form a small group of trees and shrubs inhabiting the tropics, especially in America; they
are connected with JBixinets by most characters, and are only separated by their apetalous flower^ strongly
perigynous sub-monadelphous stamens, and apical embryo. They also approach JSomalineee and Passiflorem
in apetalism, perigynyj one-celled ovary, parietal placentationj albuminous 'seed, alternate stipulate
leaves, &c.

XXII. PlTTOSPOREyE.

(PlTTOSPOEE^, Br.)

Corolla polypetaloiis, hypogynoue, ieontemonous, cestivation imhricate. Stamens
6, alternate with the petals. Ovaet of 5 more or less perfect many-ovuled cells. Ovules
oMatropous. Fruit dry or fleshy. Embryo albuminous. Stem woody. Leaves
alternate.

Trees or erect shrubs, sometimea climbing (Sollya). Leaves alternate,
petioled, simple, sub-coriaceous, exstipulate. Flowers 5, regular, axillary or
terminal, racemose, corymbose, or cymose. Calyx 5-partite or -phyllous, aestivation

248

XXII. PITTOSPOEE^r

PUtoSporum pMUyraioides.

Fruit cut Tertically

Cmag.>.

PiUosporum
phiUyriEouies,
Pistil (mag.).

PilCesporum sinense.

PiUosporum plnUyrosoides. Fruit fmag.).

PiUosporum pMUyraioides.
Flower.

PiUosporum phiUyj^moides.
Transverse section of fruit (mag.).

PiUosporum undulatum.
Seed cut vertically (mag.).

imbricate, deciduous. Petals 5, inserted on the receptacle, usually erect, claws
connivent or sometimes coherent, aestivation imbricate;, deciduous. Stamens 6,
alternating with the petals ; filaments filiform or subulate ; anthers introrse, cells
opening by short or long longitudinal slits. Ovaet free, sessile or stipitate, of 2
perfect cells, or incompletely 2-5-celled ; style terminal, simple ; stigma obtuse or
capitate ; ovules 2-seriate, horizontal or sub-ascending, anatropous. Pkuit a capsule
with 2-5 half-septiferous valves, or a more or less fleshy indehiscent berry. Seeds
often few from arrest, often immersed in a pulp or viscous juice ; testa loose^ raphe
short, thick. Embryo minute, at the base of a fleshy dense copious albumen ;
cotyledons indistinct.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

* Pittosponim. * Bursaria. * SoUya. * Billardiera.

JEVttosporecs are connected with Celastrinets by the polypetalous isostemonous corolla, imbricate
SBstivation, ascending anatropous ovules, dry or fleshy fruit, albuminous embryo, woody stem, and alternate
leaves. But in Celastrinets the stamens and petals are inserted outside a fleshy disk lining the bottom of
the calyx ; the cells of the ovary are perfect ; the seeds are enveloped in a pulpy aril, and the embryo is
axile in the albumen. There is also a real affinity between Pittosporem and the polypetalous pentandrous
Ericinece {Ledum), founded on the insertion, the pestivation and isostemony of the corolla, the many-
celled ovarv, the simple style, the anatronous ovules, the structure of the fruit, the albuminous Rmbrvn.

XXIII. POLYGALB^.

249

the texture of the stem, and the alternate leaves ; besides which, in many Pittosporees {^Sollya, Cheiran-
thera) the anther-cells open near the top by little slits.

JPitiosporeee principally inhabit extra-tropical Australia, but many are Indian and Malayan, and some
African and Oceanic. Some are cultivated in Europe for ornament. All contain resinous aromatic and
bitter principles, which give their berries a tart, disagreeable taste ; but the natives of Australia, who
to appease their hunger are reduced to filling their stomachs with clay mixed with organic detritus,
eagerly devour the fleshy fruits of this family.

XXIII. POLYGALEJE and TUEMANDREjE.

(POLTGALE-^, Jussieu, — POLTaALACE^ ET KeAMEEIACE^, Lindl.)

Poly gala.
Flower seen in f rout (mag.)-

Kramei-ia.
Pistil^mag;). Ycrtical section of fruit.

Polygala.

Polygala.

Polygala.

Androeoium laid open

Capsule open on one

Krameria.

Polygala vulgaris.

Tertical section of flower.

(mag.).

side (mag.).

Seed (mag.)

Seed, entire and cut (mag.).

Krameria.
Andrcecium (mag.)-

Krameria.
Pistil (mag.).

250 XXIII. POLYGALB^.

Flowe'rs irregular. Petals hypogynous, unequal. Stamen.-: usually double the
number of the petals. Anthers 1- {rarely 2-) celled, opening at the top by 1-2 pores.
OvAKT 2-celled. Ovules pendulous, anatropous. Feuit a fleshy capsule, rarely
indehiscent. Embkto albuminous or exalbnminous.

Heebs or UNDEESHEUBS, sometimes twining, or erect, sometimes climbing
SHRUBS, rarely arborescent, glabrous, cottony or velvety, hairs not stellate. Leaves
alternate, rarely opposite, simple, entire. Flowees § , irregular, solitary, spiked or
racemed, or rarely panicled, axillary or terminal ; pedicels usually jointed at the base,
bracteate and 2-bracteolate. Sepals 6, free, imbricate, 2 inner largest, often winged
and petaloid. Petals 3 or 5, hypogynous, the 2 lateral free, or united at their base
with the lower, concave or galeate [keel], in the gamopetalous corolla split behind,
rarely ; upper 2 sometimes equal to the lateral, enveloping the keel in sestivation,
sometimes small, scale -like, or {Se&uridaca). Stamens 8, rarely 5-4 [Salomonia),
inserted on the receptacle ; filaments rarely free (Xanthophyllum) , usually monadel-
phous, forming a sheath split on its upper edge, and more or less united out-
side with the petals ; anthers erect, basifixed, 1- (rarely 2-) celled [Xanthophyllum,
Securidaca), opening at the top by a pore (rarely 2), more or less oblique; pollen of
Polygala ovoid, external membrane splitting in longitudinal bands, allowing the
inner membrane to protrude, and resembling the staves of a barrel. Disk small,
often 0, or rarely expanded into an imperfect unilateral ring. Ovaey free, with 2
antero-posterior cells, rarely 1-celled by arrest {Securidaca), very rarely 3-5-celled
{Trigoniastrum, Moutabea) ; style terminal, curved, dilated at the top, undivided or
2-4'-lobed ; stigma terminal, or situated between the lobes of the style ; ovules
pendulous, usually solitary in each cell, or rarely twin, collateral [Krameria), or very
rarely 2-6, scattered [Xanthophyllum), anatropous, raphe ventral. Petjit usually a
loculicidal or indehiscent capsule, a drupe [Garpolobia, Mundtia), or samara [Securi-
daca, Trigoniastrum). Seeds pendulous ; testa crustaceous, often velvety [Gome-
spermum) ; hilum often strophiolate [Polygala) ; albumen sometimes copious, fleshy or
mucilaginous, sometimes scanty or 0. Embeto axile, straight ; cotyledons plano-
convex, fleshy and thick in the exalbuminous seeds ; radicle short, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

• Polygala. Comesperma. Bredemeyera. Secuvidaca. Cavpolobia.

:Moutabea. Xanthopliylluin. Krameria. Salomonia. Muraltia.

The affinities of Polygalece are obscuire. They were formerly placed near Rldnanthece on account of
the irregular hypogynous apparently monopetalous corolla, the two-celled ovary, and compressed capsule ;
but their other characters are all opposed to this affinity. They have since been compared with Papilio-
naceee ; but in these, besides the perigynous insertion and a host of other differences, the odd petal is
next the axis, whilst it is opposite it in Polygalece. The affinity with Sapindacea: is also very distant,
and almost confined to the hypogynous imbricate and often irregular corolla, the 1-2-ovuled ovarian cells,
eimpls style, capsular or samaroid fruit, and often arillate or strophiolate seeds. There is a much closer
affinity with Tremandrea : similar habit, ovary with two one-ovuled cells, pendulous ovules, compressed
capsule, strophiolate seeds, one-celled anthers opening by pores, pollen-granules opening by longitudinal,
slits ; but in Iremcmdrecu the flower is regular, the {estivation of the calyx is valvate, the stamens are in

XXIV. VOCHYSIACBiE.

251

pairs opposite to the petals, the filaments are free, the anthers extrorse, the hairs stellate and glandular ;
but, nevertheless, Tremandrem may he considered as regular-flowered Polyyahce, &c.

TetrcUheca procumbens,
Flower.

Teli'atheca.
Pollen grains (mag.).

Teh'atheca.

Vertical section of pisfcil

(mag.).

Telraiheca,
Stamen (mag.).

2'etra/heca.

Seed cut vertically

(mag.).

Polygah, the type of the family, is dispersed over all
the globe, though least frequent in extrar-tropical South
America. The other genera are distributed over the
tropical and warm southern temperate zones.

Polyr/alea contain a bitter principle -which gives them
Tetvatheca wrttciUaia. *°"^'' '"'"'^ astringent properties ; this is often accompanied

by an acrid principle, named senegine, which renders some
species emetic. The root of P. Senega is used in Europe on account of its stimulating action on the
pulmonary mucous membrane_; the natives of Virginia use it as an antidote to snake-bites, as do the
South Africans the P. Serpentaria. The European Polygalas are still prescribed for lung diseases.
Badiera diversifolia, a shrub of the Antilles, is a sudorific analogous to guaiacum. The bark of the root
of Monnina polystachya is employed in Peru as an astringent and antidysenteric ; the ladies of that country
also use it in smoothing their hair. The drupe of the South African Mundtia spinosa is eatable. The
root of Krameria triandra possesses astringent and tonic properties, due to its containing much tannin.

XXIV. VOCHYSIACE^^}

Trees, often gigantic, with copious resinous juice, rarelj' erect or sarmentose
(Trigorda), or climbing sheubs. Branches usually opposite or whorled. Leaves
opposite or whorled (alternate in Lightia), shortly petioled, coriaceous, quite entire;
stipules small or 0, or reduced to glands. Inplokesoence various, often racemed or
panicled. Flowers irregular, ? , often large, pedicels jointed and bracteate.
Sepals 5, free or connate at the base, or rarely adnate to the ovary, 2 outer often

' This order is omitted in the original. — "Ed.

252 XXV. FEANKENIACE^.

smaller, 2 anterior larger, posterior often largest, spm-red or gibbous at the base.
Petals hypogynous, or inserted on tbe top of the calyx-tube, 1, 3, or rarely 5,
when one is protruded between the anterior sepals, clawed, blade obcordate, aestivation
convolute. Stamens Inserted with the petals, usually 1 fertile, the rest imperfect
(except Lightia and Trigonia) ; filaments usually thick, excrescent, subulate ; anthers
oblong-linear or linear-cordate, connective thickened, cells sub-distant, including the
style. OvAET free, rarely adnate to the sepals, often oblique and inserted by a
broad base ; style simple, subulate, filiform, or gradually dilated upwards ; stigma
capitate, truncate or oblique, entire or obscurely lobed ; ovules twin, collateral,
or 00 2-seriate, usually inserted in the axis, ascending or pendulous, micropyle
superior, raphe ventral. Feuit usually capsular (a winged samara in Erisma),
oblong, terete or trigonous, coriaceous, loculicidally or septicidally 3-valved ; valves
coriaceous after parting from the seed-bearing axis, endocarp often parting from the
epicarp. Seeds 1, few or many, sometimes imbricate in 2 series, often winged ; testa
membranous or coriaceous, often hairy or cottony ; albumen 0, fleshy in Trigonia.
Embbto straight ; cotyledons flat, wrinkled, or membranous and convolute ; radicle
short or long, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Callisthene. Qualia. Erisma. . Vochysia. Trigonia. Lightia.

VochydacecB were placed by De Candolle amongst Calydflorm next Onagranem, but by Lindley near
Polygahm with more reason. Lightia presents various points of analogy with ClirysohalanecB ; and Erisma
with Dipterocarpeai, in its fruit, convolute petals, often contorted or folded cotyledons, and resinous juice.

The order is wholly tropical American ; of its properties nothing is known.

XXV. FRANKENIACE^, Saint-Bilaire.

Calyx tubular, 4-S-fid. Petals 4-5, hypogynous, equal, long-clawed. Stamens
usually 6, hypogynous. Ovaet free, with 3-4-2 -parietal placentas. Style 3-4-2-
partite at the top. Capsule 0/3-4 valves, bearing at the base seeds with floury albumen.
Embeyo straight, axile.

Stem herbaceous or suffruticose. Beanchbs many, terete, jointed at the nodes.
Leaves opposite, small, entire, subsessile or petioled, often fascicled when j'oung,
exstipulate. Flowees ^ , regular, pink or violet, solitary in the forks of the
branches, sessile, or in a terminal dense leafy cyme. Calyx monosepalous, tubular,
persistent, 4-6-lobed, sestivation induplicate-valvate. Petals 4-6, inserted on tlie
receptacle, long-clawed, free, imbricate in testivation, claw with an adnate scale in
front, limb spreading. Stamens usually 6, sometimes 4-5-oo , hypogynous, free, or
connate at the base into a very short ring ; filaments filiform or flattened ; anthers
extrorse, versatile, didymous or ovoid, cells parallel, opening longitudinally. Ovaey
free, sessile, 3-4-gonous, 1-ceIled, with 3 or sometimes 4 parietal slender placentas ;
style filiform, with as many branches as placentas, branches stigmatiferous inside at
the top; ovules oo, 2-seriate, semi-anatropous, micropyle inferior, funicle long.

XXV- FEANKENIACE^.

253

Frankenia pidverulenf^.

Frankenia^

Frankenia.

Frankenia.

Frankenia,

Ripe seed

Seed, entire and cut transversely

Embi'jTD

Transrverse section of

(mag.)-

(mag.).

(mag.j.

xjvary (mag.).

Frankenia.
AudrcECi^m and pistil (mag.).

Frankenia. Frankenia,

ValTe of fruit (mag.). Dehiscent capsule (mag.).

ascending. Capsule included in the calyx-tube, valves 3-4, placentiferous in tlieir

lower half. Seeds ascending, ovoid; testa crustaceous; rajphe linear.; chalaza apical.

Embkyo straight, in the axis of a floury albumen ; .cotyledons ovoid-oblong ; radicle

very short, inferior.

ONLY GENUS.

Frankenia.

This small family is closely allied to the tribe Sihneee of CaryophyllecB, but is distinguished by the ex-
trorse anthers, parietal placentation, seed with sub-terminal hilum, and straight embryo. It also approaches
TamariscmecB in hypopetalism, one-celled ovaiy, parietal placentation, ascending anatropous ovules, capsule-
valves seminiferous towards the base, and straight embryo ; but Tamariscinece differ in their nearly free
imbricate sepals, introrse anthers, exalbuminous seed, alternate leaves, and spiked inflorescence.

Frankeniaeexe inhabit extra-tropical maritime "shores, and principally the Mediterranean and Atlantic,

254 XXVI. CARYOPHYLLEiE.

extending into central Asia and nortli-westei-n India ; they are very rare in tlie tropics and southern
latitudes.

FrankenuE are mucilaginous and slightly aromatic. F. poHulacifolia, which grows on maritime
rocks in St. Helena, was formerlj' used by the colonists as tea.

iStd —

XXVI. CARYOPHYLLEjE, Jussieu.

r\

Sepals free or united. Petals 4-5, hypogynous or sub-perigynous, sometimes 0.
Stamens usually twice as many as the petals, and inserted with them. Otaet 1-celled,
or with 2-5 imperfect cells. Ovules ventrally attached, placentation central or basilar.
Seeds smooth or granular, albumen usually floury. Embeto more or less curved. —
Leaves opposite.

Annual or perennial heebs, rarely slirubby. Stem and branches often thickened
at the nodes, and sometimes jointed. Leaves opposite, entire, usually 1-3-nerved,
sometimes without nerves, often united at the base, exstipulate, or furnished with
small scarious stipules. Flowees regular, g , or rarely unisexual. Infloeesoenoe
centrifugal, sometimes many-flowered, in a simple or dichotomous loose or dense
cyme, rarely in a thyrsoid or panicled raceme ; sometimes few-flowered, simply
forked, or reduced to a single flower ; bracts opposite, at the forks, upper often
scarious. Sepals 4-5, persistent, free or united into a 4-5-toothed calyx, sestivation
imbricate. Petals inserted on a hypogynous or sub-perigynous disk, entire, 2-fid
or laciniate, claw naked or appendiculate within, aestivation imbricate or twisted ;
sometimes minute, scale-like, or 0. Stamens 8-10, inserted with the petals,
sometimes equalling and alternate with them, very rarely alternate with the sepals
(Colobanthus) , sometimes fewer than the petals ; filaments filiform ; anthers introrse,
dorsally fixed, cells opening longitudinally. Toeus usually small, sometimes (in
some Silenew) elongated into a gynophore, and bearing the stamens on its summit
beneath the ovary; sometimes (in maxiy Alsinece) forming a stamin if erous annular
disk, slightly adnate to the base of the calyx, or swelling into short glands between
the stamens, or bearing, outside the stamens, staminodes opposite to the sepals.
OvAET of 5 or 4 united carpels, or of 3 of which 2 are anterior, or of 2 which are
ant&ro-posterior, free, 1-celled, or rarely 2-5-celled owing to more or less perfect
membranous septa which disappear early ; styles 2-6, stigmatiferous along their
inner edge or at their top, free or united into a single lobed or toothed style
[Polycarpece) ; ovioles 2-oo , very rarely solitary [Qiieria], fixed by the middle of the
inner edge and face to funioles springing from the bottom of the ovary, distinct or
cohering into a central column, ascending, micropyle inferior or transverse. Capsule
membranous or crustaeeous, rarely berried {Cucubalus), bursting loeulicidally or
septicidally by valves or apical teeth ; valves sometimes as many as the sepals, and
when 5 opposite either to the sepals {Lychnis, Viscaria, Petrocoptis) or to the petals
(Agrostemmu), sometimes double in number, rarely sub-indehiscent [Drypis, Cucubalus,
&c.). Seeds qo , or solitary by arrest, smooth and shining, tubercular or muricate,
rarely winged on their circumference ; sometimes reniform, globose, obovoid or com-
pressed, hilum marginal; sometimes depressed, scutiform, hilum facial; albumen
floury or rarely sub-fleshy, placed in the bend of the embryo or on its sides, some-

XXVI. CAEYOPHYLLE^.

255

limes forming a thin layer on its dorsal surface, rarely {Velenia, s^.,Biantlius).
Embryo more or less curved, peripheric or annular {Drypis), or nearly straight in
the sciitiform seeds ; cotyledons narrow, plano-convex or half-cylindric, incumbent
or very rarely accumbent ; radicle cylindric, inferior or superior.

Tribe I. SILENEJE, B.C.

Sepals united into a 5-toothed or -lobed calyx. Petals and stamens hypogyuous,
inserted on an erect gynopliore, rarely sessile. Petals with scales at the top of the
claw, or naked. Styles completely distinct. — Leaves exstipulate.

1. Lychnideee. — Corolla twisted or imbricate in aBstivation. Calyx with commissTiral
nerves. Petals usually furnished at the base of the limb with scales forming a coronet, very
rarely with small winged bands at the claw {Agrostemma) . Fruit 3-5-merous. Embryo
arched, circular or coiled (_Drypis).

PRINCIPAL GENBRA.
Petrocoptis. * Agrostemma. * Lychnis. * Viscavia.

Melandriiini. * Silene. Ciicubalus. ' Drypis.

9 flower.

°^yOtiVii .MvbmdHum

' ft dimewn.,

°^-^ Calyx.

Mehmdrium-dioicum ^.
Diagram.

MelandHumdioicum S •

Androecium surrounding

an abortive pistil.

JH^landi'ium dioicum 9

Transverse section of

ovary (mag.).

'iUlm^^^f^ it Drypis spinosa.

dUiisum. ^M//y( Seed, entire and cut vertically, with
Fct.'U. coiled and incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Cucubalus baccifer.
Seed, entire, and with vertical and transverse
sections showing the incumbent cotyledons
(mag.).

256

XXVI. CAEYOPHYLLB^.

Melandrium dioicum 9

Vertical section of pUtil

(mag.).

Melandrium dioicum.
Seed Cmag.)'

Agrostemma-.
Diagraln.

Melandrium dioicum Q,
Pistil.

Agrostemma GiOiago.

Seed, entire, and with vertical and traxisTca'se sqctions.,

showing the incnmbent cotyledons (mag.).

Melandrium dioicum.
Fruit.

Viscaria.
Diagram.

2. Dianthese. — Corolla always twisted to the right in bud. Calyx with no commissural
nerves. Petals usually furnished with small winged bands at the claw, or with a coronet of
scales at the base of the limb {Sa^onaria, Velezia). Fruit 2-merous. I^mbryo peripheric, or
rarely straight, and then albumen scanty or 0,

* Saponaria.

' Gypsoplyla.

*" Dianthus.

Yelezia.

Dianffms.
Dehiscent capsule.

Dianthus.

' llintrrnTYi

Dlanthiis.

Rppr^ iflnranl'fono (ma

Dianthus.

XXVI. CARYDPHYLLEiE.

257

Seed, entire, and with, vertical and transverse sections (mag.)..

^psophila repens.
Seed, entire, and with, vertical and transverse sections (mag-J

■Tribe II. AL8INEM, D.O.

Sepals free, or united at their base by the disk.
Petals and stamens hypogynous on a slightly developed
disk, or shortly perigynous. Petals with a short or
obtuse base, without claw or scales. Styles . quite
distinct. Leaves exstipulate, or sometimes with small
scarious stipules.

^"^Bssmass:^

Stellaria Holostea.

Stel^ariu, ^lawer.cut vertically (magO-

Stellaria^ Diagram,

XXVI. CAETOPHYLLB^.

Stellaria.

Pistil

and androecium

(mag,).

Stellaria.

Compressed peed, entire, and witli Tertical

and transTerse sections,

with inciimbeut cotyledons (mag.).

Stellaria. /
Debiscent fruit.

.Bnfonia macrosperma.
Seed entii-e, and with vertical and transverse sections showing the
' accumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Colohanthus,
Apetalous flower, stamens
alternate with
the sepals (mag.).

Spergularia marginata.
"Winged seed, entire, and with vertical and
transverse sections,
with incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Hotosteum.
)epressea seed, ventral
keeled face (mag.).

Holosteum.
Sagina.

Holostevm wnbellatum.

Seed, cut vertically and transversely, with

incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

Cerastium arveiise.
Seed, entire, and with vertical and transverse
sections, with incumbent cotyledons (mag.).

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.

*Cerastium. Stellaria. *Arenaria. Buffonia.

Colobmthus, Queria. *Spei'gula. Spergularia.

Teibe III. POLYGARPEJE, D.C.

Sepals free, or united at the base by the disk. Petals as in AlsinecB, usually
small, liypogynous, inserted with the stamens on a slightly developed torus, or
shortly perigynous. Style simple at the base, 3-2-fid above. Stamens 5 or fewer.
Leaves usually furnished with scarious stipules.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Drj'maria.
Loeflingia.

Polycarpon,
Polycarpoea.

Ortegia.
Stipulicida.

Caryophylkce, with FaronycMnce, Fm'iulacecc^ Amarantacea, BaseUea;, Chenopodieee, Phytolaceea,
NydaginecE, and even Polygoneai, form a group of plants of which the common character is a curved
embryo surrounding a floury albumen (see these families). Those Carynphylleee which have petals, definite
stamens, a one-celled and many-ovuled ovary, and opposite leaves, are easily distinguished from all these
families ; but the apetalous and few-ovuled genera approach several of them. Notwithstanding their
parietal placentation, we may unite to this group Mesembryanthemea, which have a curved emhryo
surrounding a floury albumen, and Cactea, which have a curved but usually exalbuminous embryo.

XXYII. P0ETULACEJ3.

259

Caryophylhie mostly inhabit the extra-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, extending to the
Arctic regions and to the tops of the highest Alps. They are rarer in the southern hemisphere, and
still more so in the tropics, where they are almost confined to the mountains.

Some' Caryophylkts possess refreshing and slightly demulcent properties, but they have fallen into
disuse. Such are Holosteum umbellatum, Cerastium arvense, Stellaria Holostea and media; the latter,
■which grows everywhere, is the common Chickweed whose seeds form the food for many cage-birds.
The seeds of Spergula were formerly recommended for consumption. The root of Saponaria officinalis,
an indigenous species, contains a gum, a resin, and a peculiar matter which froths in water like soap,
whence it has been placed among demulcent and depurative medicines ; some doctors even substitute it
for Sarsaparilla in cases of syphilis. The White Lychnis {Melandrium dioicum) and Lychnis chaleedoniia
are also used as demulcents. Silene Otites, a bitter and astringent herb, is prescribed for hydrophobia.
The root of Silme virgimca is used as an anthelminthic in North America. Pinks, and especially Dian-
tlius Caryophyllus, have sweet-scented petals, with which chemists prepare a syrup and a distilled water.
The Rose Campion (Lychnis Githago) is common amongst corn : its seeds are acrid, and render bread
poisonous when mixed with the flour in too great quantities.

XXVII. PORTULACEJE, Jussieu.

Portulaca.
Flower (mag.)-

Portulaca oleraeea.

Portulaca.
Style and stigmas (mag.)'

Portulaca.
Stamens (mag.)>

Portulaca,
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Poj'tulaca.
Fruit, entire and dehiscent.

Portulaca,
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

2

Portulaca,
Flower-bud (mag.).

260 , XXVII. POETULACE^.

Flowbks 2 . Corolla 0, or petals sometimes coherent at the hase, very fugacious.
Stamens hypogynous or perigynous, equal and alternate with the calyx-lohes, or double,
triple, or multiple in number. Ovaet usually free, rarely inferior, 1-8-eelled. Pruit
indehiscent, or a pyxidium, or a loculicidal capsule. Embryo peripheric, arched or
annular, surrounding a floury albumen.

Herbaceous annuals or perennials, often suffruticose or fruticose; stem and
branches diffuse, glabrous or with simple rarely stellate or hooked hairs. Leaves
alternate or opposite, very various in form, entire, sessile or sub-sessile, often fleshy,
with a single nerve, or nerveless, sometimes stipulate. Flowers ? , usually regular
and axillary, solitary or variously disposed, sestivation imbricate. Calyx diphyllous,
or monosepalous with 2, 3, 4, 5 divisions. Petals 5, 4, 3, hypogynous, or rarely
sub-epigynous {Portulaca), distinct, or connate at the base, very tender and fugacious,
often 0. Stamens 1-co , inserted on the receptacle or on the calyx, free or in
bundles ; filaments filiform or subulate ; anthers introrse, dehiscence longitudinal.
Disk hypogynous, girding the base of the ovary, very often inconspicuous. Ovary
sessile, usually free, sometimes half-inferior {Portulaca), 1-5-celled, cells 1-few-many-
ovuled ; style terminal, with 2-8 branches, stigmatiferous on their inner surface ;
ovules semi-anatropous, rarely solitary in the 1-celled ovaries (Portulacaria) , usually
nximerous, inserted by separate funicles on a central free placenta, or pendulous to
funicles ascending from the bottom of the cell ; in the many-celled ovaries 1 or few
or many in each cell, attached to the central angle throughout its length, or to its
centre or top. Petjit a dehiscent capsule, or rarely indehiscent {Portulacaria).
Seeds reniform, ovoid, globose or lenticular ; albumen floury. Embryo peripheric,
curved or annular, surrounding the albumen ; cotyledons incumbent ; radicle facing
the hilum.

Tribe L OALANDBINIEJE.

Calyx diphyllous, or 2 -partite or 2-3-fid. Petals 5, 4, 3, hypogynous, distinct,
sometimes more or less connate into a tube {Montia) . Stamens fewer or more than
the sepals, or indefinite, hypogynous, inserted alone or in bundles at the base of the
petals ; filaments free, or united at the base. Ovary 1-celled, few-several-many-
ovuled, placentation basilar or free, central ; style filiform, 2-5-fid. Capsule 2-5-
valved. — Herbaceous or frutescent plants. Leaves alternate or opposite, often
fleshy, sometimes furnished with intrafoliar stipules cut into hairs or lacinise.
Flowers solitary, or collected into racemes, or into axillary or terminal cymes.

PEl!<iCIPAL GENERA.

Portulacaria, Anacampsei-os. Talinum.

•Calanclrinia. •Claytonia. Montia.

Tribe II. SESUVIE^.

Calyx 5-fid, rarely 2-fid or -partite. Petals 0, or rarely 4-6, and epigynous
{Portulaca). Stamens 6-10-co , inserted singly or in pairs, or in bundles, at the
base or throat of the calyx, and between its sesrments. Ovarv free, ra.rel-p inferior

XXVII. PORTULACE^. 261

(Portulaca), 1-5-celled, many-ovuled ; ovules ascending, fixed 'to a basilar placenta,
or pendulous to tlie central angle of the cells ; stigmas 2-5. Capsule opening trans-
versely by circular dehiscence.— Fleshy glabrous herbs with opposite or alternate
leaves, often stipulate, or bearing stipuliform hairs in the leaf-axils. Flowers axil-
lary, sessile, solitary, or glomerate, in spiked or umbelled cymes.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
•Portulaca. Sesuvium.i Triantbema.

Tribe III. AIZOIDEJS.

Calyx 4-5-fid or -partite. Corolla 0. Stamens 5-15, inserted singly or in pairs, or
in bundles, on the calyx, between its segments. Ovary free, with 2-5 I-2-oo -ovuled
cells; ovules pendulous to the central angle of the cells; stigmas 5-2. Capsule
loculicidal. — Herbaceous or frutescent plants, covered with simple or bi-acuminate
hairs. Leaves alternate or opposite. Flowers axillary, sessile.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Aizoon. Galenia. Plinthus.

Allied Tribe. MOLLTJQINEM.

Calyx 5-4-partite, or 5-fid, persistent. Petals 0, or very numerous, ligulate,
sub-perigynous. Stamens hypogynous or perigynous, equal and alternate with the
sepals, or fewer, or more, or indefinite, distinct, or aggregated in bundles, the outer
alternate with the calyx:-segments. Ovary free, many-ovuled, 2-3-5-celled ; ovules
fixed to the inner angle of the cells by separate funicles, or rarely solitary and
basilar [Acrosanthes) . Capsule usually angular or compressed, loculicidal. Seeds as
in PoriMZacecB.— Herbaceous or sub-woody plants, glabrous, or covered with stellate
hairs. Leaves opposite or alternate, or fascicled and psendo-whorledj often stipulate.
Flowers crowded in racemes or cymes, or in axillary or leaf-opposed umbellules,
rarely solitary {Acrosanthes).

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Orygia. Gleinus. Molliigo. Phamaceum. Acrosanthes.

Psamnotrophe. Adenogramme. Giesekia. Limeum.

PortulacecB approach Tetragoniece, MesembryantkemecB, and ParonycMece (see these families). The
tribe of MoUwginace is also connected with Portulaceee by habit, the entire fleshy leaves, inflorescence,
perigynous corolla, often 0, the isostemonous or indefinite stamens, distinct or aggregated into bundles
alternate with the sepals, and especially by the structure of the ovule and the nature of the albumen.

' In Bentham and Hooker's ' Genera Plantariim,' celled ovary, is placed with the other AUoidece under

Portidaca, from its disepalous calyx and 1-celled ovary, Ficoidea, and referred to the Calycifloral sub-order of

is regarded as a very close ally of Montia and the other Dicotyledons. No doubt the Wieoidem and Fortulacea

disepalous Pnrtvlaccm, included in this work under the are members of one great group (which should also

tribe Calandriniece ; whilst Sesuviiim (and Trianthema) include Tetragoniets), hvit the exigencies of a linear clas-

with its 5-m?rous isomerous perianth and. several- sification .render it convenient to keep them apart. — En.

262

XXVIII. TAMAEISCmE^.

Portulnveee are not absolutely absent from any climate, altboiioli more rare in the temperate regions
of Europe and central Asia tban in North America. Most inhabit the subtropical regions of the southern
hemisphere. Akoidece abound in South Africa, and occur in Arabia Petrsea, and in very small numbers in
the Mediterranean region. Sesuviecs are much more widely dispersed ; none, however, have been met with
in America north of the tropic, and very few are found in temperate Asia and Europe. Calandriniece are
nearly cosmopolitan : they penetrate into the cold regions of the North, and abound beyond the tropics,
and rather in the northern than in the southern hemisphere. Molluginea are most frequent in tropical
and subtropical regions.

Most of the species are mucilaginous; some are slightly bitter, astringent, and have been classed
amongst mild tonics and diuretics. The herbage of Portiilaca oleracea has long enjoyed a reputation as
refreshing, sedative and antiscorbutic. It is also eaten as a salad ; its seed, steeped in wine, acts as an
emmenagogue. Several American and Asiatic Calandriniece are also used as potherbs, as are Sesuvium
Portulacastrum and repens, which growin tropical Asia. The root of Claytmiia tuberosa, anative of eastern
Siberia, is eatable. Talinum and Pharnaceum are bitter and astringent, and are popular remedies in Asia
and America. Soda is obtained in abundance from Aiwon canariense and hispanicum, by calcining.

XXYIII. TAMARISCINEjE.

(PoKTULACEAKTTM cjenus, Jussieu. — Tamaeiscinb^, Desvaux. — Tamaricaob^, Idndl.)

Tamai-ix. Tamarix.

Vertical section of flower Pistil and andrcecinm

(mag.). (mag.).

Tamai'ix. Seed cut vertically (mag.).

Tamarix,
Tamarix iniiea. riower without its stamens Cmag,).

Tamarix,
Eiue flower Cmaff.V

XXVIII. TAMAEISCINE^. 263

Sepals 5-4.. Petals 5, hypogynous, imbricate, marcescent. Stamens 5 or 10.
OvAKT l-celled, placentas parietal or basilar, usually 3, many-ovuled. Seeds ascending ;
chalaza apical, bearded. Embeto straight, exalbuminous. Leaves alternate, rather
thick.

Uktdershkubs, sheubs, or small teees, with both persistent and anuual caducous
branchlets. Leaves alternate, sessile, small, sub-imbricate, rather fleshy, sometimes
amplexicaul, entire, often dotted, usually glaucous, exstipulate. Floweks perfect,
regular, white or pink, bracteolate, in terminal racemed spikes. Caltx free, per-
sistent, of 5 (rarely 4) sepals, imbricate, 2-seriate, sometimes connate at the base.
Petals 5, inserted on the receptacle, imbricate in bud, marcescent. Stamens equal
to and alternate with the petals, or double in number, inserted on the edge of a hypo^
gynous disk ; filaments free, united at their base into a ring, cup, oj: tube ; anthers
introrse, dorsifixed, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet free, sessile, usually 3-gonous,
l-celled, with 3-4 (rarely 2-5) parietal or basilar place^tas ; styles equal in number
to the placentas; stigmas obtuse or truncate, dijated, sometimes sessile; ovules
numerous, ascending, anatropous. Capsule 1-eelled, or incompletely several-celled
by the development of the placentas, 2-5-valved, valves placentiferous at the base.
Seeds numerous, ascending^ with membranous te^ta, furnished at their apical
chalaza with a dense beard., or beaked and furnished with spreading plumose
hairs. Embeyo exalbuminous, straight ; £otyledons oblong, obtuse, plano-convex ;
radicle short, conical, inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
•Myl'icaria. *Tamarix,

Bentham and Hooker fil. have combined with the small famjly of Tamariscineee, HeaumuriacecE and
the genus Fouquiera ; which approach it, in fact, in their somewhat fleshy leaves, estivation, hypogyny,
often isostemonous or diplostemonous corolla, one-celled ovary with parietal placentation, capsular fruit
erect and hairy seeds ; but diifer in the seeds being albuminous, and hairy over their entire surface. Eeau-
muria is distioguished by the solitary flowers and floury albumen ; Fouquisra has a monopetalous five-fid
corolla with a long tube, 10-8 hypogynous stamens of unequal length ; the seeds are surrounded by
a membranous wing, or by transparent hairs which simulate a wing ; the albumen is fleshy, and the
flowers are spicate or in thyrsoid panicles.

[The including of these genera in Tamariscineee requires that the ordinal
characters should be modified, and the order itself be broken up into the following
tribes, as proposed in the ' Genera Plantarura.'

Tkibb I. TAMABISGEJE.

Petals free or nearly so. Seeds exalbiiminous, hairy. Flowers racemed or spiked.
Tmnarix, Myricaria.

Teibe II. BEAlJMUEmJE.

Petals free. Seeds hairy all over ; albumen between fleshy and floury. Flowers solitary,
axillary, and terminal. Hololachne, Beaumuria.

Tkibe III. FOITQUIEBIBJE.

Petals connate into a long tube.. Seeds winged or furnished with long hairs. Flowers
large, paniclcd. Fouquieria. Ed. 3

264

XXIX. ELATINE^.

Tamariscinece are near Caryophjlleo!, Portulaceis, and Frankeniacece, whicli are separated principally
by the structure of their ovules and their floury albumen ; they further differ from Caryophylh<B and
Franheniacea: in their alternate and fleshy leaves, from Portulacece in habit, insertion, &o. They have also
some affinity with Crassulacecs.

Taviariscineee (proper) are confined to the Old World, where they extend from 9° to 65° of north
latitude. They prefer sea-shores, the margins^ of brackish lakes, the banks of rivers and torrents, in
sandy or clayey soils. ISeaumwiea extend from the I^evant to Central Asia ; Fmiquiera is a Mexican
shrub. — Ed.]

Tamariscinece contain tannin, resin and a volatile oil, which render them bitter and astringent. The
bark of ilfv''*c«''*o 5'«''»ra<2wca is employed in Germany for jaundice ; that of Tamarix ffallica is aperient.
T. mannifei-a, which grows on Mount Sinai and elsewhere in Arabia, secretes, as the result of the
puncture of a Oynips, a saccharine matter, supposed by some to be the manna which fed the Hebrews
in the desert. The galls of other species (also produced by the puncture of an insect) are valued for
their strongly astringent properties.

XXIX. ELATINEJE.

(Elatine.^, Gamhessedes. — Elatinacb^, Lindl.)

Sepals 2-6. Petals 2-5, hypogynous, imbricate. Stamens equal or double the
number of the petals, hypogynous. Otaet S~5-celled. Ovules anatropous. Fetiit a
capsule. Seeds exalbuminous. — Leaves opposite or fascicled, stipulate.

Elatine octandra.
Diagram.

Elatine odandt'a.
Flower (mag.).

Elatine hexandva.
Hower, leaves, and stipules (mog.).

XXIX. BLATINE^.

265

ElaHne Sydropiper.
Flower cut Tertically (mag.).

Elaiine.
Ovule (mag.).

Mei'imea.
Flowers, leaves, and stipules (mag.).

Dwarf HERBS, or marsL. UNDEESHEUBS ; stems creeping or spreading. Leaves
opposite, rarely wliorled, sessile or sub-sessile, entire or toothed, stipulate. FLOfWEES
g , small, regular, axillary, solitary or cymose. Sepals 2-5, distinct, Eestivation
imbricate. PetAls 2-5, hypogynous, sestivation imbricate. Stamens equal or
double tbe number of tbe petals, hypogynous ; filaments filiform-subulate, free ;
anthers introrse, dorsifixed, versatile, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet free, cells as
many as sepals ; styles as many as cells, distinct ; stigmas capitate ; ovules oo, fixed to
the central angle of the cells, horizontal or sub-ascending, anatropous, raphe lateral
or superior. Capsule septicidal, valves flat or infleSed, leaving the placentiferous
central column free. Seeds numerous, cylindric, straight or curved, strongly striate
transversely, rarely smooth (Merimea), hilum basilar, exalbuminous. Embeto
straight or curved ; cotyledons short, obtuse ; radicle cylindric, long, near the
hilum.

Matine.

GENERA.
Bergia.

Merimea,

ElaUnea, formerly placed in Caryophylleai, tribe Alsined, are distinguished by the capitate stigmas,
dehiscent capsule, exalbuminous seed, and straighter embryo. They approach Hyperwine<s in hypopetal-
ism, the 3^6-celled ovary with- many OTules in each cell, the free styles, terminal stigmas, capsular fruit,
straight or curved exalbuminous seeds, and opposite or whorled leaves ; but in HyperieinecB the petals are
twisted, the stamens usually numerous and polyadelphous, and the leaves exstipulate. Elatinece approach
some Lythrariem, -which have also isostemonous or diplostemonous flowers, an ovary with two or several
many-ovuled cells, anatropous ovules, a septicidal capsule, exalbuminous seeds, and opposite leaves ; but
they differ in the tubular calyx, perigynism, simple style and exstipulate leaves.

The genus Tetradiclis (or Anatropa) appears much nearer ElatinecB than Zygophylhce, in which
Bentham and Hooker fil.^ place it; it differs from Zygophyllecu in the number of the parts of the
flower, the dehiscence of the capsule, the nature of the seeds, &c., and is only separated from Elatitwfs by
its exstipulate and laciniate leaves.

Elatinem are widely dispersed, especially in the Old World, inhabiting ditches and the submerged
shores of ponds and rivers. They are of no use to man.

Bentham and Hooker place it in Eutacecs, tribe JRutecs, and not in ZygopkyllecB.—'SD.

266

XXX. HYPERICINEiE.

XXX. HYPERIClNEyE.

(Htpekica, Jussieu. — Htpeeicine^, D.C. — Htpericace^, Lindl.'

St. John's Wort. (Uiipenciim pei-foratum.)

St. John's Wort.
Pistil and bundle of stamens (mag.).

St. John's Wort.
Petal (mag.).

Petals hypogynous, claw naked, or furnished with a scale-lihe pit. Stamens
numerous, hypogynous, monadelphous or polyadelphous. Ovaet 6-d-celled, or 1-celled
by imperfection of the septa. Ovules numerous, anatropous. Fetjit a capsule, rarely
fleshy. Embeto exalbuminous. — Leaves opposite, entire, usually dotted with pellucid
glands.

Stem woody or herbaceous, perennial, rarely annual, juice resinous or limpid.

XXX. HYPERICINE^. 267

branches opposite or rarely wiiorled, generally 4-gonous, sometimes compressed or
cylindric, sometimes heath-like. Leaves opposite or rarely whorled, simple, penni-
nerved, entire or with glandular teeth, usually sprinkled with pellucid glands sunk
in the parenchyma, and edged with vesicular black glands ; stipules 0. Flowers
5 , regular, usually terminal, panicled, or in dichotomous cymes. Calyx persistent,
of 4-5 more or less connate sepals, 2-seriate, the two outer often the smallest, rarely
4 decussate, the 2 outer largest, and covering the inner. Petals inserted on the
receptacle, as many as the sepals, sessile or clawed, equal, more or less inequilateral,
veins radiating, aestivation contorted or imbricate; daw naked {Eypericum), or fur-
nished within, above the base, with a fleshy scale, or furrowed. Stamens inserted
on the receptacle, usually indefinite, rarely definite, always more numerous than the
petals ; filaments in 3 or 5 bundles, sometimes alternating with glands or hypo-
gynous scales, or irregularly polyadelphous, or united into a tube, or quite free ;
anthers small, subglobose, introrse, sub-didymous, often tipped by a gland, cells
parallel, opening longitudinally. Ovaet of 3-5 carpels, or of 1 (Endodesmia) , 3-5-
celled, or with as many imperfect cells; styles as many as carpels, filiform; stigmas
terminal, capitate, peltate or clavate ; ovules numerous in each cell, 2-seriate, rarely
few or solitary {Endodesmia}, usually horizontal, rarely ascending (Haronga, Peoro-
spermum), anatropous, very rarely pendulous (Endodesmia). Fkuit a capsule, usually
septicidal, rarely loculicidal {Graioxylon, Eliwa), or an indehiscent berry. Seeds
straight, rarely curved, hilum basilar, funiele sub-lateral ; testa crustaceous or mem-
branous, dotted or smooth, sometimes loosely cellular, arilliform; chalaza diametrically
opposite to the hilum, often dilated into a membranous wing {Eliwa, Cratoxylon) .
Embkto straight or curved, exalbuminous ; cotyledons flat, half-cylindric or rarely
coiled ; radicle cylindric, obtuse, usually longer than the cotyledons, and near the

hilum,

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.

Il3'pericum. Vismia. Cratoxylon, Aseyi-ium. Psorospermum.

Jli/peridnece are closely connected -with OxMiferm and Cumelliacem ; they are allied to GuttifercB in
their resinous j.uioe, their tetragonous branches, opposite entire leaves, free or nearly free decussate
unequal sepals, contorted or imbricate petals, indefinite stamens, filaments usually in several bundles, or
monadelphotis, one-pluri-celled ovary, horizontal or ascending anatropous ovules, capsular or fleshy fruit,
and exalbuminous embryo ; the diagnosis almost wholly rests on the usually herbaceous stem of Ilypei-i-
cinea:, their not jointed branches, less coriaceous leaves, always perfect flowers, and filiform styles. They
approach CamdUacem in their free sepals, imbricate or contorted petals, indefinite monadelphous or polyadel-
phous stamens, and connective often glandular at the top, their capsular or fleshy fruit, and exalbuminous
seed; they are principally separated by their resinous j uice, opposite leaves and inflorescence. They have
also a close afiinity with Cistinees in their two-seriate sepals, hypogynous contorted petals, numerous
stamens, one-celled or sub-pluricelh'd ovary, capsule with septicidal valves with placentiferous margins ;
but in Cistine6B the stamens are completely free, the style is simple, the embryo is much curved or
coiled, the albumen is floury, the leaves stipulate and usually alternate. Finallj', more than one analogy
has been noticed between Hypericinem and MyHucece (see this family),

Sypericineee are spread over the temperate and hot regions of the globe, and especially in the
northern hemisphere. They are not rare in tropical America; but become so in equinoctial Asia and
Africa.

Sffpericineee, like Guttiferce, possess balsamic resinous juices which flow abundantly from the woody
species, and which in the herbaceous ones are secreted by black or pellucid glands sunk in the paren-

268

XXXI. GUTTIFER^.

chyma of the leaves. . With these juices is present a certain quantity of volatile oil and a bitter ex-
tractive in the hark, which give different properties to Hypericinea. The indigenous species of St. John's
"Wort, formerly recommended as astringent, are no longer used, except Hyperkum perforatum^ of which
the tips infused in olive oil are rubhed in for gouty pains. The Tutsan (H. Andrommum), formerly
used as a vulnerary, has fallen into disuse without good reason. Cratoxylon HornschucUi, a small Javanese
tree, is employed in that country as an astringent and diuretic.

XXXI. GUTTIFER^E.

(GrTiTTiPEE.ffi, Jussieu. — Gakcinie^, BartUng. — Clusiace^, Lindl.)

Clusia angtilarls. ,t? flowei's.

XXXI. GUTTIFEEiE.

269

PiUsp^rma caudatttm.

Vertical

section of oTary

(mag.).

Pilosperma,
Eoibiyo
(mag.).

Pilosperma.

Seed,

entire, with its

arillode.

Pilosperma.

Seed cut vertically.

li, hilum ;

nil micropyle.

Embeto exalbuminous, straigJit. — Stem luoody. Leaves

Gai'cinia Mangostana.
Garcinia Mangostana. Fruit. Berry %vith thick bark, the upper portion removed to

show the cells.

Flowers polygamo -
dioecious, rarely ^ . Calyx
4-6-poly-phyUous. Petals
hypogynous, equal with the
sepals, rarely more numer-
ous. Stamens indefinite,
rarely definite, free, or
monadelphous or polyadel-
phous. OvAET 2--00 -celled,
rarely l-celled. Ovolbs
1-00 in the cells, ascending
or erect, anatropous. Feuit
a capsule, drupe, or herry.
opposite,

Tebes or SHRUBS, sometimes climbing or epiphytal, with resinous usually yellow
or green juice, branches opposite, generally tetragonous, jointed. Leaves opposite,
usually decussate, rarely whorled, coriaceous, mostly shining, penninerved, secondary
nerves transverse, rarely pellucid-punctate ; petiole jointed at its base to the branch,
entire and exstipulate, or very rarely piniiatisect and stipulate {Quiina). Flowers
white, yellow or red, regular, polygamo-dicecious, or S , terminal or axillary, solitary,
or in fascicles or few-flowered cymes, trichotomous panicles, ,or racemes. Sepals
2-6, rarely more, imbricate, or decussate in pairs, sometimes furnished with pairs of
decussate bracts. Petals 2-6, rarely more, hypogynous, imbricate or contorted,
rarely decussate in pairs, very rarely 4, sub-valvate. — Flowers $ : Stamens in-
serted on the receptacle, numerous, or rarely definite and equal or double the number
of the petals ; filaments often thick or short, free or variously connate, sometimes
united into a fleshy mass, or in bundles equalling in number and opposite to the
petals, sometimes long and filiform; anthers 2- (rarely 1-) celled, cells usually linear.

270 XXXI. GUTTIFEE^.

adnate or terminal, extrorse or rarely introrse, sometimes sessile, or plunged in the
mass of tlie filaments, opening longitudinally, or by an apical pore. Ovary rudi-
" mentary, or more or less developed. — Flowers ? and g :' Staminodbs or stamens
surrounding tlie ovary, often definite, fewer and less coherent than those of the $
flower. OvART seated on a flat receptacle or a fleshy disk, 2-many-celled, rarely 1-
celled ; stigmas as many as cells, sessile or sub-sessile, radiating, or coherent and
peltate, or radiating at the top of a single elongated style, sometimes distinct on as
many styles ; ovules l-oo in the cells, fixed to the central angle, or erect and basal,
anatropous. Friiit usually between fleshy and coriaceous, sometimes indehiscent,
berried or drupaceous, sometimes with as many septicidal valves as cells. Seeds
large, often arillate or strophiolate ; testa thin, coriaceous, or rarely spongy. Embryo
straight, exalbuminous, filling the seed, sometimes with a voluminous radicle and
minute or scaly cotyledons, sometimes divided into 2 cotyledons, which are connate,
or separable with difELculty ; radicle very short, inferior.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
•Clusia. Garoinia. Calophyllum. Havetiopsis. Chrysochlamys.

Tovomita. Rheedia. Mesua. Mammea. Quiina.

O-uttiferce are very near Hypericinecs and Marcgraviacets (see these families). They are equally close
to CamcUiacecB, in their more cur less distinct sepals, the sestivation of their petals and connection of fila-
ments ; they are distinguished by their opposite leaves, their usually diclinous four-merous flowers with
decussate sepals and petals, their straight embryo, and often inconspicuous cotyledons. All the Guttiferee
are intertropical, except a few natives of the warm regions of North America ; they are more numerous in
America than in Asia, and are rather rare in Africa.

Gutti/ercs owe their name to the yellow or greenish juice which flows on the incision of their stem,
and which contains an acrid resin held in solution by a volatile oil, sometimes mixed with a gummy
principle. The acidulous-sugary berries of several species are eatable. The seeds of others contain a
fixed oil, and the wood of all is durable, and hence valuable. The inspissated juice of Hebradendrmi
camboffioides, a Ceylon tree, is the safiron-red colored, opaque, smooth, shining substance called gamhoye,
which is a rich golden-yellow pigment and a powerful purgative. The same is the case with Cltisia rosea^
a West Indian tree, whose blackish bitter juice, thickening in the air, is frequently used- instead of
scammony. That of C.Jlava, which is also cultivated in European hot-houses, is praised in Jamaica as a
vulnerary. The berries of Calophyllum are sweet, acidulous, and agreeable. C. inophyllum, an Indian
plant, afibrds a purgative and emetic resin, and its root is considered diuretic. That of C. turiferum, a
native of Peru, emits a balsamic odour when burned, and is used for incense. C. Calaha, of the Antilles,
yields a juice (aceite de Maria) which rivals copal. Mesud sjieciosa and ferrea, of India, have very hard
and excellent woods ; their aromatic and bitter root and bark are powerful sudorifics. The fruit of the
Mangosteen {Garcinia mangostand), a native of the Moluccas (now introduced into the Antilles), possesses
a bitter and astringent rind, but a delicious pulp which is refreshing and antibilious. The fruit of the
Mammea is also eatable, the water distilled from its flowers (eau de Creole) is eminently digestive, and the
juice of its young shoots yields a very agreeable vinous liquor.

XXXII. CAMELLIACE^.

271

XXXII. CAMELLIACE^.

(Tebitstrcemie^, ITM-SeL—TBRNSTECEMiACE^, B.C. — Theace^, Mirbel. — Camellie^,

B.C. — Camelliace^, BartUng.)

Camellia oleiferct.

Gordonia Lasianthos.
Diagram,

Gardonia.
Part of andtoecium (mag,).

1, : and cut vertically (mag.).

Tea.

Tea.

Half -embryo

Embryo

inner face

(mag.).

(mag.).

.■•' >

Gordonia. Gordonia. Oordonia. Gordonia. Gordonia.

Pistil (mag.). Vertical section of oyary (mag,). Flower-bud (mag.). Androecinm and pistil (mag.). Embryo cut (maa

272

XXXII. CAMELLIACE^.

Flower cut Tei-tically (mag.).

Terns! I'osmia.
Umgi-anl.

Ternstmemia.
Ovule (mag).

Petals hypogynous, usually ^,free or nearly so, imbricate or contorted. Stamens
timLnllii imfJp.iim.iip.. h/iinnnnno'iiR. OvAUY URiiallv ^—^-callpA. OvTTT.wfi /nmrrlnilMiQ fw

XXXII. CAMELLIACEiE. 273

ascending. Feuit indehiscent or capsular. Embryo exalbuminous or albuminous. —
Stem woody. Leaves generally alternate.

Large oi- small trees with watery juice and cylindric branches. Leaves
alternate, often fascicled at the top of the branches, very rarely opposite {Garyocar,
Hajploclathra, &c.), usually simple, rarely digitate [Caryocar, Anthodiscus) , coriaceous
or membranous, penninerved, entire or toothed ; stipules 0, or very rarely 2,
minute, caducous. Elotvees §, rarely diclinous {Actinidia, Omphalocarpum, &e.),
regular, sometimes axillary, solitary or fascicled, sometimes in a terminal raceme or
panicle ; peduncle jointed at its base, naked or bracteate. Sepals 5, rarely 4-6-7,
free, or slightly connate at the base, imbricate. Petals 6, rarely 4-6-9, hypogynous,
free, or oftener coherent at the base into a ring or short tube, aestivation imbricate
or contorted. Stamens usually indefinite, rarely equal with the petals {Pentaphylax,
Pelliciera), or double [Stachyurus) , hypogynous, free or variously coherent at the
base, or adherent to the base of the corolla ; anthers basifixed and erect, or dorsifixed
and versatile, cells parallel, opening by a slit, or sometimes by an apical pore
{Saurauja, Pentaphylax). Ovart free, sometimes more or less buried in the torus
{Anneslea, Visnea), base large and sessile, 3-5- (rarely 2-) celled [Pelliciera), or many-
celled {Anthodiscus, Omphalocarpum, &c.) ; styles as many as cells, free or more or
less connate ; stigmas pointed or obtuse ; ovules 2-oo in each cell, rarely solitary,
erect, or horizontal and anatropous, or pendulous and anatropous, or campylo-
tropous, sometimes fixed laterally and semi-anatropous. Fruit fleshy or coriaceous
and indehiscent, or a loculicidal or septicidal capsule. Seeds numerous or few,
fixed to the inner angle of the cells on projecting fleshy or spongy placentas ; albu-
men often scanty or 0, rarely copious {Actinidia, Saurauja, Stachyurus). Embryo
straight, curved or coiled; cotyledons sometimes semi-cylindric, continuous with the
radicle, but shorter, sometimes larger, flat, crumpled, folded lengthwise, or thick
and fleshy.

Tribe I.' BEIZOBOLEJEJ.

Petals imbricate, or united in a cap. Anthers dorsifixed, sub-versatile.
Fruit indehiscent. Seeds solitary in the cells ; albumen or very scanty ; radicle
superior, very large, bent at top, or coiled ; cotyledons minute. — Leaves digitate.,
Eacemes terminal. GENEEA.

Caryocar. Anthodiscus.

Tribe II. TEBWSTRCEMIEJE.

Petals imbricate. Anthers basifixed. Fruit rarely dehiscent. Seeds generally
few; albumen fleshy, usually scanty; embryo inflexed or arched; cotyledons
shorter and not broader than the radicle. — Trees or shrubs. Peduncles one-
flowered. PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Visnea. * Ternstrcemia. Pentaphylax. Adinandra. Cleyera. Freziera. Eurya.

'"These tribes are taken from the ' Genera Plantarum,' omitting Marcgramea, for which see p. 275.— Ed.

T

274 XXXII. CAMELLIACE^.

Tribe III. SAUBAUJEJS.

Petals imbricate. Anthers versatile. Fruit very rarely sub-dehiseent, usually
pulpy. Seeds numerous, small; albumen copious; embryo straight, or slightly
bent, radicle usually longer than the cotyledons. — Trees or upright or twining
shrubs. Peduncles many-flowered.

PBINCrPAL GENERA.
* Saurauja. Actinidia. Stachj'unis.

Tribe IV. GOBBONIEM.

Petals imbricate. Anthers versatile. Fruit loeulicidal (OameZZm, Thea, Stuartia),
or indehiscent {Pelliciera, Omphahcar;pum) . Albumen usually 0, or scanty; cotyle-
dons thick, flat, or crumpled or folded ; radicle short, straight or inflexed. — Trees or
erect shrubs. Peduncles 1-flowered.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
*Stuartia. *Gordoma. * Camellia. *Tliea. Schima. Pyrenaria. Laplacea.

Teibb V. BONNETIE^.

Petals contorted. Anthers versatile or sub-basifixed. Capsule septicidal.
Albumen 0, or very scanty ; embryo straight ; cotyledons large ; radicle short.
— Erect trees. Flowers in terminal panicles or in axillary racemes.

PEINCIPAX GENERA.
Bonnetia. Mahurea. Caraipa. Marila. Kielmeyera.

Camelliacece have many affinities: 1. With polypetalous polyandrous hypogynous families with a
plurilooular ovary (see Sypericinecs and Quttiferm). They scarcely differ from JBixinew, to which they
are united by Coohlospei-mea, except in their ovary with perfect cells, and their exstipulate leaves. They
approach Dipterooarpe(s in the polysepalous calyx, the polypetalous hypogynous corolla with imbricate
sestivation, the polyandry, the several-celled ovary which is broadly sessile or slightly buried in the torus,
the exalbuminous seed, the woody stem and the alternate leaves ; but Dipferocarpece are separated by
their persistent and usually accrescent calyx, their one-celled and one-seeded fruit, their habit, and especi-
ally by their resinous juice. They have also some affinities with Tiliacece, which principally differ in the
valvate calyx. 2. With monopetalous families (see Eiidnem, Styracece and J^benacece). They are further
connected with Sapotece through Eurya and lernstrcemia, whose corolla is monopetalous, imbricate, diplo-
or ti-iplo-stemonous, the fruit a berry, the stem woody, and the leaves alternate and coriaceous; but
Sapotece have extrorse anthers.

Camdliacim principally inhabit tropical America and eastern Asia ; very few are met with in North
America, and one species only ( Visnea Mocoanera) in the Canaries.

Some species of Saurauja and Kielmeyera are mucilaginous and emollient. Oordonia contains an
astringent principle, and is used in tanning leather. The seeds of Camellia japonica, introduced into
Europe in 1739, are valued in eastern Asia on account of the fixed oil which they contain. Its leaves have
a slight tea-like scent. The most important species of this family is the Tea {TJiea cMnensis), which some
authors place in the genus Camellia. Two centuries have not elapsed since Tea was first used in Europe,
and the annual importation now exceeds twenty-two millions of pounds. The stimulating property
of Tea is due to an astringent principle, an azotized substance called theine, and especially a small

XXXIII. MAECaEAVIACETE.

27;-

proportion of slightly narcotic volatile oil ; the leaves also contain a considerable quantity of casein, a very
nutritious substance, vphicli is not soluble in water; whence the Tibetans, after drinldng the infusion eat
the boiled leaves mixed with fat, which forms a substantial food. The two principal Teas of commerce,
green and hlach, belong to the same species ; their difference is simply due to a peculiar preparation of the
leaf before it is dried. Many varieties of green and black Teas are distinguished ; that called Pekoe
is a green tea much prized for its scent, which is given to it by the flowers of Olea fragrans. The Chinese
perfume other teas with various scented flowers, such as the Jasminum Sambcie and Camellia Sesanqtia.
Many attempts have been made to cultivale tea in Brazil and ia Europe, but the produce cannot be
compared with that from China.

XXXIII. MARCGRAVIACE^.

(MjIecgraviace^, Jussieu. — Maecgeavie^, Planchon. — Teenstecemiaoearum tribus,

Benih. and Hoolc. fil.)

Marcgravia vwhellata.
Inflorescence surmounted by saccate bracts.

T 2

■276

XXXIIl. MARCGEAYIACE^.

Marcgntria.

Afarcgravui.

Pistil cut vertically

Transverse

(mag.).

section of ovary.

Marcr/ravia.

Seed, cntii-e and cut vertically

(inag.).

Mavcgraria. .

Soptnm and placenta

coveted with seeds (mag.)*

Ifarcgravia umliellata. Umbel oJ: friiite.

Trees or unarmed SHEtrBS, erect, climbing, or . epiphytal. Leaves alternate,
simple, penninerved, entire, glabrous, sliining, jointed to tbe branches, exstipulate.
Flowers ? , regular, in umbels, racemes or terminal spikes ; peduncles jointed at the
base, usually furnished with bracts, which are sometimes saccate or hooded and
petioled ; hradeoles at the base of the calyx, minute and resembling an outer calyx,
or 0. Calyx of 2-3-5-6 subequal sepals, distinct or slightly connate at the base,
imbricate, coriaceous, usually coloured, deciduous. Petals imbricate, inserted on
the receptacle, free or connate at the base, equal and alternate with the sepals ; or
more numerous, united into a cap which circumscisses at the base. Stamens
inserted either below the ovary, or on the edge of a flat disk girding the base of the
ovary, very rarely equal and opposite to the sepals {Buyschia), generally more
numerous {Marcgravia); filaments free or connate at the base, sometimes adnate to
the base of the petals ; anthers introrse, ovoid, linear or oblong, basifixed, cells
opposite, contiguous, opening longitudinally. Ovart sessile, free, sometimes girt at
its base by the staminiferous disk, 3-5-many-celled ; stigma sessile or subsessile,
radiating; ovules numerous, attached to the fleshy and projecting lobes of the

XXXIV. DIPTEEOCAEPE^. 277

ascending or horizontal placentas. Fruit indeliiscent, or opening gradually at its
base, loculicidal, valves semi-septiferous {Ruyschia). Seeds few, sunk in the fleshy
placentas, ascending, oblong ; testa areolate, hilum lateral, endopleura membranous.
Embryo exalbuminous, subclavate, straight or slightly arched ; cotyledons obtuse ;
radicle-long, conical, acute, near the hilum, inferior.

GENEKA.
Ruyschia. Marcgravia. * Norantea.

This little group is closely allied to the various tribes of Tenistrcemiacecs, and is considered one of
them hy Bentham and Hooker fil. Of these tribes, however, 1, Rhizoholea differ in their versatile anthers,
superior radicle, and opposite and digitate leaves ; 2, Ternstroimieis differ in their one-flowered peduncle ;
3, Sawau/ecs in their versatile anthers and copious albumen ; and others in their contorted petals and
septicidally dehiscing capsule,^ &c. Maregraviacece- are also distinguished by their sessile radiating
stigma, and especially by the singular conformation of their bracts, saccate in Marcgravia, and hooded in
Norantea. They are also very near Guttiferai, from which they are onlj' separated by their basiflxed
anthers, their alternate leaves, and their saccate bracts.

Maregraviacece inhabit tropical America. The root, stem, and leaves of M. umbellata are renowned
West Indian diuretics and antisyphilitics.

XXXIV. DIPJEROCARPEyE;' Blume.

[Trees, rarely shrubs, often gigantic, exuding a resinous juice, rarely climbing
(Ancistrocladus). Leaves alternate, penninerved, quite entire, rarely . crenate ;
stipules small or large, caducous or persistent, sometimes sheathing and leaving an
annular scar on the branch. Flowers regular, 5 , often odorous, in axillary pani-
cles, ebracteate or with minute deciduous rarely large persistent bracts. Caltx
in flower free and campanulate, rarely short or adnate to the torus or base of the
ovary ; segments 6, imbricate when young, sometimes sub-valvate in age ; fruiting
calyx enlarged, segments unaltered, or 2 or all foliaceous or variously expanded.
Petals 5, strongly contorted, free or connate at the base. Stamens either oo oo -
seriate, or 15 2-seriate, or 10 in pairs, 5 exterior and 5 interior, or 5 or 10 1 -seriate,
inserted on a hypogynous or sub-perigynous torus ; filaments short, often dilated at the
base, free or connate at the base, or cohering with the petals ; anthers erect, 2-celled,
dehiscence introrse or lateral, cells equal or one smaller, connective sometimes
acuminate or aristate. Ovary inserted by a broad base or sub-immersed, 3- (rarely
1- or 2-)celled ; style subulate or thickened ; stigma simple or 3-lobed ; ovules in pairs,
pendulous or laterally attached, anatropous with superior micropyle and ventral
raphe, or 1 or more erect in the 1-celled ovaiy. Fruit free or adnate to the calyx,
1- (rarely 2-) seeded, indehiscent or at length 3-valved. Seed usually inverted,
rarely erect, testa thin, albumen 0; cotyledons either thick and equal or unequal,
straight or lobed and plaited, or thin and corrugated; radicle next the hilum, either
short and exserted, or long and included in a fold of the cotyledons.

' This is an error: Qordoniece are loculicidal, and have imbricate petals like Marcgraviece. — Ed.
' This order is omitted in the original. — Ed.

278 XXXV. CHL^NACE^.

PEINCIPAL GE^fERA.

Dryobalanops. Dipterocarpus. Anisoptera. Vatica. Lophira. Shorea.

Hopea. Dovua. Vateria. Monoporandra. ? Anoistrocladus.

Diptei-ocarpece are allied to Tiliacecs and Ternstrosmiacece, differing from bott in tbeir resinous juice,
from the former in their imbricate calyx, and from the latter in their enlarged fruiting calyx and solitary
exalbuminous seed. The remarkable Indian and African genus Ancistrocladus, which is a climber, has
little affinity with the rest of the order, and has been referred to TerebinthacecB by Thwaites, and
doubtfully placed near Gynocarpeca by Oliver.

All are natives of the hot damp forests of India and the Malayan islands, except a few African species.
Many i3«))<e)'oear^e« are valued for their magnificent timber; as the Sal (Sliorea ?'o5MSiB), which also
yields the Dammar resin, called Hal or Dhooma in India. The famous Borneo camphor is the produce of
Dryobalanops Camphora ; it is found in the form of yellow rectangular prisms in fissures of the wood, and
is chiefly exported to China, where it is employed as a tonic and aphrodisiac ; in Borneo itself it is used
as a diuretic and in nephritic affections, and as a popular remedy for rheumatism. The tree yielding this
drug is the noblest in the Bornean forests, attaining 130 feet in height, with gigantic buttresses. The
wood is dense and hard, and preferred to all others for boat planks; it is reddish and fragrant when first
cut ; the flowers are deliciously fragrant, and the leaves give a blue tinge to water.

The resin of Dipterocaipiis triiiervis is made into piasters,, as also into a tincture with alcohol, and
into an emulsion with eggs, useful in diseases of the mucous membrane. The Javanese smear the resin
on plantain leaves, and thus make torches which yield a white light and have no unpleasant smell.
Dammar resin is also yielded by Vatica baccifera and Tmnhuijaia, Vateria indica yields the Indian Copal,
Piney varnish, or white Dammar, sometimes called Indian Animi, which is also used as a medicine and
made into candles. Wood-oil is the produce of various species of Dipte?-ocarpus, as Icdvis, angiiMifoliits,
zeylaniciu, Mspidm. Dovua zeylanica exudes a colourless gum-resin, much used in Ceylon as a varnish. —
Ed.]

XXXV. CHL^ENACE^tE,^ Thoicar.9.

[Shetjbs or TREES. Leaves alternate, quite entire, coriaceous, penninerved,
folded in bud ; stipules or very caducous. Floweks § , regular, in dichotomous
cymes or panicles, bracteolate or involucellate. Sepals 3, free, imbricate. Petals
6-6, contorted in bud, free, hypog-ynous. Stamens lO-oo , inserted witbin an entire
or toothed cup ; filaments filiform ; anthers versatile, dehiscing longitudinally, con-
nective often produced. Ovaet 3-celled ; style long, simple ; stigma 3-lobed ; ovules
2 pendulous, or oo horizontal in each cell, anatropous. Capsule loculicidally 3-
valved, or by arrest 1-celled and 1-seeded. Seeds pendulous or sub-horizontal; testa
coriaceous; albumen fleshy or horny. Embeyo straight; cotyledons leafy, flat or
plaited ; radicle superior.

GENERA.
Sarcoloena. Leptolaana. Schizolsena. Rhodolajna.

A small and little known Madagnscan order, allied to TiliacecB, but with imbricate sepals ; also allied
to TernUrceviiacece, but distinguished by the stipules, inflorescence, staminal cup, and uniformly contorted
petals. From Dipterocarpece it differs in having albuminous seeds.

Xothing is known of the uses of this order. — Ed.]

' This order is omitted in the original, and is Bupplied here from the ' Genera Plantarum.'— Ed.

XXXVI. MALVACEAE.

279

XXXVI. MALVACE^.

(Malvaoe-^, Jussieu, Br., Kunihy BartUng, Li/ndl.)

Mallow,
AxLdrceciuiu (mag.)<

Mallow.
Pistil and calyx.

Mallow.

Mallow.

Carpel cut vertically

Mallow.

Mallow.

MaUow

(Malva sylvestris.)

(mag.).

Seed (mag.).

Embryo (mag.).

Pniit.

Mallow. Mallow.

Part of ovary cut transversely (mag.). Calyx and calycula.

Ma.llow.
Calyx and calycula

Lavatera.
"Vertical section of ovary

280

XXXVI. MALVACE^.

AUhcea.
Flower cut vertically.

Plagianthus (Philippodendfon).
Andrcecmm and petals.

AllJiaa.
Calyx and pistil.

Plagianthus.
Part of audrcecium with one petal.

Plagianthus.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Althaa officinalis.

Calyx generally 5 - lohed,
valvate. Petals contorted, equal
and alternate with the calyx-
lohes, hypogynous, hases very often
adnate to the staminal tube.
Stamens oo , hypogynous ; fila-
ments more or less monadelphous,
alternate or opposite to the calyx-
lohes ; anthers 1-celled, pollen
echinulate. Ovabt of many carpels, whorled or agglomerated into a head. Fetjit
usually dry, rarely a berry. Seeds reniform, ascending, horizontal or pendulous ; albumen
scanty. '• Embeto curved; cotyledons folded on each other.

Heebb, shetjbs, or teees, -with light and soft wood. Leaves alternate, simple,
usually palminerved, entire or palmUobed, hairs usually stellate; stipules 2, lateral,
persistent or deciduous. Elcwees 5 , regular, axillary, solitary or agglomerated,
sometimes in a raceme, corymb, or panicle. Caltx with an involucel of whorled
bracts, rarely naked {Sida, Abutilon), 5-fid or -partite, rarely 3-4-fid, valvate in
Eestivation, persistent or rarely deciduous. Petals equal and alternate with the
calyx-segments, inserted on the receptacle, claw very often adnate to the staminal
tube, limb usually inequilateral, aestivation contorted. Stamens connate in a tube
or column enclosing the ovary with its dilated base, sometimes divided at the top
into segments alternate or opposite to the calyx-lobes, and separating into numerous
antheriferous filaments, sometimes emitting shortly stipitate or sessile anthers from

XXXVI. MALVACE^. 281

its outer surface; anthers reniform, simple, 1-celled, opening in 2 valves by a semi-
circular slit ; pollen echinulate. Otaet sessile, composed of 5 or more carpels, rarely
3-4, sometimes whorled around a more or less developed central axis, sometimes
dilated at the top, sometimes attenuated into a column, free or connate, sometimes
agglomerated into a liead ; styles terminal, united below, stigmatiferous at the top
{Abutilon, Hibiscus, &c.), or throughout their length [Malva, Lavatera, Malope, &c.) ;
ovules one or more on the ventral angle of each carpel, campylotropous or semi-
anatropous, sometimes ascending or horizontal, with a ventral or superior raphe
[Gallirhoe), sometimes pendulous with a dorsal raphe (Sida). Fkttit of several free
cocci, or septicidally splitting into cocci which are indehiscent or ventrally dehiscent,
sometimes a loculicidal capsule^ with 6, 3, or several septiferous valves ; very rarely
fleshy {Malvaviscus). Seeds reniform; testa crustaceous, usually wrinkled, sometimes
hairy {Gossypium, Fugosia, Hibiscus), rarely pulpy; albumen mucilaginous, scanty or 0.
Embeto curved; cotyledons foliaceous, plaited, or variously contorted; radicle next
the hilum, inferior in the ascending seeds, bent upwards in the pendulous ones.

Teibe I. MALOPE^.

Calyx involucelled, or rarely naked. Carpels numerous, l-celled, 1-ovuled, joined
into a capitulum, separating from the axis when ripe.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
* Malope. 'Kitaibelia. *PalaTa.

Tribe II. MALVEM.

Calyx involucelled. Carpels 5-qo , whorled, separating from the axis when ripe,
or united into a capsule with several cocci.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
* Althaea. * Lavatera. * Malva. * Sphseralcea. *Pavonia. "Goethea.

Tribe III. HIBISGEJE.

Calyx involucelled. Carpels 3-5-10, united into a loculicidal capsule, rarely inde- .
hiscent {Thespesia), or berried {Malvaviscus).

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
'Hibiscus. •Malvaviscus. *Lagunaria. * Gossypium.

Tribe IV. SIBEM.

Calyx naked. Carpels 5-oo , rarely 1-2 {Plagianthus), whorled, united into a
loculicidal capsule of many cocci.

PRINCIPAL GENERA. '

*Sida, * Abutilon. * Plagianthus.

282 XXXVI. MALVACE^.

[As the above enumeration omits Bombacew, I have given the following descrip-
tion of the tribes and genera of this extensive family, which is that adopted in the
' Genera Plantarum.'

Teibe 1. Malvej!. — Staminal column antheriferous to tbe top. Styles as many as ovarian
cells. Carpels separating from the axis (except Bastardia and Eointtia). Cotyledons folia-
ceous, folded or contorted.

Sub-tribe 1. Malopej!. — Carpels oo , densely congested ; ovule 1, ascending. Malope,
Kitaihelia, Palava.

Sub-tribe 2. EuMALVEiB. — Carpels in one -whorl ; ovule 1, ascending. AUlicea, Lavatera,
Malva, GalirrJioe, Sidalica, Malvastrum.

Sub-tribe 3. Side^;. — Carpels in one whorl ; ovule 1, pendulous. Plagianihus, Hoheria,
Anoda, Crist aria, Gay a, Sida, Bastardia.

Sub-tribe 4. ABUTiLEa;. — Carpels in one whorl ; ovules 2-oo (except one species of
Wissadula). Hoivittia, Kydia, Wissadula, Alutilon, Spliairrhea, Modiola.

Tribe II. Ueene^. — Staminal column truncate or toothed, anthers on its outer surface.
Style-branches 10. Carpels 5, separating from the axis. Cotyledons of Malvese. Malaalioa,
Urena, Pavonia, Ooetliea, Malvaviscus.

Teibe III. IIibisce.5:. — Staminal column of Ureneae. Styles as many as the ovarian cells.
Carpels loculicidal, persistent. Cotyledons of Malvese. Kosielclyhya, BesascJiista, Hibiscus,
Lagunaria, Fugosia, Thespesia, Qossypium, &c.

Teibe IV. BoMBACEiE. — Staminal column 5-8-cleft at the top, or rarely to the base,
rarely entire. Anthers free, reniform, or cells adnate, globose, linear, oblong, or contorted.
Style entire or with as many branches as ovarian cells. Capsule loculicidal or indehiscent,
carpels usually persistent. Cotyledons variable. — Trees.

Sub-tribe 1. AoANSONiEiE. — Leaves digitate. Bracteoles distinct or 0. Cotyledons
crumpled or convolute. Adansonia, Pacliira, Bomiax, Eriodendron, Ghorisia.

Sub-tribo 2. Matiscie^. — Leaves simple, 3-6-nerved. Bracteoles distinct or 0. Petals
6. Cotyledons twisted or convolute. Hampia, Gavanillesia, Matisia, Ochroma.

Sub-tribe 3. Eeemontiej!. — Leaves of Matisciere. Petals 0. Anthers 5 2-celled, or 10
1-celled, adnate in pairs to ihe branches of the staminal column. Cotyledons flat. (Probably
a tribe of 8terculiacecB.}

Sub-tribe 4. Dueione^. — Leaves simple, penninerved, quite entire, lepidote beneath.
Flowers involucellate. Fruit muricate. Cotyledons various. Gullenia, Durio, Boschia,
Neesia, &c. — Ed.]

Malvacece are closely allied to Steradiacea: and Tiliacece (see these families). They are so near
Bombacea that Bentham and Hooker fil. have united them ; having separated them from Stm-cuUacere on
account of their one-celled antheis, which are only apparently two-celled in certain genera in which they
are united in pairs; whereas StercuUacecs, whose anthers are apparently one-celled, are so throuo'h the
confluence of the cells. In Bomhacea the staminal column is more or less deeply divided into 5-8
branches, each hearing 2-co anthers, sometimes free and reniform {Adansonia), sometimes adnate, globose
{Caehstegia), or linear {Matisia), or sinuous {Ochroma); the capsule is loculicidal or indehiscent; the
cotyledons are coiled {Ochroma), or folded and contorted {Adansonia, Bombax, &c.), or flat {Cheirostemon).
Malvacece have also some vegetative characters in common with TJrticecB.

XXXVII. STEECULIACE^. 283

To the normal monogjnoiis or digynoua species of Playiarvthm have been joined Philippodmdron, of
Poiteau, a plant remarkable for the tenacity of its liber iibres.' Malvacem are essentially tropical, diminish-
ing rapidly as they recede from the equator, and they are move numerous in the northern tropics and in
America than in the Old World.

An emollient mucilage abounds in most of the species ; some contain free acids, and are employed as
refreshing drinks ; others are classed among stimulants, on account of a contained hydrocarbon, which
acts on the mucilage. The seeds contain a fixed oil, and their testa is often woolly ; the bark of many is
very tenacious. The leaves and flowers of Mallows (Maha sylvestris and rotundifolid)^ the root and
flowers of Guimauve {Althcea officinalis) and of Althaa rosea are emollients. Those Mal'vacecB which
have acid juice are principally the white and red Ketmies, Oscilles de Ouinee {Hibiscus Sahdanjfa and
digitatus), natives of tropical Africa, but now cultivated throughout the tropics on account of the free
oxalic acid which exists in their mucilage. S. escukntus is a widely difiused tropical annual; its green
capsule is largely consumed, either by dissolving its mucilage in boiling water, to thicken soups, or else
cooked and seasoned. Tlie root of the Indian Pavonia odorata is aromatic and a febrifuge. That of Sidn
lanceolata is praised by the Indians as a stomachic. Hibiscus Abelmoschus is an annual herb, a native of India
and Egypt, which has been introduced into the Antilles ; its seeds {graina d'Ambretta)ha,Ye a powerful musky
principle, used by perfumers. Hibiscus Sosa- Sinensis contains a colouring principle in its flowers which
tlie Chinese make use of to blacken their shoes and eyebrows. AltJiwa Cannabina, a native of South
Europe, has tenacious fibres like hemp, as which it is used. The genus Gossypium consists of herbs or
shrubs, whose capsule contains numerous ovoid seeds with a spongy testa covered with woolly hairs called
Cotton, easily spun, and the source of an immense commerce between the' two worlds. These plants are
indigenous throughout the tropics, but their cultivation has been gradually extended into temperate
latitudes. The principal species, G. herbaceum, from Upper Egypt ; G. arboreum and religiosum, from
India ; G. pei-uvianum and hirsutum, from the New World, &c., are as yet imperfectly defined. Cotton
was known in Egypt in the earliest times. Cotton seeds further yield by expression a fixed oil,
which is used for burning, cattle food, and for the manufacture of soap. Among Boinbaceca, the Durian
produces a large foetid fruit, the flavour of which is pronounced to be unequalled, after habit has over-
come its dL'gusting smell. The Baobab has an oblong fruit, the size of a melon, filled with acidulous
white pulp, much sought by the negros as a preservative from dysentery ; its balk is a febrifuge.

Bombdcem are all arborescent, and principally tropical, and include some of the largest trees in the
Vegetable Kingdom ; as Bombax; Adansonia, Pachira, Burio, Neesia, &o. The most remarkable is the
Baobab (Adansonia digitata), a tree of tropical Africa, introduced into Asia and America ; the thickness
of its trunk is enormous, sometimes attaining 100 feet in circumference. Adanson observed in the Cape
de Verd Islands Baobabs which had been measured by travellers three centuries before, and from the
little growth they had made during that period he calculated that their age must be more than 6,000
years. [Such estimates are altogether fallacious ; the Baobab is now well known to be a very fast-
growing and short-lived tree. — Eb.]

XXXVII. STERCULIACE.E.

(Steeouliacb^, Ventenat. — Stbeculiacejs et Buttneeiace.*), Endlicher.)

Calyx 5-4!-3-merous, valvate. Cokolla 0, or petals as many as the calyx- lobes,
hypogynous. Stamens equal and opposite to the petals, or multiple, often mixed with
staminodes opposite to the calyx-lobes ; filaments variously coherent ; anthers extrorse.
Carpels distinct or more or less united. Ovules ascending or horizontal, anatropous
cr orthotropous. Fetjit usually a capsule. Embeto straight or arched, albuminous or
exalbuminous.

' No more so than the other species of Flagianthus. — Eb.

2S4

XXXVII. STERCULIACE^.

't \.

Jiutlneria gi'acUipcs.

llermannia.
Diagram, showing the stamens enveloped
by the base of the petals.

7 >

27ieobroma Cacao.
Fruit, one-third natural size.

Jlermannia.

Heinnannia.

Tlieobromci.

Petal

Styles

Seid, entire and cut verticttUy

(mag ).

joined at the top.

(mag.).

Hermann id.

llermannia.

Hsrmannia,

llermannia.

Diagi'am of corolla twisted to

Dia3:i-am of corolla twisted to

Ovule

Stamen, outer

the right.

the left.

(mag.).

face (mag.).

lleniHinnia.
Stameiij inner
face (mag.).

XXXVII. STEECULIACE^.

285

Teees or SHRUBS ■witL. soft wood, erect, sometimes climbing perennial or annual
[Ayenia) herbs, pubescent with starred or forked bairs, often mixed with simple
hairs, rarely scaly. Leaves alternate, sometimes simple, penninerved or palmi-
nerved ; sometimes digitate with 3-9 leaflets. Stipules free, deciduous, rarely folia-
ceous and persistent, very rarely {Lasiopetalum) . Flowers regular, 5 , or

unisexual : inflorescence very various, usually axillary. Calyx usually persistent,
5-4-3-fid, or of 5 free sepals, aestivation valvate. Corolla 0, or petals hypo-
gynous, free, or adnate by their base to the stamina! tube, aestivation imbricate,
convolute or contorted. Stamekts very various ; filaments more or less connate into
a tubular or urceolate column : (1) staminal tube divided at the top into 5 teeth or
tongues [staminodes) alternate with the petals, and bearing in the intervals
between the staminodes l-2-5-oo anthers opposite to the petals, stipitate or sub-
sessile {Buttneria) ; (2) staminodes 0, anthers numerous, many-seriate, inserted on the
column from the middle to the top {EriolcBna), or 1-seriate at the top of the cup

286 XXXVIl. STERCULIACE^.

{Astiria) ; (3) anthers adnate to tlie top of the column, and arranged in a ring or
without order {Sterculia) ; (4) fertile stamens 5, free or nearly so, opposite to the
petals, without staminodes, or alternating with 5 staminodes opposite to the sepals
{Seringia) ; anthers extrorse, of 2 parallel or diverging cells, very rarely confluent at
the top {Helicteres) , sometimes dehiscing at the top by 2 pores or small slits {Lasio-
petalum, Guichenotia) . Ovaet free, sessile or suhstipitate, 4-5- (or rarely 10-12-
celled, sometimes of 4-5 (rarely more or fewer) connate or distinct carpels {Seringia) ;
styles as many as the cells, distinct or more or less connate; ovules 2-oo (rarely 1)
in each cell, fixed to the inner angle, ascending or horizontal, anatropous or semi-
anatropous, raphe ventral or lateral, micropyle inferior, rarely orthotropous {Sterculia
Balanghas). Fettit dry, or rarely fleshy {Theobroma) , carpels sometimes united into
a loculicidal or woody indehiscent capsule, sometimes dividing into follicles or
2-valved cocci. Seeds globose or ovoid, sometimes compressed and prolonged above
into a membranous wing, shortly strophiolate, or more often naked; testa coriaceous
or crustaceous, sometimes covered with a succulent epidermis {Sterculia) ; albumen
fleshy, often thin or 0. Embryo straight or arched, sometimes dividing the albumen
into 2 parts {Sterculia) ; cotyledons usually foliaceous, flat, or folded and crumpled,
or convolute, rarely fleshy ; radicle short, inferior, pointing to the hilum, or not.

Tribe I.' LASIOPETALEJ^.

Elowers g . Calyx petaloid. Petals 0, or scale-like, flat, shorter than the sepals.
Stamens slightly monadelphous at the base, 5 fertile, alternate with the sepals ;
staminodes 5 or fewer, opposite to the sepals, sometimes 0; anthers incumbent,
with parallel cells, or opening at the top by 2 pores. Carpels free, or united into a
3-5-celled ovary ; ovules 2 or 8 in each cell, ascending. Seeds strophiolate ; albu-
men fleshy. Embryo straight or slightly bent, axile ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat.

PKINCIPAL GENERA.
Seringia. Guichenotia. *Thomasia. *Lasicpetalum. Keraudrenia.

Tribe II. BUTTNERIEJ<J.

Flowers ^ . Petals sessile or clawed, concave or hooded, often produced and
tongue-shaped. Staminal tube lobed, some lobes 1-3-antheriferous, opposite to the
petals, the others sterile (staminodes), opposite to the sepals. Ovary of 5-2- (or
more) ovuled cells. Fruit usually a loculicidal or septicidal capsule. Seeds straight
or arched, naked or strophiolate. ' Embryo albuminous or exalbuminous, straight or
curved ; cotyledons sometimes flat and foliaceous, or coiled or crumpled.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Commersonia. *Buttneria. * Theotroma. Guazuma.

Aljroma. Herranea. Ayenia. Ruliugia.

' These tvibes are taken, in inverse order, from the ' Genera Plantarnm.'— -Ed.

XXXVII. STERCULIACEtE. 287

Teibe III. HEBMANNIEJE.

Flowers g . Petals flat^ marcescent, linear, and sometimes convolute (Visenia).
Stamens more or less monadelphous, equal and opposite to the petals ; staminodes 0,
or rarely toothed. Ovary of 1 or several l-oo -ovuled cells. Capsule loculicidal.
Seeds obovoid or reniform ; albumen fleshy. Embryo axile, straight or arched ;
cotyledons foliaceous, flat.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

* Hermannia. *Mahernia. *Meloeliia. Waltheria.

TkibeIV. DOMBEYE^.

Elowers ^ . Petals flat, often marcescent. Anthers 10-20 with parallel cells,
inserted at or near the top of a shortly urceolate or rarely elongated column ; stami-
nodes 5 or 0. Ovary sessile, with 5 or more 2-many-ovuled cells. Capsule loculi-
cidal or septicidal. Albumen fleshy, scanty. Cotyledons foliaceous, often 2-fid, or
folded and contorted, rarely flat.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
*Pentapetes. "Dombeya. 'Astrapeea. Trochetia. Astiria. Melhania.

Teibe V. EUIOL^NEM.

Flowers ^ . Petals flat, deciduous. Anthers numerous, multiseriate, stipitate,
inserted on the column from the middle to the top ; staminodes 0. Ovary of 6-10
many-ovuled cells. Capsule loculicidal. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, axile.

ONLY GENUS.
Eriolsena.

Teibe VI. HELIGTEBE^.

Flowers S. Petals 6, deciduous. Anthers 5-16, sessile, or stipitate on the top
of an elongated column, alternating in five groups with as many staminodes, or shorter
or longer teeth of the column. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight or arched.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Helicterea. Reevesia. Kleinhovia. Petrospermum. Myrodia.

Teibe VII. STERCVLIEJU.

Flowers diclinous or polygamous. Calyx often coloured. Corolla 0. Anthers
sometimes 5-15, adnate on the top of a short or elongated column, sometimes
shortly polyadelphous or 1 -seriate in a ring; pollen smooth. Eipe carpels free,
sessile, or shortly stipitate. Seeds albuminous or exalbuminous.

'288 XXXVIII. TILIACE^.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
*Sterculia. Heritiera. Tarrietia. Cola.

The atove-named tribes, united into one family by Ventenat, and then divided into two, have again
been united by Benthara and Hooker fil. They are closely allied on the one hand to Mahacem, on the
other to TiliacecB ; they a];e distinguished from the first by their two-celled anthers and their generally
smooth pollen, and from the second by their extrorse anthers, alternate with the epals when definite,
or monadelphous when indefinite. Tremandrea, which we have annexed to T'olygale(S (see p. 249),
and which approach the tribe of Ladopetalea in the sestivation of the calyx, the apical dehiscence of the
extrorse anthers, the two ovuled ovary cells, the anatropous ovules, the fleshy albumen, the straight axile
embryo, are separated by the free filaments, the simple stigma, the pendulous ovule with superior
micropyle, the exstipulate leave.«, &c.

Stereidiacecs belong to tropical and subtropical regions. The tribe of Lasiopetalem inhabits Australia
and Madagascar. Some Bxittneriece are common to the tropics of both continents {BvUneria, Guazuma),
others are peculiar to America (Theohroma), or Asia (Abroma), or Australia and Madagascar (Ridingia).
Commersonia is Australian and tropical American ; Hti-manniecB principally South Afiican ; Dombei/eie
inhabit the hot regions of Asia and Africa. Eriolrsna is exclusively an Asiatic genus, as are most
HelicterecB ; although Helicteres itself belongs to both continents, Vngeria to Norfolk Island, and Myrodia
to America. The tribe of StermdiecB is dispersed over the tropical zone ; Sterculia is almost whoUy
Asiatic, there being but few African or American species. The known species of Cola are all from
Africa. Heritiera is tropical Asiatic and Australian.

Stereuliacea;, like Makacece, contain an abundant mucilage, combined, in the old bark of the woody
species, with a bitter astringent extractable matter, and are stimulants and emetics. The seeds are oily.
The fleshy envelope of the seed of Sterculia is eatable ; their seeds, oily and slightly acrid, are used for
seasoning food ; their bark is strongly astringent, and some species produce a gum analogous to tragacanth.

The most important species of ButtnmecB is the Theohroma Cacao, an American tree, cultivated in
Asia and Africa. The seeds, which are enveloped in pulp, contain a fixed and solid oil {cocoa hitter), a
red colouring matter, a substance analogous to tannin, a gum, and a crystallizable azotized principle, called
theohromine. The dried and split cotyledons of its seeds are called cocoa-nibs ; and when ground and
made into a paste, chocolate, which is rendered more digestible by being flavoured with vanilla or
cinnamon. The mucilaginous astringent fruit of Guazuma is used in America for skin diseases. Its
sugary and eatable pulp is fermented, and furnishes a kind of beer. Many species of Buttneria,
WaUheria and Pterosperinum are used in America and Asia as emollients. The bitter and fcetid root of
Helicteren Sacarotlm is a reputed stomachic in Brazil, and its bark is frequently used in syphilitic afiec-
tions.

XXXVIII. TILIACEJS.
(TiliacejE, Jussieu. — Bl.<eocaepe^, Jussieu, — El./EOCaepace^, Lindl.)

Caltx valvate, deciduous. Petals 4-5, hypogynous, wstivaUon contorted, imbri-
cate or valvate. Stamens double or multiple the number of the petals, all fertile, or the
outer sterile, free, or in bundles ; anthers 2-celled. Fruit dry or fleshy. Embeto
generally alhuminoiis. — Stem woody, or very rarely herbaceous. Leaves stipulate,
usually alternate.

Teees or SHETiBS, rarely heebs. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite or sub-oppo-
site (Plagiopteron) simple, penninersred or palminerved, entire or palmilobed, crenu-
late or dentate, very often coriaceous, reticulate beneath ; stipules 2, free, deciduous
or rarely persistent. Flowbes § , very rarely imperfect, regular, axillary or terminal,

XXXVIII. TILIACE^.

289

Lime. (Tilia Europaea.)

Lime.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Lime,
Embryo laid open (mag.).

Lime. Diagram.

Lime.

Transverse section of ovary

(mag.).

Lime.
Fiowering and brapfceate peduncle.

Lime.
Stamen, outer
face (mag.).

Lime.
Seed, entire and cut
vertically (mag.).

Vailed.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

U

290

XXXVIII. TILIACE^.

Elaeocarpus lanceolatus.

McEOcarpus.

Flower cut vertically

(mag.).

JEloeocarpus,

Seed

cut vertically

(mag.).

Elosocm^pus.

Elaeocarpus.

EloEocai'pus.

Elceocarpvs.

Transverse section of

Seed cut

"'lower (mag,).

Petal (mag.).

ovary (mag.).

transversely (mag.)

solitary or in small cymes, corymbs, or panicles. Sepals 6, rarely 4-3, free or
connate, usually valvate, very rarely imbricate {Bopalocarpus, Echinocarpus). Petals

XXXVIII. TILIACEiE. 291

as many as sepals, inserted around the base of the torus, entire or cut, aestivation
contorted or variously imbricate, induplicate or valvate, very rarely gamopetalous
[Antholoma). Stamens usually indefinite, rarely double the number of the sepals
{Triumfetta, Gorchorus), sometimes 10-seriate on the top of a stipitiform torus and
distinct from the petals, sometimes covering the whole surface of a discoid torus,
sometimes inserted around the edge of the torus next the petals or enveloped by
them ; filaments free, or connate into a ring or 5-10 bundles, filiform, all antheri-
ferous, or some not {8parmannia, Luhea, DiplodiscAts, &c.), sometimes irritable
{8]parmannia) ; anther-cells parallel, contiguous, dehiscing longitudinally, or at the
top by a pore or transverse slit {Elceocarpus, Sloanea, Vallea, Aristotelia, &c.), rarely
divergent and confluent at the top {Brownlowia, Bvplodiscus) . Ovaet free, sessile,
2-10-celled ; style simple ; stigmas as many as cells, free or connate, sometimes
sessile (Carpodiptera, Mv/ntingia) ; ovules attached to the inner angle of the cells,
solitary or geminate, pendulous from the top of each cell, or ascending from the
base; sometimes few, inserted at the middle of the cell, sometimes numerous,
2-many-seriate, anatropous or sub-anatropons, raphe ventral or lateral. Feuit of
2-10 cells, or 1-celled by suppression, or many-celled by false septa, sometimes inde-
liiscent, nutlike (Tilia), or a drupe [Grewia, Eloeocarpus) , rarely a berry {Aristotelia,
Muntingia) ; sometimes separating into cocci {Colombia) ; sometimes loculicidally
dehiscent, rarely septicidally {Duhouzetia) . Seeds solitary or numerous in each cell,
ascending or pendulous or horizontal, exarillate, ovoid or angular ; testa usually
coriaceous or crustaceous, often velvety; endopleura sometimes hardened at the
chalaza ; albumen fleshy, copious or thin, rarely {Brownlowia) ; cotyledons folia-
ceous, flat, entire or lobeAfrndicle inferior or superior or centripetal.

Section I. TILIEM.

Petals entire, or very rarely emarginate, aestivation imbricate, or more often

contorted.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Bro-wnlowia. *Grewia. *Triumfetta. *Sparmannia. *Corchorus.

Luhea. *Tilia. Apeiba. Vallea.

Section II. EL^OGABPEJE.

Petals often cut, sometimes entire {Dubouzetia) or 0, usually pubescent, aestiva-
tion valvate or induplicate, never contorted. Stamens some in groups opposite to
the petals, the others solitary and alternate.

PRINCIPAL G-ENERA.

ProcHa. Hasseltia. Sloanea. 'Aristotelia. *El8eocarpua. *Monocera.

[The following tribes of this extensive family have been proposed in the 'Genera
Plantarum ' : —

Series A. Holopetalese. — Petals usually glabrous, membranous, contracted at the base
or clawed, rarely notched, usually contorted.

u 2

292 XXXVIII. TILIACB^.

Tbibe I. Browklowie^. — Sepals connate into a 3-6-fid cup. Anthers usually globose
or didymous, cells at length confluent at the tips. Brownlowia, Benga, Ghristiana, &c.

Teibe II. Grewie^. — Sepals distinct. Petals pitted at the base. Stamens inserted at
the top of the torus ; anthers short ; cells parallel, distinct. Grewia, Colombia, Triumfetta,
Seliocarpus.'

Teibe III. Tilieje,— Sepals distinct. Petals not pitted at the base. Stamens inserted
close to the petals. Entelea, Sparmannia, Corcliorus, Luliea, Mollia, Muntingia, Tilia, &c.

Teibe IV. Apeibej:. — Sepals distinct. Petals not pitted at the base. Stamens inserted
close to the petals ; anthers erect, linear, tipped by a membrane, cells parallel. Olyphcea,
Apeiba.

Series 3. Heteropetaleee. — Petals or sepaloid, or incised, often pubescent, not clawed,
valvate, rarely imbricate or contorted.

Tribe V. Peockibji. — Anthers digynous, subglobose, cells dehiscing longitudinally.
Proclcia, Hasseltia.

Teibe VI. Sloanej:. — Anthers linear, cells dehiscing at the top. Torus flat or turgid ;
sepals and petals inserted close to the stamens. Vallea, Sloanea, Echinocarpus, Anilioloma.

Teibe VII. ELEOCAEPEiE. — Anthers linear, cells dehiscing at the top. Petals inserted
around the base of a glandular torus with stamens at its top. Aristotelia, Elceocarpus, Buho^t-
zetia, &c.— Ed.]

Tiliaceis and Elceocarpece, which formerly formed two families, have been xmjted by Endlicher and
Bentham and Hooker fil. ; the latter have joined Prockia to them, which was formerly placed in Bixinece,
hut fronj which they diiFer in their axile placentation. Tiliacem are connected with the tribe Buttnenea
of Sterculicicete by their valvate calyx, their petals which are hypogynous or 0, numerous stamens, fleshy
albumen, woody stem, alternate stipulate leaves, and stellate pubescence ; besides which, in Elceocarpece the
induplicate base of each petal embraces a group of stamens as in Buttiiemeee, though in Hlaocarpe(B there
is further one isolated stamen left opposite each sepal. They are similan|j related to JfafoaceeE, which also
differ in their one-celled anthers. They also approach CameUiacece in polypetalism, hypogyny, polyandry,
the connate filaments, apical dehiscence of the anthers (observable in the genera Saurauja and Penta-
phylax), the several-celled ovary, &c. ; but the valvate aestivation of the calyx separates them. Finally,
tliey have more than one point of analogy with CMeenaceie ; but these are distinguished by their imbricate
calyx, and especially by the uroeolate filaments.

Blost Tiliacea: are tropical ; a few inhabit the temperate northern hemisphere, and some are found
beyond the tropic of Capricorn. Brotonhwia and the allied genera are tropical Asiatic and African ;
Greivia and Corehoiin are natives of the hot parts of the Old "World ; Sparmannia, of tropical and South
Africa ; Luliea, of tropical and subtropical America ; Tilia, of Europe, temperate Asia, and North America ;
Prochia, Hasseltia, Vallea, Sloanea, of tropical America ; Aristotelia, of Chili and New Zealand ; Elao-
carpus, of tropical Asia and Australasia ; Atitholoma and Duhouzetia, of New Caledonia, &c.

The useful species of Tiliaeeis are rather numerous. The inner bark of Tilia parvifolia and grandifolia
(the European Limes) contains an astringent mucilage, which is used in Germany as a vulnerary, and
its tenacious fibres are used for making cord ; the sugary sap of their trunk is fermentable and yields
an agreeable vinous liq^uor ; their wood is easily worked and affords excellent charcoal ; the flowers, of a
balsamic odour, are much used in infusions, and are antispasmodic and diaphoretic, and become astringent
when used with the lajge bract which accompanies them. Triumfetta and Sparmannia africana are
mucilaginous plants, and used as emollients. Throughout the tropics, the young fruits and leaves of
Corchoriis olitoriw, when cooked and seasoned, are used as potherbs ; its seeds are purgative. C. tiidens,
acutangulus, and depi-esstis ai-e also eatable, and the Arabs employ their tenacious cortical fibres for making
cords or coarse mats. [Jute, the fibre of C. capsularis, has of late become the rival of hemp in the Enghsh
market; many thousands of tons being annually imported from India. — Ed.] Grexoia orientalis and
microcos are valuable for their aromatic bitter bark and astringent leaves ; the wood of G. elastica is
much valued on account of its flexibility, which fits it for bow-making. [The fruits of G. microcos and
nm.n&a ara oTatefnl. and extensirelv used fnv sIipvVik): in IVni'tli-wootovn Ti^iHo "Vr„,.;n,,.. «+!■,„,. c«n/.;t,o

XXXIX. LINEiE.

293

yield cordage, and from O. oppositifoUa a paper is made. — Ed.J The bitter and resinous barls; of
Elceocarpus is renowned as a tonic. Their acidulous sugary fruit is eatable, and a stomachic. The kernel^
of several species, which are elegantly marked, are made by the Indians into necklaces and bi'acelets.
[E. Hinau, of New Zealand, yields an excellent dye. — Ed.]

XXXIX. LINEJE.

(LiNEiE, D.C — Linages, LindL)

li'lax.

Transverse sectiou of

ovary (mag.)*

Flax.
Exalbuminous seed,

entire and
cut vertically (mag.) .

U

riax.
(Linum usitatissimnm.)

Plax.
Androecmm and pistil (mag.).

Calyx 5-4-meroMs, imlricate. Petals 5-4, hypogynous, contorted. Stamens
fertile, as many as the petals, with usually as many staminodes. Ovabt of 5—4 2-ovuled
cells. Ovules pendulous, anatropous. Styles 3-5, free. Capsule globose, septicidai.
Seeds more or less albuminous, rarely exalbuminous. Embeyo straight.

Stem sometimes herbaceous, annual or perennial; sometimes sub-woody oi
woody. Leaves alternate or opposite, rarely whorled, simple, sessile, . entire, 1-3
nerved, sometimes biglandular at the base, exstipulate {Linum, Radiola) or with 2
minute lateral stipules, caducous {Beinwardtia) or intra- axillary (Anisadenia),
Flotvees 2 , regular, usually terminal, in racemes, panicles, corymbs^ heads, fascicles
or spikes. Calyx persistent, imbricate in aestivation, of 5 entire sepals, or rarely
4-partite with 3-fid lobes {Badiola). Petals clawed, usually 5, rarely 4 (Radiola),
claw naked, or furnished with a sort of crest {Anisadenia, Beinwardtia), inserted on
the torus, contorted in aestivation, caducous. Stamens equal and alternate with the
petals, sometimes accompanied by as many toothed staminodes opposite to the petals ;
filaments flattened-subulate, usually connate into a short cup furnished on the out-

294 XL. EEYTHEOXYLE^.

side with. 5 little glands, sometimes {Radiola) ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, linear or
oblong, basi- or dorsi-fixed, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovakt usually 6-celled, rarely
4-ceUed {Badiola) or 3-celled [Anisadenia, Eeinwardtia), cells subdivided by a more
or less perfect dorsal septum ; styles 5, rarely 4-3, filiform, free ; stigmas simple,
linear or sub-capitate ; ovules 2-4 ?, pendulous, anatropous. Capsule globose,
enveloped by the persistent calyx and androecium, tipped by the style-base, septici-
dally dehiscing into as many cocci as cells, or into twice as many by the splitting of
each through the dorsal septum. Seeds pendulous, compressed ; testa coriaceous,
shining when dry, and developing in water an abundant mucilage ; albumen copious,
scanty, or 0. Embeto straight ; cotyledons flat ; radicle contiguous and parallel to
the hilum, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

*Linum. Eadiola.

[LinecB, including Erythroxylew, are thus divided in the 'Genera Plantarum' : —

Teibe I. EuLiNE^. — ^Petals contorted, fugacious. Perfect stamens as many as petals.
Capsule septicidal, rarely indehiscent and 1-seeded. Badiola, Linuin, Beinwardtia, Anisadenia.

Teibe II. HuGONiEiE. — Petals contorted, fugacious. Stamens all antheriferous, twice or
thrice the number of petals. Drupe indehiscent. Hugonia, Boucheria.

TsiBE III. EETTHEOXTLEa;. — Petals at length deciduous, imbricate, rarely contorted, with
a villous line or ridge on the inner face. Stamens all antheriferous, twice as many as petals.
Drupe indehiscent. Eri/throxylon, &o.

Teibe IV. Teignanthej;. — Petals persistent, contorted. Stamens twice or more than
twice as many as the petals. Capsule septicidal. Durandea, Sarcotheca, Phyllocosmus, Xoran-
thus, &c. — Ed.]

lAnece are closely related to Erythroxylem, and more or less to Geraniacea and Oxalideee (see those
families). They approach the latter in polypetaliam, hypogynism, contorted corolla, clawed caducous
petals, false diplostemony (Averrhon), filaments connate at the base, 5-celled ovary with pendulous
anatropous ovules, free styles, capitate stigmas, aud capsular fruit; but Oxalidea are separated by their
compound leaves, copious albumen, and usually arillate seed.

The species of Linmn are found in all temperate regions ; Radiola is European and Asiatic ; Mein-
wardtia, tropical Asiatic ; Anisadenia, temperate Himalayan. The common Flax (Linmn usitntisdnmvi)
is one of the most useful of vegetables ; the tenacity of its cortical fibres places it at the head of textile
plants. It is indigenous in the South of Europe and in the East, and its cultivation, which has been
carried on from the oldest times, extends to 54° N. lat. The testa contains an abundant mucilage, and
the embryo a fixed emollient oil, which is very drying (and hence extensively used by painters). Linum
catharticum, an abundant indigenous species, of a slightly bitter and salt taste, was formerly used as a
purgative. L. selaginoides is considered by the Peruvians as a bitter aperient. L. aquilinum, a herb of
Chili, is there looked upon as refreshing and antifebrile. Many species with red, yellow, blue, and
white flowers are ornamental garden plants.

XL. ERYTHROXYLE^, Kunth.

TJndersheubs, sheubs or trees ; branches usually flattened or compressed at
the tip when young. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, simple, entire, generally
glabrous, penninerved, folded lengthwise in bud, and preserving two impressions
parallel to the midrib ; stipules intra-axillary, concave, scarious, scaly, bracteiform

XL. BEYTHEOXYLE^.

295

ErytKroxylon. Erythroxjilon.
Embi-jo Pruit

(mag.). (nat. size)*

Ei'ythroxylon* Eryihroxylon.

Fruit cut Vertical section

transversely (mag.). of seed.

Erythroxylon,
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Erythroxylon.
Dried fruit (mag.).

on the aphyllous peduncles. Flowees ^ , regular, solitary or geminate, or fasci-
cled in the axis of the leaves or stipules ; peduncles 5-angled, gradually thickened at
the top. Calyx persistent, 6-partite, or rarely 5-fidj imbricate. Petals 5, hypogy-
nous, equal, appendiculate above their base within by a double ligule, lamella, or
rib, aestivation usually imbricate, rarely contorted. Stamens 10, inserted on the
receptacle ; filaments flattened at the base, and connate into a short tube, filiform
and free above ; anthers introrse, 2-eelled, ovoid-subglobose, dorsi-fixed, mobile.

296 XLI. OXALIDE^.

dehiscence longitudinal. Ovakt free, 2-3-celled ; styles 3, distinct or connate ;
stigmas 3, capitate ; ovule solitary in the cells, pendulous from the top of the inner
angle, anatropous, often wanting in 1 or 2 cells. Deupb ovoid, angular, 1-celled and
1-seeded by suppression. Seed inverted, testa coriaceous. Embeto straight, in
the axis of a cartilaginous scanty albumen ; cotyledons elliptic or linear, flat, folia-
ceous ; radicle short, cylindric, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENUS.
Erytliroxj'lon.

ErythroxylecB are closely related to Linem, differing only in their always appendioulate and diploste-
monous petals, tlieir drupaceous fruit and woody stem. They are near Malpighiacece in hypogynistn,
diplostemony, connate filaments, ovary cells with one pendulous ovule, 'distinct styles, woody stem, and
stipulate leaves ; but in MalpighiacecB many of the stamens are often suppressed, and the petals have long
. claws and no appendages, and the stipules are at the base of the petiole. The same afiinity exists with
8apindacece, in which also the claw of the petals is glandular or velvety, and which scarcely differ save
in their capsular or samaroid fruit and their exalbuminous seed. Urythro:i'yle(e also approach Geraniacece
in their persistent calyx, hypogynism and diplostemonous petals, more or less distinct styles, and
stipulate leaves ; but in Geraniacecu the carpels are nearly free, the fruit is capsular, the embryo is curved
and exalbuminous.

ErythroxylecB inhabit the intertropical regions of the Old and New Worlds. The wood of several
species contains a red dye. The young shoots of Erythroxylon areolatum are refreshing : its bark is tonic,
and the juice of its leaves is used externally against herpetic, affections. The leaves of E. Coca contain a
very volatile stimulating principle, producing in those who chew them an excitement of the nervous
system, eagerly sought by the Peruvians, and which they cannot do without when they have acquired the
habit.

XLI. OXALIDE^E.

(OXALIDB^, I).C. — OXALIDACE^, Lindl.)

CAiiTX ?)-merous, imbricate. Petals 5, hypogynous, contorted. Stamens double '
the number of the petals. Ovaet ^-celled. Ovules l-seriate, pendulous, anatropous.
Styles free. Eeuit a capsule, or rarely a berry. Seeds with abundant albumen.
Embeto axile. — Leaves alternate.

Herbaceous annual or perennial plants, stemless or caulescent, rootstock
creeping, bulbous or tuberous, rarely sub-frutescent {Gonnaropsis), very rarely arbo-
rescent [Averrhoa). Leaves alternate, petiolate, digitate, rarely pinnate, sometimes
appearing simple by suppression of the lateral leaflets ; leaflets spirally coiled when
young, sessile or rarely petiolulate, entire, often obcordate, usually closing ab night;
stipules 0. Elowbes §, regular, sometimes dimorphous, some perfect, others
minute, apetalous ; peduncles axillary or radical, 1 -flowered, or branched in an umbel,
raceme, panicle or cyme. Calyx 6-fid or -partite or -phyllous, aestivation imbricate.
Petals 5, equal, inserted on the receptacle, longer than the sepals, obtuse, shortly
clawed, free, or shortly connate at the base, contorted in aestivation, deciduous.
Stamens 10, inserted on the receptacle, connate at the base, the 6 opposite the petals
shortest, fertile or antherless {Averrhoa) ; filaments filiform or subulate, flattened ;
anthers introrse, 2-celled, ovoid or elliptic, dorsifixed, dehiscence longitudinal.

XLI. OXALIDE^.

297

Oxalis.

I'ruit. Oxalis.

Seed without

its epidermis

(mag.).

Oxalis corniculata.

Oxalis.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Oxalis.

Pistil and

androscinm (mag.) .

Oxalis.

Seed clothed

with its elastic

epidermis

(mag.).

OvAET 6-lobe<3, cells 5, opposite to the petals; styles 6, filiform, free, or shortly
connate, persistent ; stigmas capitate, sometimes 2-fid or laciniate ; ovules pendulous
from the inner angle of the cells, solitary or numerous, 1-seriate, anatropous.
Fruit generally capsular, cylindric, ovoid or subglobose, 5-lobed, cells opening
longitudinally at the back, valves not separating from the placentiferous column,
rarely an oblong 5-furrowed and indehiscent berry {Aven-rhoa). Seeds pendulous,
usually clothed with a fleshy arilliform epidermis which separates elastically;
testa crustaceous ; albumen fleshy, abundant. Embeto axile, straight or sub-arched •
cotyledons often elliptic ; radicle short, superior.

*Oxalis.

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.
Biophytum. Connaropsis.

Averrhoa.

OxcdidecB are near GeraniaoecB, to which Bentham and Hooker fil. have united them (see this family).
They are equally near Balsmrdi!ie<s and lAnem (see these families). They likewise approach ZygopliyUecB in
their hypopetalism, diplostemony, plurilocular ovary, pendulous superimposed and anatropous ovules
capsular or berried fruit, herbaceous or woody stem,compound leaves, and axillary inflorescence; but in
ZygophyllecB the petals are often imbricate, the style is simple, the seeds sometimes without albumen and
the leaves are opposite and stipulate. , Oxalideee have also some affinity with Sutacees : in both families
the calyx is 5-partite and imbricate ; the coroUa^is polypetalous, hypogynous, and diplostemonous, the ovary
is lobed and several-celled, the ovules are pendulous and anatropous, the fruit is a capsule the seed
furnished with a fleshy albumen, the leaves alternate and exstipulate ; but in Rutaceai the petals are
• imbricate, the base of the ovary is furnished with a glandular well-developed disk, the embryo is curved
and the plant ia scented and usually glandular-dotted. Oxalid'ece are also Connected with ConnamcecB
through Averrhoa and Cnestis,hoth of which are polypetalous, hypogynous, and diplostemonous, with distinct
styles, capitate stigmas, albuminous seed, woody stem, alternate exstipulate imparipinnate leaves and

298 XLII. HUMIRIACBiE.

axillary inflorescence ; but Cnestis differs in its polygamo-dioeeious flowers, valvate calyx, free filaments,
distinct carpels, and non-arillate seeds. Oxalidece are distantly related to Droseracete in their spirally
coiled young leaves, their hypogynism, and diplostenaonous flowers (at least in Dioncsa and Drosophyllum),
pendulous anatropous ovules, capsular fruit, albuminous seed, and axile embryo. Finally, a certain
analogy has been noticed between Oxalis and Mimosea (see this family).

The species of Oxalis inhabit both worlds, especially abounding in South Africa and tBopical and
subtropical America ; they are rare in temperate regions, and are entirely absent from very cold coun-
tries. Ave}-rTwa and Connaropsis are tropical Asiatic.

OxcUicka contain in their herbaceous parts and fruit, when it is fleshy, an acid salt, tempered by a
sufficient quantity of mucilage, which gives them refreshing, antibilious, and antiseptic properties. The
tubers of the stemless species are farinaceous and eatable. Sorrel (Oxalis acetoselld), a European and
North American herb, together with Hmncx acetosa and acetosella, yields binoxalate of potash, com-
monly called oxalic acid, a deadly poison, but used for the removal of ink-stains, &c. Many American
species of Oxalis possess in their underground stem a feculent, wholesome, light, and very nourishing sub-
stance, the slightly acid taste of which almost entirely disappears in cooking ; these occur as tubers like
potatos (O. creimta), or bulbs (O. esculenta), or as swollen and fleshy roots (O. Deppd). The slightly
bitter leaves of O. sensitiva are tonic and stimulating; its root is recommended for calculous diseases
and scorpion-bites. The berries of AveiThoa Caramhola, an Indian tree, are very acid in a wild state,
but cultivation renders them sugary-acidulous and eatable. Those of A. Bilimbi are more tart than the
preceding, and are only eatable when cooked and mixed with other condiments. The leaves of both
these species are used to hasten the ripening of tumours.

XLII. HUMIEIACEJE^ Jussieu.

[Teees or SHRUBS, mostly witli balsamic juice, glabrous or puberulous. Leaves
alternate, simple, coriaceous, entire or crenulate ; stipules 0, Flowebs regular, § ,
wbite, in corymbiform, axillary, terminal, or lateral cymes. Sepals 5, small, suV
connate at the base, imbricate in bud. Petals 5, hypogynous, deciduous, slightly
contorted. Stamens lO-oo , hypogynous, more or less connate at the base ; filaments
flattened or filiform, tips slender ; anthers versatile, cells 2, adnate to the base of a
thick fleshy connective. Disk annular, truncate, toothed or of separate scales,
closely girding the base of the ovary. Ovart free, sessile, 5- rarely 6-7-celled ;
style simple, filiform ; stigma entire or obscurely toothed ; ovules solitary in the cells,
or 2-3 suspended by unequal funicles from the top of the inner angle of the cell,
anatropous, raphe ventral. Feuit a drupe ; endocarp bony or woody, cells usually
in part suppressed. Seeds solitary, or geminate and then separated by a transverse
septum, oblong, pendulous ; testa membranous ; albumen copious, fleshy. Embeto
axile ; cotyledons short, obtuse ; radicle usually elongate, superior.

principal genera.

Vantanea. Humiria. Sacoglottis. Aubrya.

A small order, formerly associated with Ebmacem or Olcdnem; but differing from the latter in £esti-
vation, ovary, ovules, &c., and from Ebenacea in polypetalism, hypogyny, &c. They appear to be
more closely allied to the tribe Ixionanthem of Linete, from which their habit and anthers distinguish
them. From the 1-2-ovuled genera of Melianea they are distinguished by their stamens, simple
leaves, &c.

' This order is omitted in the original. — Ed.

XLIII. MALPIGHIACE^.

299

SumirianeeB are natives of Guiana and Brazil, with the exception of one tropical African species. The
above four genera comprise about twenty known species.

The Balsam of Unieri, which possesses the properties of the Peruvian and of Copaiva, is the produce
oi Humiria Jlorihunda, a native of Brazil. A preparation of the juice both of this and II. halsamifera
has the odour of Storax, and is made into an ointment used for pains in the joints, and used internally
as a remedy for teenia and hfemorrhage. — Ed.]

XLIII. MALPIGHIACEJE, Jussieu.

Malpighia. Flower (mag.).

Iliraa. Prnit.

Banlsteria. Fruit.

300 XLIII. MALPIGHIACE^.

Calyx o-merous, persistent, segments usually higlandular. Petals 6, usually
itnguiculate, isostemonous or diplostemonous, inserted either on the receptacle or on a
hypogynous or perigynous dislc. Stamejsts inserted with the petals, usually monadelphous,
when several are antherless. Otaet composed of 3 or 2 carpels, connate, or distinct at
the top, of 3 or 2 1-ovuled cells. Ovule nearly orthotropous. Petjit a drupe, or of
3-2 cocci. Embeto exalbuminous. Stem woody.

Teees or SHEUBS, rarely undeesheubs, often climbing ; branches usually pubes-
cent; bairs fixed by the centre and stinging, or silky, of metallic lustre, close-
pressed, and not stinging. Leaves generally opposite, petiole jointed to the stem,
entire, flat (rarely alternate, or whorled, sessile, sinuate-toothed or -lobed, margins
recurved) ; petiole or under surface or margin of the leaf often glandular ; stipules
usually geminate at the base of the petiole, below (rarely above) the joint, generally
rudimentary or suppressed, rarely large, sometimes the 2 belonging to the same leaf
coherent in 1 and axillary, sometimes the 4 of 2 opposite leaves joining in pairs so as
to form 2 interpetiolar stipules. Plowees ? , or polygamous by suppression, sometimes
dimorphous {Aspicarpa, Janusia) , axillary or terminal, in a corymb, umbel, raceme or
panicle ; peduncle braeteate at its base ; pedicels jointed, 2-bracteolate below the joint.
Caltx 6-partite, segments imbricate, or very rarely valvate, all or 4 or 3 higlandular
outside. Petals 5, inserted on the receptacle, or on a hypogynous disk, or on a disk
lining the base of the calyx, generally equal, fringed or toothed, claw slender, sesti-
vation imbricate. Disk inconspicuous. Stamens usually 10, hypogynous or sub-
perigynous, all fertile, or some anantherous, or one or more or all of those opposite
the petals wanting ; filaments filiform or subulate, usually connate at the base ; anthers
short, introrse, cells sometimes winged, connective often thickened, sometimes pro-
longed at the top into a glandular appendage. Ovaet free, composed of 3 (rarely
2) carpels, coherent, or distinct at the top, of 3-2 1-ovuled cells ; styles 3, inserted
between the lobes of the ovary, distinct or connate ; stigma simple, inconspicuous ;
ovule nearly orthotropous, pendulous by a short funicle to the inner angle of the cell
or middle of the septum, ascending, erect or curved, raphe ventral, micropyle superior.
Ripe CAEPELS 3 or fewer, 1 -seeded, sometimes connate into a fleshy or woody drupe,
sometimes distinct, and separating into usually winged samaras, rarely 2-valved.
Seeds obliquely pendulous below the top of the cell, exalbuminous ; testa double,
usually membranous. Embeto straight, curved, or hooked, very rarely annular ; coty-
ledons flat or thick, often unequal ; radicle short, above the hilum, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
*Malpighia. *Stigmapliyllon. *Bamsteria. Hiptage. Hirsea. Aspicarpa.

[The following is the disposition of the tribes, &c., of this large family, pro-
posed by the authors of the ' Genera Plantarum' : —

Tbibe I. Malpighie^!. — Stamens 10, usually all perfect ; anthers mostly appendiculate ;
styles Tisnally 3, free. Carpels on a flat torus, never winged, free or connate into a fleshy or
woody drupe. — Ueually erect, with opposite leaves and connate stipules. Byrsonima, MaU
pigMa, Bunchozia, Thrijallis, Oalpldiiia, SpacJiea, &o.

XLIV. COETAEIEiE. 301

Tribe II. Banisteeie^. — Stamens 10, usually all perfect ; anthers appendaged. Styles
normally 3, free. Fruit of 1-8 dorsally (not laterally) winged nuts or samaras on a conical
torus (rarely wingless or feathery). — Usually climbers, witli often alternate exstipulate leayes.
Heteropterys, Acridocarpus, Brachypteris, Stigmajihyllon, Jhjssoptens, Banisteria, Peixotoa, &o.

Tribe III. Hiee^. — Stamens usually all perfect. Styles normally 3, free. Samaras 1-3,
on a pyramidal torus, 1-7-winged, lateral wings broad. — Usually scandent, with often alternate
exstipulate leaves. Tristellateia, Hiptage, Aspidopterys, Triopterys, Tetrapterys, Hircea, &o.

Teibe IV. GAUDiCHAUDiE.a5. — Stamens 8 or fewer, some or all of those opposite the petals,
and sometimes others, anantherous. Style 1. Carpels winged or not, usually pendulous from
a raphe-like thread. — Erect or climbing ; leaves often alternate. Flowers often dimorphic.
Calyx 8-10-glandular. Oaudiohaxidia, Aspicarpa, Oamarea, Janusia, Schuannia. — Ed.]

Malpighiaccm are near Erijthroxylece (which see), Aeerinem and Sapindacece ; they are separated from
Acerinece by their glandular calyx, long clawed petals, monadelphous stamens, usually 3-merous fruit,
1-ovuled ovarian cells, curved ovules, and superior radicle. The affinity is still more close with Sapin-
dacece, from which they only differ in the inconspicuous disk and solitary abnormally-formed ovules.
Malpighiaceee mostly inhabit the plains and virgin forests of the southern tropic of America ; they are less
numerous beyond this region, rarer still in equatorial Asia, and very rare in Africa and Australia.

Many Malpighiaceee owe to the colouring matter and tannin contained in their bark astringent
properties, which are useful in various disorders, and especially in dysentery and intei-mittent fevers ; as
the different species of the American genus Byrsonima. The acidulous-sugary fruits of Mcdpighia wens and
glabra are recommended as refreshing and antiseptic.

XLIV. CORTARIE^, Endlicher.

Petals 5, hypogynous, small, fleshy. Stamens 10, hypogynous. Ovakt S-lohed,
cells alternate with the petals, 1-ovuled. Styles 5, stigmatiferous throughout their
length. Fexjit of 5 carpels. Embeto scarcely or not albuminous. — Stem woody.
Leaves opposite.

Unarmed sheubs, branches angular, tlie lower opposite or ternately wliorled, tlie
upper opposite, often sarmentose ; buds scaly. Leaves opposite, rarely ternately
whorled, ovate or cordate or lanceolate, 1-5-nerved, entire, glabrous, exstipulate.
Elowees 5 or polygamous, in terminal [or axillary] racemes ; pedicels opposite or
the upper alternate, bi-acteate at the base, and often 2-bracteolate. Sepals 5, oval-
triangular, imbricate in bud, persistent, spreading, margins membranous. Petals
5, hypogynous, shorter than the sepals and alternate, triangular, fleshy, keeled
within, accrescent, persistent. Tortjs conical, fleshy, lobed. Stamens 10, hypogy-
nous, free, or the inner adnate to the keel of the petals ; filaments short, filiform ;
anthers large, introrse, basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal ; pollen very fine, subglo-
bose. Caepels 5-10, free, oblong, whorled on the torus, conical, alternate with the
petals, 1-ovuled ; styles as many as carpels, free, thick, elongated, distant, entirely
covered with stigmatic papillss ; ovules pendulous from the top of the cells, anatro-
pous, raphe dorsal. Peuit of 5-8 indehiscent cocci, embraced by the accrescent and
fleshy petals, compressed, oblong ; pericarp crustaceous, keeled on the back and sides.

302

XLIV. CORIARIE^.

CoinaHa.

Vertical section of flower

(mag.).

Coriaria,
Flower deprived of
Its calyx (mas.).

Coriaria.
Carpel, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Coriaria.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Coriaria.
Carpel cut transversely (mag.).

Seeds compressed; testa membranous ; albumen tMn or 0. Embeto straight, ovoid,
compressed ; cotyledons plano-convex ; radicle very short, obtuse, superior.

ONLY GENUS.
*Ooriaria.

The affinities of Coriaria are very obscure. It has been placed near Malpighiacece (see this family).
It somewhat distantly recalls RidaoecB and Zanthoxyleis in its hypopetalism, diplostemony, free carpels, &c.,
but is separated from them by its pendulous ovule with dorsal raphe and superior micropyle. Compared
with Sapindacea and Terebinthacece, it differs in habit, the inner stamens usually adherent to the petals,
and the styles stigmatiferous throughout their length. It has some analogies with Phytolacece, founded
on the distinct and whorled carpels, papillose styles and fruit [but differs in the petals, pendulous
ovules, fleshy albumen (when present), and straight thick embryo].

Coriaria comprises a few species, dispersed over the Mediterranean region, Nepal, .Japan, New Zealand,
and western South America. C. myrtifolia (Myrtle-leaved Sumach), which grows especially in the West
of the Mediterranean region, abounds in tannin, utilized by curriers ; its leaves and fruits contain a narcotic-
acrid crystaUizable principle (coriariine) which renders them poisonous. These leaves are used to adul-
terate senna, which is thus often a fatal medicine. The fruit of C. mrmentosa, a New Zealand shrub, is
full of a vinous juice, which the natives and colonists drink with impunity, taking care not to swallow the
seeds, which are eminently poisonous. The same may be said of C. nepalensis. C. ruseifolia, of China,
yields a black colour, used by shoemakers.

XLV. ZYGOPHYLLE^.

303

XLV. ZYGOPHYLLEjE.

(EUTAOBAEUM secUo, Jussieu. — ZtGOPHTLLE^, Br. — ZTGOPHYLLACBiB, Lindl.)

Zygophyllum. Zygophyllum. Zygophyllum

Part of flower (mag.)- Ovule (mag.) Stamen and scale

Seetzenia.
Seed cut vertically (mag.)

Seetamia orientalise
Flower (mag.).

Zygophyllum Fahago.

Tribulus. Tribulm.

Seed, entire and out vertically (mag.). Fruit, entire and cut Vertically.

304

XLV. ZYGOPHYLLE^.

-• THbul-us.
Flower (mag.).

Ti'ibuUis terrestris.

Trihulus.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Calyx 4-5-merows, generally imbricate. Petals hypogynous, usually imbricate.
Stamens usually double the number of the petals, hypogynous ; filaments usually with a
scale inside. Otakt several-celled. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, septicidally dividing
into cocci. Embeto exalbuminous, or enclosed in a cartilaginous albumen. — Scentless
plants. Leaves opposite, pinnate, stipulate.

Herbs, shrubs or trees ; branches often divaricate and jointed at the nodes.
Leaves opposite, or alternate from the suppression of one, stipulate, compound,
sometimes pinnate or imparipinnate, sometimes 2- (rarely 1-) foliolate {Zygophyllum) ;
petiole sometimes flattened and winged; leaflets sessile, entire, not punctate, often
inequilateral, flat, or fleshy, or terete ; stipules geminate at the base of the petioles,
persistent, sometimes spinescent. Elcwees 5 , regular or irregular, white, red or
yellow, rarely blue ; peduncles usually 1-2, springing from the axil of the stipules,
1-flowered, ebracteate. Sepals 5-4, usually persistent, free, rarely connate at the
base, Eestivation imbricate or very rarely valvate {Seetzenia). Petals 6-4, very rarely
[Seetzenia), hypogynous, free, Eestivation usually imbricate, sometimes contorted
{Zygophyllum) ; dish hypogynous, convex or depressed, rarely annular (Trihulus),
sometimes inconspicuous {Fagonia, Guaiacum, &c.), or (Seetzenia). Stamens
usually double the number of the petals, rarely equal (Seetzenia), inserted on the re-
ceptacle, 2-seriate, the outer opposite to the sepals ; filaments filiform, usually with
a small scale on the base within, or on their centre ; anthers introrse, dorsifixed
above their base, versatile, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovart free, sessile, or rarely
borne on a short gynophore (Larrea, Guaiacum), furrowed, angular, or winged, 4-5-
^arely 10-12-) celled (Trihulus, Augea), or 2-3-celled (Zygophyllum), cells sometimes

XLVI. BATIDE^. 305

divided into several by transverse septa (Trihulus) ; style simple, terminal, angular or
furrowed, sometimes short or {Trihulus) ; stigma simple ; ovules 2, superimposed in
each cell, or several 2-seriate, pendulous or ascending, raphe ventral, and micropyle
superior. Feuit coriaceous or crustaceous, sometimes septicidal, and dividing into
2-10 dehiscent or indehiscent cocci, which are connate, or separable from the
placental column ; sometimes a loculicidal capsule. Seeds usually solitary in each
cell, rarely 2 or several, pendulous ; testa merfibranous or crustaceous, or thick and
mucilaginous; albumen cartilaginous, rarely {Trihulus, &c.). Embeto green,
straight or slightly curved; cotyledons foliaceous; radicle short, straight, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Tribuliis. *Zjgophyllum. Larrea. Porliera. *Fagonia. Guaiacum. PNitraria.

Zygophylle(e are near Geraniacea and Oxalidem (see these families). They are connected with
Hutacecs by their hypopetalism, diplostemony, several-celled ovary, hypogynous disk, loculicidal or
septicidal capsule, albuminous seeds, straight or arched embryo, and superior radicle ; but RutmecB differ
in habit, alternate and glandular-dotted exstipulate leaves, eglandular filaments, and basilar style. The
genus Nitraria, doubtfully placedhere byBentham and Hooker fll., certainly approaches them in its stipulate
leaves, oblong anthers, and the structure of its ovary ; but it is separated by its habit, simple leaves,
valvate induplicate corolla, naked filaments, one-ovuled cells of the ovary, and drupaceous fruit. Zygo-
phyllece scarcely differ from Simarubecs, except in their ovary attenuated into a simple terminal style.
Batidfce also display some analogy with Trihulus.

ZygophyllecB principally inhabit the extra-tropical and hot regions of both hemispheres, especially
abounding from the north-west of Africa, through the Mediterranean region, to the northern limit of India ;
they are rarer in South Africa, Australia, and South America. Except Fagonia, which is spread over the
Mediterranean region and Central Asia., and Zygophyllum, which grows throughout Africa and Asia, and
Trihulus, which is dispersed over tropical and sub-tropical countries, each genus has a special habitat.
Seetzenia inhabits tropical Africa and Ea.stern Asia ; the other genera are exclusively American.
Nitraria grows in saline ground in the North of Africa, West Asia, and Australia.

The most useful plant of this order is Guaiacum officinale, a West Indian tree with very hard
faintly aromatic wood, much heavier than water, and with an acrid and bitter taste. Cabinet-makers use it
for balls, castors, pulleys, and other objects exposed to weight and friction. The raspings of guaiacum
form a valuable medicine, acting powerfully on the functions of the skin and the secretions of the kidneys,
and recommended as a depurative in syphilis. These properties are due to a resinous substance {guaiainne)
contained in the wood, and which exudes from it when cut ; it is also obtained by steeping the guaiacum
in alcohol, and evaporatin* the tincture. The Holy Guaiacum, another American species, possesses the
same virtues, but is only used in the New World. Zygophyllum Fahago is a reputed antisyphilitic and
vermifuge; its flower-buds are used instead of capers. The Z. simplex, a species very common in the
most arid deserts, is used by the Arabs to remove freckles ; this plant, as well as its congeners, exhales so
fcetid a smell, that all herbivorous animals, including even the camel, reject it. Trihulus terrestris, formerly
praised as an astringent, has fallen into disuse.

XLVI. BAIIDEM Lindl:

Littoral saline plants of a grey colour. Stems branching, diffuse, fragile.
Leaves opposite, oblong-linear or obovate-oblong, sessile or subsessile, plane above,
convex below, fleshy, exstipulate. rLOWEKS in four rows, in conical oblong spikes,
opposite, sessile, green, dioecious. Fl. $ : Floweks distinct ; Iracts cochleariform,
obtuse or very shortly acuminate, concave, entire, persistent, close together. ■ Calyx

X

306

XLVII. GERANIACE^.

membranous, campanulate, or. forming a compressed truncate sub-bilabiate cup.
Petals 4, claws united at the base, limb rhomboid. Stamens 4, alternate with the
petals, exserted ; filaments subulate, glabrous ; anthers 2-celled, versatile, oblong,
didymous, incumbent, introrse, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary rudimentary or 0,
Fl. $ : Flowers in a fleshy spike ; bracts as in the $ , deciduous, the two lower
connate. Calyx and corolla 0. Ovaries 8-12, coherent, adherent to the
base of the bracts, 4-celled ; style ; stigma capitate, sub-bilobed ; ovules solitary,
erect, anatropous. Ripe carpels 4-celled, connate, and forming a fleshy ovoid-
conical fruit ; endocarp coriaceous. Seeds erect, oblong, straight ; testa membranous ;
albumen 0. Embryo conformable to the seed; cotyledons fleshy, oblong, compressed;
radicle short, near the hilum.

ONLY GENUS.
Batis.

The affiaities of Batis are very obscure ; in habit it resembles C/ienopodiecs, but the structure of
its flower appears to indicate a closer affinity with Meaum,uriacecB, Tamariscinem, and with some Zygo-
phyUca, through Tribuhis. It inhabits the seashores of tropical America.

XLVII. GERANIACEJE.
(Geeania, Jussieu. — Geranioideje, Ventenat. — GERANiACEiE, D.C.)

XLVII. GEEANIACB^.

306

Geranium.

Qeranium.

Qeranium.

Ripe carpel

Seed, entire and cut

Seed cut

(mag.).

vertically (mag.).

transversely (mag.)

Qeranium.
Andrcecium and pistil (mag.).

Eivdium cicutaHum.
Flower without corolla (mag,).

Monsonia,
Bundle of three

Erodium cicutaHum,

Erodium. Pistil (mag.).

Monsonia, Diagram,

Calyx S-merous, imbricate. Petals hypogynous, cesUvation contorted. Stamens
hypogynous, usually twice the number of the petals. Caepels 5, cohering by their
inner edges into a 6-celled ovary prolonged into a beak; cells 2-ovuledi Fruit a
capsule, opening elastically from below upwards. Seeds exalbuminous. Embeto
curved; cotyledons folded or coiled. — Leaves stipulate.

Hekbs or TJNDEESHEUBS, sometimes fleshy {Pelargonium,, Sarcocaulon). Lower
LEAVES opposite ; upper alternate or opposite, petiolate, simple, usually palminerved
and with palmate divisions, rarely pinnatisect, sometimes entire or crenulate;
stipules twin at the base of the petioles, foliaceous or scarious. Flowees ^ , regular
or irregular (Pelargonium), rarely solitary, usually in pairs or involucrate umbels";
peduncles opposite to the alternate leaves, or axillary in one of a pair of opposite
leaves, or in the fork of a branch, sometimes radical. Calyx free, persistent, 5'

308. XLYII. GEEANIACEiE.

pliyllous or partite, estivation imbricate ; sepals equal or unequal, with the posterior
then prolonged into a spur longitudinally adnate to the peduncle {Pelargonium).
Petals inserted on the receptacle, equal in number with the sepals, or fewer by sup-
pression, and sub-perigynous {Pelargonium), clawed, equal or unequal {Pelargonium),
contorted in sestivation, caducous. Stamens inserted with the petals, and usually
twice as many, 2-seriate ; the inner fertile, the outer shorter, and opposite to the
petals, all fertile {Geranium), or sometimes all {Erodium) or some {Pelargonium)
antherless ; rarely triple the number of the petals, and disposed in 6 triandrous
bundles, opposite to the petals {Monsonia, Sarcocaulon) ; filaments membranous, flat-
tened, and more or less monadelphous below, tips subulate, the lower with external
basal glands that alternate with the petals, rarely eglandular {Pelargonium) ; anthers
introrse, oblong, dorsifixed, versatile, dehiscence longitudinal. Pistil of 5
carpels, cohering into a 6-lobed 5-celled ovary, prolonged above into a beak ter-
minated by the styles ; styles continuous with the ovaries, connate below, free
above, stigmatiferous along their inner edge; ovules geminate on the ventral suture
of each cell, more or less superimposed, semi-anatropous. Fbuit a capsule, opening
elastically from below upwards, by septifragal dehiscence, into five 1- seeded cocci
with spirally twisted beaks, and detaching themselves from the placentiferous
column. Seed 3-gonous ; testa crustaceous ; hilum ventral, a little below the base.
EmbEto exalbuminous, curved ; cotyledons foliaceous, flexuous ; radicle conical, in-
cumbent on the inner cotyledon, near the hilum, and, together with the tips of the
cotyledons, pointing towards the base of the fruit.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
♦MoDsonia. *Gei'amum. *Ei'odium. *Pelargoniiuii.

[Disposition of the Geraniacece proposed in the ' Genera Plantarum ' : —

- - Tbibe I. Geeaniejs. — Flowers regular or nearly so. Sepals imbricate. Petals alternating
with glands. Antheriferous stamens as many as the petals, or twice or thrice as many.

Biehersteiiiia, Monsonia, Sarcocaulon, Geranium, Erodmin.

Tribe II. Pelabgonie^. — Flowers irregular. Postioous sepal spurred. Petals perigynous,
two upper external. Glands 0. Stamens declinate. Pelargonium, TropcBolum.

^- Tbibe III. Limnanthe^ (see order Limnahtheje, p. 313). — Flowers regular. Sepals
valvate. Petals alternating with glands. Capsule indehiscent, not beaked. Ovary 1 ; ovule
with an inferior mioropyle. Flcerlcia, Limnanthes.

Tbibe IV. Viyianieje. — Flowers regular. Calyx with valvate lobes. Petals alternating
with glands. Stamens twice as many as the petals. Capsule loculicidal ; ovules geminate.
Viviania.

Tbibe V. Wendtie^. — Flowers regular. Sepals imbricate. Glands 0. Stigmas ligulate.
Ovules 2-00 . Leaves small, often opposite, entire or 2-5-lobed. Bhjncliotheca, Wendtia,
Ledocurpon.

<iT— .Tbibe VI. Oxalideje (see order Oxalidbj;, p. 296). — Flowers regular. Sepals imbricate.
Glands 0. Stigmas capitate. Ovules 2-x . Leaves compound.

s Tbibe VII. Balsamine^ (see order Balsamineje, p. 309). — Flowers irregular. Posticous

XLVIII. BALSAMINE^. 309

sepal spurred. Petals hypogynous. Stamens 5, short ; anthers coherent. Stigmas sessile. —
5d.]

Germiacga are so closely allied to LimnnntheeB, Vivianiece, Ledocnrpea, Oxnlideee, and Balsamme(B,
uhatv-Bentham and Hooker fil. have united them into one family, connecting with them also Tropaolets,
which are near Pelargonium in their irregular anisostemonous eglandular flower, spurred posterior sepal,
and perigynous petals with the two upper exterior ; hut which are separated hy their free fertile stamens,
1-ovuled indehiscent carpels without beak, and exstipulate leaves. lAmnantlies is distinguished
from OeraniaoecB by its valvate calyx, free stamens, gynohased style, 1-ovuled beakless indehi-
scent carpels, straight embryo, and exstipulate lea,ves. Vmaniecs diifer in their valvate calyx,
3-celled capsule with loculicidal dehiscence, seed with copious albumen, and exstipulate leaves.
Ledoearpem differ in the absence of glands, the ligulate stigmas, loculicidal capsule, and exstipulate
leaves. Oxalidem are separated by their compound exstipulate leaves, eglandulair receptacle, capitate
stigmas, capsular or berried fruit, albuminous seed, and straight or scarcely curved embryo. Balsaminem
have, like Petargonium, irregular flowers, a spurred posterior sepal, and an elastically opening fruit ; but
they differ in their exstipulate leaves, eglandular disk, pentandrous andrcecium with connate or connivent
anthers, sessile stigma, loculicidal capsule, and straight embryo with superior radicle. Geraniacecs
approach .^po^AyZfe<B in their jointed stem, astivation, diplo- or triplo-stemonous flower, capsular fruit
dividing into cocci, opposite and stipulate leaves ; but in ZygophylleeB the filaments do not cohere and are
filiform, the style is simple, the seeds are often albuminous, and the embryo is straight or hardly curved.
Lineee (especially the genus Linum) also approach Oeraniacem in their coroUa/ind in their andrcecium
composed of 6 fertile stamens and 6 staminodea opposite to the petals, their dilated filaments monadelphous
at the base, their entire ovary with 2-ovuled cells, pendulous anatropous ovules, terminal capitate
stigmas, straight embryo, and usually exstipulate leaves. Finally, Geraniacece offer some affinity with Mal-
vacecs in their stipulate palmilobed leaves, monadelphous stamens, exalbuminous seeds, and coiled embryo.

GeraniacecB principally inhabit warm, temperate, and tropical countries of both worlds. Geranium
and Erodium especially belong to the northern hemisphere ; Monsonia to South Africa and tropical and
West Asia. Pelargoniem are met with in south temperate latitudes, and especially at the Cape of Good
Hope ; they are rarer in Australia and in the South Pacific Islands. One species (P. Endlicherianuni)
advances into Asia Minor. [Tropaolum i& wholly South American, and chiefly western ; Wendtiets and
Vivianiece are also Peruvian and Chilian ; Limnanthece North American. About 600 species are known,
belonging to the 13 genera enumerated above.]

GeraniacecB contain tannin and gallic acid, and thus possess astringent properties. Several contaii»
resins, and a volatile oil, mixed with an abundant mucilage; others contain free acids. Herb Robert
{Geranium Pobertianum) and G. sanguineum, indigenous species, formerly used as astringents and slight
stimulants, have fallen into disuse ; G. pratense is still used as a vulnerary. The root of G. maculatum,
a native of North America, is there administered for dysentery, that of G. nodosum and striatum replaces
in Italy the Tormentilla. Erodium moschatum, which exhales a strong odour of musk, is a reputed
stimulant and diaphoretic. Some Pelargoniums are as remarkable for their scent as for the brilliancy of .
their colours which causes them to be cultivated as ornamental plants ; such are P. zqnale and inquinans,
the bruised leaves of which cause rusty spots. The pale yellow flowers of P. triste are spotted with
brown, and are sweet-scented by night. From some species a very sweet volatile oil is obtained by
distillation, which is used to adulterate essence of roses. The tubers of P. antidgsentei-icum, triste,
Sec, are employed by the Namaquois in diarrhoea. The leaves of P. acetosum and 2'eltatum have a very
aoreeable sharpish taste. The resinous balsamic stem of Monsonia spinosa burns with a flame, and the
natives of South Africa make torches of it.

XLVIII. BALSAMINE^.

(Balsamine^, a. Richard. — Balsaminaceje, Lindl. — HTDEOCEKBiE, Blume.)

Calyx irregular, 3-5-phyllous, imbricate, caducous. Petals 3-5, hypogynous,
unequal, imbricate. ' Stamens 5, hypogynous, connate above, and covering the ovary.

310

XLYIII. BALSAMINE^.

Tonch-me-not.
(Impatiens NoU-me-tangere.')

Impatiens.
Ripe pistil.

Impatiens,
Fiiiit.

Impatiens.
Androecium (mag.).

Impaiiens.

Vertical section of andrcecium, and

transverse Eection oi; an anther (mag.).

hnpatiens.

Deliiscent anthers

(mag.).

Impatiens.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

OvAET of 5 many—few-ovuled cells ; stigma sessile. Fbuit a capsule, dehiscing elasti-
cally, or an indehiscent drupe. Embkto straight, exalbuminous.

Soft succulent herbs, usually annual, sometimes suffruticose, erect, full of
watery juice ; root fibrous or sometimes tuberous. Leaves sometimes all radical,
long-petioled, cordate or reniform; cauline opposite, alternate or ternately whorled,
penninerved, crenate or dentate; stipules 0, but petioles sometimes furnished at
the base with substipitate cupular glands ; peduncles axillary, solitary or aggre-
gated, 1-00 -flowered, bracteate ; pedicels naked or bracteolate. Flowees S , irre-
gular, spurred, often resupiuate from the weakness of the pedicel and weight of the
spur, which hence appears posterior. Sepals 3-5, irregular, coloured, caducous,
imbricate in sestivation, the 2 outer lateral, opposite, small or minute, incumbent on
the 2 anterior, which are sometimes wanting ; the posterior large, concave, pro-
longed at the base into a boss or spur, and enveloping the ovary in bud. Corolla
inserted on the receptacle, of 5 petals alternate with the sepals, all iree,{lIydrocera),
or appearing reduced to 3 by the confluence of the lateral with the 2 posterior
petals {Impatiens) ; antericTr petal concave, much larger than* the others, and

XLIX. TEOP^OLE^. 311

enveloping them ; posterior petals smaller, enveloping the 2 lateral. Stamens 5,
inserted on the receptacle, as long as the ovary, and covering it like an operculum ;
filaments short, flattened, cohering at the top ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, connivent or
coherent. Ovakt free, sessile, cylindric-oblong, or obtusely angled, 5-celled ; stigma
sessile, entire or 5-partite; ovules numerous in each cell {Impatiens), or 2-3 {Eydro-
cera), 1-seriate, pendulous, anatropous. Fbuit a loculicidal 5-valved capsule,
elastically coiling inwards from the top downwards, or outwards from the bottom
upwards ; sometimes an indehiscent 5-celled drupe with a bony 6-lobed endocarp.
Seeds pendulous, slightly compressed; testa membranous, dotted or tubercular,
glabrous or velvety. Embryo exalbuminous, straight; cotyledons plano-convex,
fleshy ; radicle very short, superior.

GENERA.
*Impatiens. Hydrocera.

Balsnminea are closely allied to Geraniacece (see that family '). They are equally near Oxalidece in
hypopetalism, 5-celled ovary with pendulous anatropous ovules, usually loculicidal fruit, and axillary
flowers ; but Oxalidea differ in their regular diplostemonous flower, free styles, the valves of the capsule
remaining attached to the placentiferous colunin,^ the usually arillate albuminous seed, and the compound
leaves. Linea have some analogies with Bahaminece, founded on the 6-phyllous calyx, the polypetalous
hypogynous isostemonous corolla with pendulous anatropous ovules, the capsular fruit, and the seed with
little or no albumen ; but they are separated by their regular flower, contorted corolla, long styles, ter-
minal inflorescence, and entire leaves. The afiinity with TropcBolece is more obvious : irregular coloured
calyx with one sepal prolonged into a spur, several-celled ovary, pendulous anatropous- ovules, capsular
fruit, exalbuminous straight embryo, axillary flowers, and herbaceous stem; but in Tropmolete the calyx
is persistent, and it is the posterior sepal which is prolonged into a spur, the corolla is anisostemonous,
the ovary has three 1-ovuled cells, and the fruit divides into three indehiscent lobes.

Bahaminece mostly grow in the mountainous regions of India and Africa ; a few inhabit South Africa,
North America, Europe, and Central Asia. The European is the Impatiens NoU-me-tangere, or Touch-
me-not, so called from the elasticity of its capsules, which open from below upwards, and scatter their seeds
at the slightest touch : it was formerly classed among diuretic medicines. I. Salsainina is an East Indian
annual, everywhere cultivated on account of the abundance and variety of the colours of its flowers, which
have been so doubled by florists as to have become almost regular. I, parviflora is almost naturalized
in shady places near Paris. Hydrocei-a belongs to the marshes of tropical Asia.

XLIX. TROPJEOLEJS.
(TEOPiEOLE^, Jussieu. — Balsaminaoeartjm subordo, Lindl.)

Flowers irregular. Sefals unequal, the posterior spurred. Petals perigynous,
unequal, equal ,cmd alternate with the sepals, orfew&r. Stamens 8, hypogynous. Ovary
free, of three 1-ovuled cells. Seeds exalbuminous. Embryo straight, with thick cotyle-
dons. — Stem herbaceous. Leaves alternate,

' A glance at the seven tribes of GeraniacetS pmyosei Tropdoleie aJe so intermised that it appears imposBible

in the ' Grenera Plantarum,' and here introduced under to keep these groups distinct' as orders. — Ed.

that order (p. 308), will show how the characters used ' 'Not in Biophytmm. — En.
to separate Gercmiacew, Oaalideig, Balsaminece, and

312

XIJX. TROP^OLE^.

NasturUum.

Carpel cub

vertically (mag.).

Nasturtium.

Carpel cut

transversely (mag.).

Nasturtium.
Yertical section of flower.

Nasturtium.
Peduncle aucl calyx.

Succulent, prostrate, glabrous or twining herbs with watery juice ; root usually
tuberous. Primordial leaves opposite, 2- stipulate; the others alternate, exstipulate,
petioled, simple, peltate, entire or lobed, or deeply palmipartite with entire or cut
lobes, sometimes pellucid-dotted. Flowers g , irregular, axillary, long-peduncled.
Calyx coloured, persistent, 5-fid, 2-lipped, the upper lip 2-fid, the lower 3-fid and pro-
longed at the base into a hollow spur, aestivation imbricate or subvalvate. Petals
inserted at the bottom of the calyx, equal and alternate with the sepals, or fewer,
imbricate in sestivation, the 2 upper inserted on the throat of the spur, and exterior,
spreading, and different from the 3 lower, which are usually smaller and sometimes
0. Stamens 8, unequal, inserted on the receptacle, surrounding the ovary ; filaments
subulate, free ; anthers introrse, basifixed, erect, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovart
free, sessile, 3-lobed, 3-celled ; style central, filiform, divided at the top into three
branches terminated by a minute stigma ; ovules solitary, pendulous from the top of
the inner angle of each cell, anatropous. Peuit of 3 indehiscent dry or spongy-

L. LIMNANTHEiE. 313

fleshy carpels, rugose, separating from a short persistent column. Seed inverted;
testa cartilaginous, often confluent with the endocarp. Embryo exalbuminous,
straight; cotyledons thick, hemispheric when young, afterwards often cohering,
auricled at the base, auricles appressed but distinct, concealing the short radicle,
which is near the hilum and superior.

GENUS.
*Trop8eolum.

Tropceolets, placed beside Pelargonium by Bentbam and Hooker fil.,' approacb lAmnanthece (whicb
these authors have also annexed to Oeraniacece) in their persistent calyx, their imbricate perigynous or
sub-perigynous anisostemonous or diplostemonous petals, their whorled carpels adherent around a central
column into an ovary with 1-ovuled cells separating from the column, their exalbuminous seeds, herba-
ceous stem, alternate leaves, and axillary l-flowered peduncles ; Limnanihets being hardly separated, except
by the regularity of their flowers, the staminiferous ring lining the base of the calyx, their deeply 3- or
6-lobed ovary and ascending ovule. For the afiinity with Salsaminece, see this family. Some analogies
have been noticed between TropcBoleee and Lmeee, but the latter differ in their hypogynous regular petals,
the 2-ovuled cells of their ovary, the free styles, and terminal inflorescence. Tropaoleee may with more
reason be compared with Capparideee (see this family).

TropesolecB are all natives of South America, and chiefly of the western slopes of the Andes. They
contain an acrid antiscorbutic piinciple, analogous to that of Crass. The large and small Nasturtium
(T. mcy'us and minus) are cultivated in Europe; their buds and young fruits are employed as a condi-
ment instead of capers. The farinaceous tubers of T. tuberosmn, made into jelly with treacle, furnish
a sort of food to the Peruvians.

L. LIMNANTHEJS.

(LlMNANTHE^, Br. LlMNANTHACE^, Lindl.) /

Sepals 3-5, valvate, or slightly imbricate. Petals equal and alternate with the
sepals, contorted in aestivation, inserted on a glandular ring lining the bottom of the
calyx. Stamens double the number of the petals, sub-perigynous. Ovakt deeply 5-
lobed, style gynobasic, cells 1-ovuled. Ovule erect, anatropous. Ripe carpels /ree,
indehiscent. Embrto exalbuminous. — Stem herbaceous. Leaves alternate.

Annual succulent glabrous diffuse marsh plants. Leaves alternate, long-
petioled, pinnatifid or bipinnatifid, with narrow . lanceolate or oval divisions ;
stipules 0. Flowers regular, ^ ; peduncles axillary, long, l-flowered, solitary,
ebracteate and thickened at the top. Sepals 5, valvate in aestivation {Limnanthes),
or 3, slightly imbricate {FlcerJcea). Petals 5 or 3, sub-perigynous, contorted in
aestivation, marcescent. Stamens 10 {Limnanthes), or 6 {FlcerJcea), sub-perigynous ;
filaments piano-subulate or subulate-filiform, marcescent, some opposite to the
petals, others opposite to the sepals and furnished with a gland at the base ; anthers
introrse, subglobular-didymous, dehiscence longitudinal. Carpels 5 {Limnanthes),
or 3 {Floerkea), opposite to the sepals, nearly free, connate at the base into a deeply
5-3-lobed ovary, 5-3-celled ; style gynobasic, with 6-3 short stigmatiferous bra;nches ;
ovules solitary in each cell, ascending, anatropous, micropyle inferior, raphe dorsal.

' See Qeraniacea, p. 308.

314

L. LIMNANTHEJB.

Linwanthes.
Liinnanihes Doittflasii. St3'le and stigmas (mag.).

Eipe CARPELS free, indehiscent (achenes), at first fleshy, then coriaceous, rugose.
Seed erect, testa membranouSj. Embeto exalbuminous, straight; cotyledons fleshy,
thick, green, cordate at the base, and enclosing the rery short, inferior radicle.

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.
*Limnanthes. Floerkea.

Limnanthece are closely allied to Tropaolea (see this family). By Bentliam and Hooker fll. they
have been annexed to Oeraniacem (see this family).

Limnanthece inhabit the temperate i-egions of North America. Limnanthes Douglasii, a Oalifornian
herb, is cultiyated in Europe as an ornamental plant ; it has a subaorid taste, which confirms its affinity
with Tropmolmn.

\BVTAL FAMILY OB ALLIANCE.

The following is the arrangement of the great family of Rutacem proposed by the
Editor and Bentham ; most of the tribes of -which are treated as orders in this work : —

LI. EUTACE^. 315

Series A. — Ovary deeply 2-5-lobed ; styles basilar or ventral, free or connate by tlieir
stigmas only. Fruit capsular or of 3-5 cocci, endocarp usually separating.

Teibb I. CuSPAEiEJi (see p. 322). — Flowers usually irregular. Corolla usually tubular,
gamopetalous. Stamens 5, some often anantberous, free or adberent to tbe corolla. Ovules
2. Albumen scanty or 0. Cotyledons convolute. — Leaves usually broad and compound,
leaflets 3-5. Tropical America. Almeidea, ErythrocMton, Oalipea, Ticorea, Monneira, &c.

Tribe II. Rute^ (see RoTACEiE, p. 315). — Flowers regular (except Dictamnus), $ ^?,
often 4-merous. Petals and stamens free, spreading. Disk free, thick. Ovules 3 or
more. Albumen flesby. Embryo «ften curved.-^-Herbs, often shrubby below. Leaves often
pinnatisect. Chiefly natives of th» north temperate regions. Buta, Bainninghausenia, Pega-
nvrni, Dictamnus.

Tribe III. Diosmej: (see p. 321). — Flowers regular, usually 5 ■ Petals free, usually
erect. Stamens 4-5, inserted beneath the free edge of a disk that is adnate to the calyx-tube.
Ovary usually deeply 4-lobed. Ovules usually geminate in each cell. Carpels often beaked.
Albumen 0. Embryo straight ; cotyledons fleshy. — Usually heath-like shrubs. All South
African. Galodendroii, EucliCBtis, Macrostylis, Diosma, Goleonema, Acmadenia, Adenandra,
Barosma, Agathosma, &c.

Tribe IV. Boeoniej3 (see p. 322). — Flowers regular, g . Petals and stamens free. Disk
free, cupular or annular, or 0. Ovules 2, superimposed in each cell, rarely geminate. Carpels
2-6. Albumen fleshy, embryo terete. — Shrubs. All Australasian. Zieria, Gyanothamnus,
Phebalium, PMlotheca, Ghorilcena, Boronia, Uriostemon, Orowea, Gorrea, Diplolcena.

Tribe V. Zanthoxtlej! (seep. 323). — Flowers regular, usually polygamo-dicecious. Petals
and stamens free, spreading. Disk free, annular or tumid, or 0. Ovules 2, geminate or super-
imposed. Carpels 2-5. Embryo straight or curved ; cotyledons usually flat. — Tropical trees
or shrubs with compound leaves. Meliaope, Za/nthoxyluTii, Pilocarpus, Evodia, Geijera, Esen-
hecJda.

Series B. — Ovary entire or aiightly lobed ; style terminal. Fruit drupaceous or coria-
ceous, rarely dehiscent.

Tribe VI. Toddaliej! (see Zanthoxylej;, p. 323). — Flowers regular, often polygamo-
dicecious. Petals and stamens free. Disk free. Albumen usually fleshy. Cotyledons flat. —
Shrubs or trees, usually tropical. Toddalia, Sostia, Acronyc'hia, Gasimiroa, Phellodendron,
Ptelea, Sl'imviia.

Tribe VII. Auranties (see order Aueantiace^, p. 318). — Flowers regular, 5 • Petals
and stamens free or connate. Ovules 1-2 or more. Berry pulpy, usually with a thick rind.
Seeds exalbuminous. Leaves 1-3-foliolate or pinnate. — Tropical trees and shrubs. Gh/cosmis,
Triphasia, Glausena,Atalaniia, Feroifa, Micromelum, Murraya, Luvunga, Gitnis, Mgle.

As thus extended, Butacew embrace 83 genera and 650 known species. — Ed.]

LI. RUTACEJ2.

(HuTACEARUM 'pars, JussieM.—'Rv'S'&M, Adr, Jusdeu. — Euta0E.<E, Bartling.)

Petals 4-5, hypogynous. Stamens generally double the number of the petals,
inserted at the base of a thicTt disk. Ovaet d-^h-lobed, cells 2~4-co -ovuled. Feuit a
capsule. Embeto albuminous, more or less curved. — Scented plants. Leaves alternate,
usually pellucid- dotted, exstipuiHe.

:316

LI. EUTACE^.

Dittany.
Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Tha7iinosma.

Flower deprived of

calyx and corolla

to sliow the long

stalked ovaiy.

Dittany.
Pistil and androecium (mag.).

Dittany.
Pistil and calyx (mag.).

Dittany (Didanmus albus).

Dittany.
Seed, entire and cut vertically
(mag.).

Eue.

Seed, entire and cut ve^jcally

(mag.).

Dittany.
Diagram.

Dittany.
Fruit (mag.).

Hue.
Fruit, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

LI. EUTACE^.

317

Hue,
Vei-tical section of flower (mag.).

Rue.'
Quinary flower (ma^.).

Eue.
Quaternary flower (mag,).

Perennial heebs, often suffruticose at the
base. Leaves alternate, simple, variously cut,
rarely quite entire, usually pellucid-dotted or
Rue (.Ruia grmmiens). tubercled ; sUpules 0, Or replaced by 2 bristle-

like teeth at the base of the leaves (Peganum).
Flowers 2 , regular, terminal, in racemes or a corj^mb, yellow, or sometimes white.
Calyx persistent, 4-6-partite, aestivation imbricate. Petals 4-5, inserted at the base
of a shorter or longer gynophore, Eestivation imbricate. Stamens inserted with the
petals, generally double, sometimes triple {Peganum), rarely equal {Thamnosma) in
number; filaments filiform, free, or sometimes shortly monadelphous, base often
dilated; anthers introrse, connective sometimes glandular at the tip {Haplophyllum), de-
hiscence longitudinal. Ovabt deeply 2-3-5-lobed, 2-3-5-celled, seated on a gynophore
usually dilated at the base into a glandular disk ; styles central, sometimes distinct
at the base and top {Boenninghausenia), usually connate, stigmatiferous at the top,
or on the angles ; ovules 3— 4-oo in each cell, inserted on a projecting placenta at the
inner angle of the cell, 2-seriate, anatropous or semi-anatropous. Feuit a capsule,
sometimes opening in 3-4 loculicidal valves {PegoMum), sometimes in 4-5 lobes
opening at the top {Buta), sometimes fleshy and indehiscent [Rideria), sometimes
separating into cocci [Dictamnus, Beenn/inghausenia), endocarp sometimes crustaceous
or cartilaginous, -and separating from the epicarp (Dictamnus). Seeds pendulous, or
ventrally fixed ; testa crustaceous or spongy, pitted and granular ; albumen fleshy.
Embryo axile, curved or rarely straight {Dictamnus) ; radicle superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
*Ruta. Peganum. *Dictamnus.

*Bo6nninghausenia.

RutaceeB are very closely allied to Biosmea, which can only be distinguished from them by the
woody stem, the 2-ovuled ovaiian cells, and the usually straight embryo. They also approach ZygophyUecs,

318

LIT. AUEANTIACBiE.

Oxalidees, and Simarulece (see these families). Bentham and Hooker fil. have united with them Dioamea,
Am-antiece and Zanthoxyhce (see these families). Rutacea; all belongs to the Old World ; they especially
abound in the north temperate hemisphere, the shores of the Mediterranean, and South Siberia ; and they
become very rave towards the poles and equator. Bwiininghmisenia iuhabits the Himalayas and Japan.

SittacecB owe their stimulating properties to a bitter substance, a resinous acrid principle, and
especially to a volatile oil, secreted by the glands of the leaves and flowers. The Bne {Ruta graveolens),
a native of the Mediterranean region, and cultivated in all gardens, is remarkable for its strong smell and
acrid taste, and its essence, obtained by distillation, is employed as a sudorific, vermifuge, and emmen-
agogue. Vinegar of Rue was regarded during many centuries as a certain remedy against the plague,
The Romans used Rue as a condiment, as do the Germans still. Ruta montnna, which grows in Spain,
is so extremely acrid that it produces erysipelas and ulcerous pustules on the skin of those who gather it.
Saplophyllum tuberculatum is so much less acrid that the Egyptian women bruise its leaves in water,
and use it as a hair-wash. The peduncles and flowers of the European Dittany (^Dictammis albim) are
laden with pedicelled glands which secrete an abundant volatile oil so copiously that the plant
ignites at the approach of a candle ; its resinous scented and bitter root is tonic and stimulating. Peyanmn
Harinala grows in sandy soil iu the Mediterranean region; its smell is repulsive and its taste acrid and
bitter ; the Turks use its seeds as a condiment, and obtain a red dye from them.

LII. AURANTIACEJE.

(Atjeantioeum sectio, Jussieu. — Hespeeideaeum sectio, Ventenat. — Aueantiacb^,

Correa.)

Orange (Citrus Aurantium).

Orange. Orange.

Patt of anaroecinm (mag.). Calyx and ovary (mag.).

Lir. AUEANTIACB^.

319

Orange.

Transverse section of

fruit.

Orange. Orange. Bergera.

Calyx and Calyx and Plower without

androecium (mag.), pistil (mag.). corolla (mag.).

Bergera. Bergera.

Vertical section of Pistil

ovary (mag.). (mag.).

Orange. Seed, entire and cut (mag.).

Petals hypogynous, cestivation imbri-
cate. Stamens hypogynous, double or
multiple the number of the petals, free,
monadelphous or polyadelphous. OvABT
several-celled. Ovules 1-2 or more in each
cell, pendulous or horizontal, ana.tropous. Fruit a l-m,any-seed6d berry. Embryo
exalbuminous. — Stem woody. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate or 1-foliolate.

Trees or shrubs, usually glabrous; bark, leaves, calyx, corolla, filaments and
epicarp covered with vesicles containing a volatile oil. Leaves persistent, alternate,
compound, often 1-foliolate by suppression, witb the leaflet jointed, or the top an
often winged petiole ; stipules ; buds axillary, the outer often spinescent.
Flowers generally 5 , regular, terminal, solitary, or corymbose or racemed. Calyx
short, urceolate or campanulate, 4-5-toothed or -fidj rarely 3-fid {Triphasia), some-
times nearly entire, imbricate in sestivation, marcescent. Petals inserted below
the ovary at the base of a stipitiform, annular or cupuliform disk, free or slightly
connate at the base, imbricate in sestivation, deciduous. Stamens inserted on the
receptacle, double or multiple the number of the petals ; filaments free, or mona-
delphous at their base or to the middle, or polyadelphous, linear-subulate, usually
dilated, thinner above, equal or the alternate shorter ; anthers introrse, dorsi- or basi-
fixed, incumbent, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary free, sometimes girt by the
cupuliform disk, 5-many-celled ; style terminal, simple, stout ; stigma capitate,
undivided or lobed ; ovules inserted at the inner angle of the cells, solitary or 2,
collateral or superimposed, or numerous and 2-seriate, pendulous or rarely hori-
zontal, anatropous. Berry fleshy or dry, bark thick, indehiscent, of 2 or several
usually 1-seeded cells filled with mucilage or vesiculose cellules. Seeds inverted or
sub-horizontal, testa membranous, raphe branching, chalaza coloured ; albumen 0.
Embryos (sometimes several in each cell) straight ; cotyledons either fleshy, amyg-
daloid, plano-convex, often unequal, or thick, green, lobulate, auricled ; radicle short,
near the hilum, superior.

* Triphasia.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
*Limonia. *Murraya. *Cookia.

"Citrus.

320 LII. AUEANTIACE^.

Aurantiacece have been united by Lindley and Hooker and Bentham to Rutacece, Diosmees, and
Zanthorylecs, with which they are, in fact, closely allied, these latter being scarcely separated, except
by their more or less distinct carpels with a basilar or ventral style, by their capsular fruit and
albuminous seed ; and even these differences disappear in many Diosmem which are exalbuminous, and
In some Zanthoxyka which have a fleshy fruit ; a genus of the latter family, Skimmia, has in fact been
classed among Aurantiacem, and placed in the genus Limonia. Aurantiacece approach Meliaoecs in the
petals inserted at the base of a hypogynous disk, in the connate iilaments, several-celled ovary, simple
style, fleshy fruit, woody stem and alternate leaves ; but in Meliaceee, besides the difference in habit, the
leaves are eglandular, the sepals are more or less distinct, and the seed is sometimes albuminous.
CedrelacecB are connected with Am-antiacecB through the genus Flindefrsia, the leaves of which are dotted,
the stamens inserted at the base of the disk, and the embryo albuminous ; the principal difference is the
capsular fruit of Flindersia. Humiriaoece are also connected with Aurantiacea by most of the characters,
and are scarcely separated save by their anthers, drupaceous fruit, and abundant albumen. Burseraccce
are also related to them, especially the genus Amyris, and are distinguished by their drupaceous fruit.
Finally, an affinity has been noticed by Planchon between Aurantiacees and Hypericinecs, founded on the
glandular leaves and flowers, hypogynous petals, polyadelphous stamens, sometimes fleshy fruit ( Vismid),
and exalbuminous embryo. The same observation holds good for Myrtacece, and especially for the
genera with free ovaries {Fremya).

Aurantiaceee are almost wholly tropical Asiatic, but various species are now cultivated in the warm
regions of both continents.

The wide-spread celebrity of the genus Citrus from the earliest times is firstly due to the
free acids (citric and malic) contained in the cells of its parenchyma, which fill the fruit ; and secondly,
to the sweet and pungent volatile oil secreted by the glands which abound in nearly all parts of the
plant. The acids are used in domestic economy and in medicine, as refreshing, laxative, and antiseptic.
A small quantity of the aromatic principle dissolved in water, by infusion of the leaves or distillation of
the flowers, affords a stimulating antispasmodic. The volatile oil, obtained by distillation of the flowers
and epicarp, is employed in perfumery, either mixed with fat as a pomade, or dissolved in alcohol as the
cosmetic known as eau de Cologne.

The Orange {Citrus Aurantiurn) is universally sought for its acid- sweet fruit. The Seville Orano-e
(C communis) has a bitter fruit, but it is not less useful; its leaves are used in infusions; its flowers yield
the distilled water so much used in medicine, and the volatile oil called essence of Neroli. From its
young fruits, gathered soon after flowering, is distilled a Neroli oil called essence ' de petit grain.' The
epicarp of the Seville or bitter Orange is used in the preparation of a dye ; it is also made into a syrup and a
marmalade, and is one of the principal ingredients of the highly esteemed liqueur Curacoa. The ' Oedrat '
(C mediea'^) bears large oblong fruits with a rough surface; the rind yields a perfume by expression or
distillation ; the inner rind is thick and fleshy, and a pleasant preserve is prepared from it. The Lemon
(C Limommi) has an ovoid fruit, mamillate at the top ; its rind adheres strongly to the very acid pulp.
The variety of this species known under the name of Citron " yields the medicinal preparation called syrup
of lemons.

The Lime (C Limetta) bears «, globular berry with mild and insipid juice ;» another species,
perhaps only a variety of the preceding, C. Sergamota, produces small pyriform fruits, the pulp of which
is acid and bitter; but their rind is thin, of a golden yellow, and filled with a sweet essence; formerly
sweetmeats called lergamottes were made of it ; now it is only used for the expression of essence of
Bergamot. The fruits of C. myrtifolia and C. deliciosa, preserved in brandy, are called ' Chinois.' The
Tangerine Orange is well known for its peculiar scent, insipid juice, and flaccid loose rind. The berries of
£ome other genera from China and Japan are eatable ; as Qlyoosmis citrifoUa, Triphasia trifoliata, Mgh
marmelos, Cooliia punctata, &c.

' This is best known in England as the Citron. — En.

2 The Citron of the English markets is 0. medica.

' The juice of the Lime is the tartest of the genus, and forms a well-known ingredient of Glasgow punch.— Ed.

LIII. DI03MEJ]].

321

LIII. DIOSMEJE.

(RuTACEAEUM genera, Jussieu. — Diosmeakum genera, Br. — Diosme^, Adr. Jussieu.)

D. tenui/olia.
Flower-bud (mag.).

B. tenuifoha.
Expanded flower (mag.).

Diosma longifolia.

D. tenuifolia.
Seed, entire and cut Tertically,

showing the
testa surmounted by a crest.

Z). tenui/olia.
Flower cut Tertically (mag,).

D. tenuifoUa. Fruit (mag.).

D. ericoides. Diagram.

B. ienvifoUa.
Seed depriyed of its testa,
showing the inner chalaza
(mag.).

J), alba.

Seed with lateral

hilum (mag.).

, Diosma.
Exalbuminoufl
embryo (mag.).

Petals 5-4, inserted on a hypo-
gynous disk, imhricate. Stamens equal
and alternate with the petals, or double
the number. Ovaries distinct or co-
herent, 2-ovuled. Feuit a capsule, divid-
ing into cocci. Seeds albuminous or
exalbuminous. Embeto usually straight.
— Scented plants. Stem woody. Leaves usually glandular- dotted, exstipulate.

Small teees or shetjbs. Leaves opposite or alternate, coriaceous, usually-
simple, sometimes 3-foliolate {Spiranthera, Zi&ria, &c.), rarely pinnate [Boronia),
usually glaudular-dotted ; stipules 0, or replaced by glands at the base of the
petioles. Plowees ^ , or very rarely imperfect by suppression {Empleurum), regular,

. axillary or terminal, solitary, or in an umbel, corymb or panicle, rarely in an involu-
crate capitulum {Diplolwna). Calyx 4-5-fid or -partite, imbricate in aestivation.
Petals 4-5, inserted under a free or rarely sub-perigynous disk, imbricate in aestiva-
tion, usually free, rarely connate, or conniving by their dilated bases into a cylin-
drical tube, and then valvate in aestivation: [Gorrea, Nematolepis, &c.), or {Em-

pleurum). Stamens inserted with the petals, generally equal, rarely double in

322 LIIT. DIOSME^.

number (when those opposite the petals are imperfect, or shorter than the others) ;
filaments subulate, usually free, rarely monadelphous {Erythrochiton), or adherent to
the petals [Galipea, &c.) ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, dorsifixed near their base ;
cells parallel, opening longitudinally ; connective often prolonged into a glandular
appendage [Crawea, Eriostemon, PMlotheca, &c.). Caepels 5-3, rarely 1 {Em-
pleurum), sessile or borne on a gynophore, girt with a disk at their base, or buried
in this dist, united into a deeply-lobed ovary, lobes distinct, cohering only by the
styles ; styles as many as ovaries, springing from their ventral edge, distinct at the
base, connate above ; stigmas united in a head, lobed or 3-5 -furrowed ; ovules 2 in
each cell, inserted at the middle of the ventral suture, collateral or superimposed.
Capsules of 3-5 cocci, distinct or connate at the base, 1-seeded by suppression;
epicarp dry, sub-coriaceous, glandular-dotted or muricate ; endocarp smooth, cartila-
ginous, often elastic and 2-valved. Seeds oblong or sub-reniform ; testa cartilaginous,
smooth ; albumen 0, or fleshy. Embrto usually straight, rarely curved {Almeida,
Spiranthera, &c.) ; cotyledons flat or crumpled, enveloping each other, foliaceous in
germination ; radicle usually superior, straight or inflexed.

Tkibe I. EVBI08MEM:

Fertile stamens equal in number with the petals, often alternating with as
many staminodes, inserted below the free edge of a disk which lines the calyx-
tube. Carpels 2-ovuled. Testa coriaceous or sub-crustaceous. Embryo exal-
buminous, straight. — Heath-like shrubs with alternate or opposite simple coria-
ceous small and imbricate leaves, rarely trees with large leaves (Galodendron) .

PRINCIPAL

GENEEA.

'Calodendron.

*Co]eonema.

*Acmadei)ia.

*Adenandra.

*Diosma.

*Agathosma.

*Barosma.

Tribe II. BOBONIE^.

Stamens hypogynous, double in number to the petals, and all fertile, rarely
equal and perigynous (Zieria). Disk free, cupuliform or annular, sometimes in-
conspicuous. Testa crustaceous. Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight, cylindric. —
Shrubs, rarely trees. Leaves simple or 3-foliolate or pinnate.

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.

*Correa. 'Diploloena. *Phebaliuni. *Crowea.

*Eriostemon. *Boronia. *Zieria.

Tribe III. GVSPARIEJJl.

Flowers often irregular, corolla often tubular. Stamens 5, some often imper-
fect, sometimes hypogynous, sometimes connate, or adnate to the corolla. Disk
usually cupular {Almeida, Naudinia, Ticorea, &c.), or urcealate {Erythrochiton),

LIV. ZANTHOXYLEiE. 323

sometimes columnar [S'pir anther a), rarely depressed . (Galipea), or squamiforra,
unilateral (If owmerm). Carpels 2-ovuled ; festo coriaceous ; em6ri/o eialbuminous,
curved ; cotyledons crumpled, conyolute. — Leaves usually alternate, 1-3-foliolate.

PEINCIPAL aENERA.
Monnieria. Galipea. *Erythrocliiton. Almeidea. Spiranthera.

Diosmem cannot be separated from Ridaeece (see this family) ; the genus Bictmnnus tmites them by
its irregular flowers, straight embryo, 4-07uled ovarian cells, albuminous seed, herbaceous stem, and
imparipinnate leaves. Zanthoxylece are equally near, in their regular flowers, polypetalous hypogynous
imbricate isostemonous or diplostemonous corolla, free or nearly free carpels with 2-ovuled cells, often
elastic endocarp, straight (rarely curved) embryo, woody stem, and usually pellucid-dotted simple or com-
pound alternate and opposite exstipulate leaves ; they scarcely differ save in the diclinous flowers and
fruit, Diosmem have also some analogy with Simaruhece (see this family).

UtidiosmecB all belong to South Africa ; Boronieee to Australia, and Cuspariea to tropical America.
The volatile oil and the aromatic resin of Eudiosmece are stimulating and antispasmodic, and many species
are thus used by the natives and colonists of the Cape. The leaves oiBarosma crenata also contain a prin-
ciple (diosmine), owing to which they are now admitted into European medicine as diuretics and dia-
phoretics, in affections of the kidneys and bladder, in rheumatism, and even cholera. The properties of
Boroniete are little known; in Australia the leaves of Correa are made use of as tea. In the hark of some
Cnspariem there is a bitter alkaloid (angusturine or cusparine), united with a soft resin and a little volatile
oil, which places them, after quinine, amongst the most efficacious tonics and febrifuges. According to
some this bark is yielded by the Gcdipea Cusparia, a large tree forming vast forests on the banks of the
Orinoco ; according to others, by G. officinalis, a shrub of the same country. The bark of Tioorea fehrifuga,
a Brazilian and Guiana tree, is also recommended as a substitute for quinine. The aromatic and acrid
root of Monnieria trifolia, a plant distinguished from its woody congeners by its herbaceous stem, is
praised in America as a diaphoretic, diuretic and alexipharmio.

LIV. ZANTHOXYLE^, Adr. Jussieu.
(DiosMEARUM genera et Ptelbacb^, Kunth. — Xanthoxtlace^, Lindl.)

rLOWBRS regular, very often polygamo-dioecious. Petals 5-4-3, imbricate or
valvate, inserted at the base of a free dish. Stamens inserted with the petals, equal
or double them in number. Carpels distinct or connate, 2-ovuled. Fruit a drupe
or samara, or of separate dehiscent cocci. Albumen fleshy, rarely 0. Embryo axile,
straight or curved. — Stem woody. Leaves exstipulate, usually glandular-dotted.

Large or small trees or shrubs, unarmed, thorny, or aculeate. Leaves
alternate or opposite, rarely whorled (Pitavia, Pilocarpus), generally pinnate, or
imparipinnate, often 1-foliolate by suppression of tlie lateral leaflets {Zanthoxylum,
Evodia, &c.), usually pellucid-dotted, rarely simple {Shimmia), petiole sometimes
maro-ined or winged [Zanthoxylum) ; stipules 0. Flowers usually imperfect,
regular, axillary or terminal, mostly arranged in axillary cymes, panicles or corymbs,
rarely in racemes or spikes [Pilocarpus, Esenbechia), very rarely solitary [Astro-
phyllum). Calyx persistent or deciduous, 4-5- (rarely 3-) partite [Zanthoxylum),
aestivation imbricate, or rarely valvate (ilfeZawococca). .Petals inserted at the base
of a free disk, in a ring or cushion, sometimes inconspicuous, imbricate or valvate in

V 2

324

LTV. ZAISTTHOXYLE^.

Z. fraxineum ^.

Zanihoxylum fraxineum 9.

ZantTioxylum.
Flower-bud (mag.).

Zanthoxylum. $ flower.

ZantJioxylum. Q flower (mag.).

Zanthoxylum.
Diagram 9.

Zanthoxylum.
Two carpels (mag.).

(^® (?)

o

Zanthoxylum. Diagram J.

Zanthoxylum.

Zanthoxylum.

r\-nmi /xi-rtMil fmarr ^

Zanthoxylum.

LIV. ZANTHOXYLE^. 325

BBstivation, deciduous, rarely [Zanthoxylum). Flq-weks S : Stamens inserted with
the petals, equal and alternate, or double in number ; filaments filiform or subulate,
free ; anthers dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary rudimentary, stipitate, sometimes 0.
Flowebs ? : Stamens or rudimentary, inserted at the base of the disk, shorter
than the ovary. Carpels equal with the petals or fewer, distinct, or connate at the
base, or throughout into a several-celled ovary ; ovules 2 in each cell, superimposed
or collateral, very rarely solitary {SMmmia), usually anatropous or semi-anatropous.'
Fruit sometimes simple, 2-5-celled, fleshy {Toddalia, Acronychia, SUmmia), or
rarely a samara {Ptelea), usually a capsule opening in dehiscent shells by their inner
edge, sometimes compound, formed of several drupes {Melanococca, &c.) or capsules
{Zanthoxylum, Boymia) ; endocarp sometimes separating elastically. Seeds pendu-
lous ; testa coriaceous or crustaceous, usually smooth, shining ; albumen fleshy,
rarely {Pilocarpus, Usenbechia, Casimvroa). Embeto axUe, straight or slightly
curved ; cotyledons oval or oblong, flattened ; radicle shorter than the cotyledons,
superior.

PRINCIPAL G-ENEEA.
*SHmmia. *Zanthoxylum. Pitavia. Toddalia. *Ptelea. Acronychia.

Zanthoxylece are allied to Rutacees, Diosmece and Simantbecs (see these families). They also approach
JBursei-acets in the woody stem, pellucid-dotted compound exstipulate leave?, often polygamo-dioecious
flowers, aestivation of the calyx and corolla, annular or cupuliforni disk, diplostemony, 2-ovuled ovarian
cells, and drupaceous fruit. Zanthoxyleee also present more than one point of analogy with Anaoardiacea ;
but they have most affinity with AurawtiacecB, so much so that a Skimmia has been described as a species of
Limcmia.

ZantJioxyhce inhabit the tropical regions of Asia, and especially of America; they are less numerous
in extra-tropical America, South Africa, and Australia. Zuntltoxykim belongs to the tropical zone of
both worlds ; Skimmia to Japan and the Himalayas ; Toddalia to tropical Asia and Africa ; Ptelea to
North America. Australia possesses the genera Acfonychia, Pentaceras, Medicosma, &c.

Some species of this family are medicinal : the bark of Zanthoxylum, and especially that of the root,
contains a bitter crystallizable principle (zanthopicrite), an acrid resin, and a yellow colouring matter.
The aromatic root of Z. mft'^Mwi is classed in China amongst sudorifics, emmenagogues, and febrifuges;
the leaves contain a little volatile oil, whence they are used as a condiment. Z. Budrunga in India is
similarly employed. Z. Rethsa grows on the Indian mountains ; its young fruits have the taste of orange-
rind, and its seeds that of black pepper. The capsules of Z. piperitum, all parts of which have an acrid
aroma, afford the Japan pepper of commerce. The bark of Z. fraxineum, a native of North America, is a
reputed diuretic and sudorific ; it is also chewed to excite salivation and to alleviate toothache. Z. ter-
natum and Clava-HerauUs are similarly used ; they are West Indian shrubs which yield a yellow dye ; their
bark is regarded as antisyphilitic and their bitter astringent leaves as a vulnerary. Finally, the seeds of
some species are employed to poison fish. Ptelea trifoliata, commonly called Three-leaved or Samarian Elm,
is a small Carolina tree cultivated in Europe; its leaves are considered in North America as a vermifuge, and
detergent for ulcers. Its bitter aromatic capsules are a substitute for hops in brewing ; but this substitu-
tion is not without its inconveniences. Toddalia aculeata, a shrub of tropical Asia, all parts of which
contain an aromatic bitter acrid principle, is used by the natives of the Indian Archipelago as a stomachic,
a febrifuge, and as seasoning for food.

326

LV. SIMAEUBE^.

LV. SIMARUBEJS, B.C.
(SiMARUBACE^, Bichard. — Simarubb^, D.G., Planchon, Benth. et Hooh. fil.)

Ailantue glandulosa.

Ailantus.

A ilantus

Transverse section of seed

Embryo

(mag.).

(mag.).

Ailantus.
(? flower (mag,)'

Ailantus,
3 flower cut vertically (mag.).

[#^'

Ailantus. _

Diagram of base of /. \

flower.

Ailantus.
Petal (mag.)

Ailantus.
Stamen (mag.)

n

Ailantus.

Diagram of top of

flower.

Ailantus.

■pistil formed of five

aduate carpels (mag.).

LV. SIMAEUBB^.

327

Cneorum.

Vertical section of flower

(mag.).

Cneorum, Quassia, Quassia.

Audrcecium and Yertical section of Flower-bud

pistil. carpel (mag.). (mag.).

Cneorum ttncoccum.

Cneorum.
Vertical section of carpel (mag.).

Cneorum.
Seed, entire and cut Tertically (mag,).

Flowers didmous or polygamous. Petals 3—5, rarehj 0, hypogynousy imbricate
or valvate. Stamens inserted at the base of a hypogynous disk, as m>any or twice as
many as the petals, rarely oo. Carpels 2~?>jfreey or cownaterinto a deeply-lohed 1-5-
celled ovary. Ovules usually solitary in each cell. Fruit a drupe, capsule or samara.
Seebs pendulous, albuminous or not. Embryo straight or bent. — Stem woody. Leaves
usually alternate and pinnate, not dotted.

Shrubs or scentless trees ; bark often bitter, sometimes extremely so. Leaves
alternate, or rarely opposite {Brunellia, Cneoridium), pinnate, rarely 1-3-foliolate

328 LV. SIMARUBE^.

{Harrisonia, BrunelUa), or 2-foliolate [Balanites), or simple [Cneorum, Oastela,

Soulamsa, &c.), not dotted, very rarely stipulate {BrunelUa, Irvingia, OadelUa).

Flowers diclinous or polygamous, regular, usually axillary, panicled or racemed, or

rarely the ^ in a spike, the ? solitary (Picrodendron). Caltx 8-5-lobed or -partite,

regular, very rarely sub-bilabiate [Eannoa), aestivation imbricate or valvate. Petals

3-5, very rarely {BrunelUa, Amaroria), free, or very rarely connivent into a tube

{Quassia), hypogynous ; aestivation imbricate, valvate or contorted. Disk annular,

cupuliform or tumid, entire or lobed, sometimes elongated into a column {Quassia,

Cneorum), rarely inconspicuous {Suriana, Picrolemma), or {Spathelia, Eurycoma,

Gadellia). Stamens inserted at the base of the disk, double the number of the

petals, or equal and alternate, very rarely opposite to the petals {Picrolemma,

Picramnia), very rarely more than 10 {Mannia) ; filaments free, naked or more often

hairy, or furnished with a scale at the base; anthers oblong, usually introrse, 2-

celled, dehiscence longitudinal. Cakpels 2-5, rarely solitary {Gneoridium, Amaroria) ,

completely free {BrunelUa, 8uriana), or connate at the iDase only, or cohering by the

styles only, or completely united into a 2-5-celled ovary ; styles 2-5, free at the base

and top ; stigmas free or cohering in a head ; ovules usually solitary in each cell,

sometimes geminate, very rarely 4—5 {Dictyoloma), or oo {Koeberlinia) , fixed to the

inner angle of the cell, anatropoiis, raphe ventral and micropyle superior, very rarely

ascending vyith a dorsal raphe and inferior micropyle {Gneoridium). Fruit usually

of fleshy or dry drupes, rarely of 2-valved capsules {Dictyoloma, BrunelUa), ov inde-

hiscent {Soulamea), very rarely of samaras {Ailantus). Seeds pendulous, usually

solitary ; testa membranous : albumen usually or scanty, rarely copious {Cneorum,

Brucea, BrunelUa, Spathelia). Embryo straight or rarely curved {Cneorum, Suriana,

Dictyoloma) ; cotyledons plano-convex, or flat, rarely coiled or folded {Harrisonia,

Gadellia) ; radicle superior.

Tribe I. EUSIMARUBE^.

Carpels free or nearly so.

principal genera.

•Quassia. Simaba. Hannoa. Simaruba. 'Ailantus.

Samadera. Castela. Cneorum. Brucea. Prinera.

Euryloma. Dictyoloma. Gadellia. Suriana. Bninellia.

Tribe II. PIGRAMNIEJJ}.
Carpels united into a non-lobed ovary, 2 -5-1-celled.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Irvingia. Harrisonia. Balanites. Spathelia. Picramnia. Picrodendron.

The family of Simarubeee, as reconstituted by Bentham and Hooker fil. and Planohon, only differs
from Eidacete, Diosmea, Zanthoxylers, and Hesperideai in its eglandular leaves, often bitter bark, and
filaments usually furnished with a scale ; characters -which, although not of a high intrinsic value,

LVI. OCHNACE^. 329

naturally connect the genera of Simarubece, and clearly distinguish them from the above-named families.
The affinity is less close with Zygophyllem (see this family). They appear somewhat nearer to Oohnacece
(which see).

Simaruhem mostly grow in the torrid zone. Quassia, Simaha, Simaruha, Castela, Picramnia, &c., belong
to tropical America ; Harmon, Samadera, Brucea, Balanites, to tropical Africa ; the three latter also inhabit
Asia, as well as Pia-asma and Ailantus. Suriana is found on sea-coasts throughout the intertropical zone.
Saulamea, Ewycoma, and Harrisonia, are natives of the Malayan Archipelago and Pacific Islands ; the latter
also grows in Australia, as does Cadellia. Cneorum inhabits the Mediterranean region and the Canaries.

Many plants belonging to the genera of the first tribe {Quassia, Simaha, Simaruba) contain a peculiar
principle, extremely bitter, in combination with salts, a resinous matter, and a small quantity* of volatile
oil, which gives them tonic properties, and renders them very digestive. Quassia amara occupies the
first rank amongst bitter medicines. The bark of the root and trunk of Simaruba guianensis and amara
yields the Simaruba of the druggist, the virtues of which rival those of Quassia. S. versieoloi- is much
renowned among the Brazilians, who apply a decoction of its bark and leaves to snake-bites and syphilitic
exanthema. The Simahas of Guiana and Brazil, and the Samaderas of India, are also extremely bitter, and
possess similar properties. The inner bark of Brucea antidysenterica, an Abyssinian shrub, is regarded as
an admirable medicine in cases of dysentery and obstinate intermittent fevers. B. sumatrana, which
grows in the Moluccas and India, possesses the same properties. Ailantus glundulosa, a native of
China, and naturalized in the temperate parts of Europe, is commonly called Japan varnish, a name
which perpetuates an error (see Terebinthacea, p. 363). \_Balanites <Bgyi->tiaca, a spinous shrub of Syria,
Arabia, and North Africa, bears drupes which are acric", bitter and purgative when young, but edible
when old. Its seeds yield a fatty oil, the zachun of the Arabs. — Ed. ]

LVI. OCHNACEJ^, B.C.
(OcHNACE^, B.Q. — Planchoji, Benth. et Hook, fit.)

Sepals 4-5. Petals as many- or twice as many. Stamens double or multiple
the number of the petals ; anthers dehiscing at the top. Caepbls 4-5 or more, united at
the base by the gynobasic style, 1-ovuled. Frxjit: fleshy. Albximeit scanty or 0. — Stem
woody. Leaves alternate, stipulate.

Shrubs or trees with watery juice. Leaves alternate, stipulate, glabrous,
simple, or very rarely pinnate {Oodoya), coriaceous, shining, often toothed, margin
sometimes thickened, midrib strong, the lateral nerves close, parallel. Flowers ? ,
usually panicled, rarely axillary and solitary, or fascicled. Sepals 4-5, free, imbri-
cate, very often scarious, concave and striate. Petals hypogynous, 5, rarely 3-4 or
10 (Ochna), free, longer than the calyx, deciduous, spreading, estivation imbricate or
contorted. Disk elongating after flowering, never annular nor glandular, often
inconspicuous or ; staminodes 1-3-seriate, accompanying the stamens in some
genera {Wallacea, Paecilandra, Blastemanthus). Stamens inserted at the base or
top of the torus, 4-5 or 8 or 10 or oo, erect, equal or unequal, unilateral or
declinate ; filaments free, short, persistent ; anthers linear-elongate, basifixed, cells
straight or flexaous, usually opening by terminal pores. Ovaet central or excentric,
short and deeply 2-10-lobed, or elongated and 2-10-celled, rarely 1-celled, with 3
parietal placentas {Wallacea) ; style central, gynobasic, simple, subulate, sharp,
straight or curved, rarely divided in as many branches as carpels (Ochna) ; stigma

330

LVI. OCHlSrACEiE.

Oclma.
Vertical section of oyary

Oclma,

Fruit, showing the gynobasic

stvle (maffO.

Oomphia,
Diagram.

OompMa,
Anther, with flexuonfl

LVn. BUESEEACEaJ. 381

simple, terminal; ovules solitary in each cell {Ochna, Gomphia, &c.), or geminate {Eu-
themis), or numerous {Luxembwgia, Godoya, &e.), ascending, rarely pendulous, raplie
ventral, and mieropyle superior. Feuit of 3-10 1 -seeded drupes, whorled on the
enlarged gynophore {Ochna, Gomphia, &c.), or 2-4-lobed, 1-4-seeded, coriaceous,
indehiscent (Elvasia), or fleshy with 5 nucules [EuthewAs), or a 1-celled capsule,
coriaceous {LuxeTnburgia) , or woody, 2-5-celled, and septicidal {Godoya, Poecilandra,
&c.). Seeds with fleshy albumen {Luxemburgia, Poecilandra, Gespedesia, Euthemis,
&c.), or exalbuminous {Ochna, Gomphia, Elvasia, &c.) ; testa usually membranous,
sometimes winged or margined {Luxemburgia, Poecila/ndra). Embeto large, sub-
cylindric, straight, or very rarely curved {Brackenridgea) ; cotyledons plano-convex
{Ochna, Gomphia, &c.) or linear {Luxemburgia, Poecilandra, &c.) ; radicle inferior or

superior,

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.

Ochna. Gomphia. Euthemis. Luxemburgia.

Godoya. Blastemanthua. Wallaoea. Pceoilandra.

[From Bentham and Hooker's ' Genera Plantarum ' : —

Tribe I. Oghnej!. — Ovary 2-10-celled, cells 1-ovu.led.. Seeds exalbuminous. Ochna,
Gomphia, Brachenridgea, Elvasia, Tetramerista.

TfiiBE II. EuTHEMiDEai. — Ovary incompletely 5-celled, cells 2-ovuled. Berry with 5
pyrenes. Seeds albuminous. Euthemis.

Tkiee III. LuxEMBUEGiE^. — Ovary excentric, 2-5- or 1-celled, cells oo -ovuled. Cap-
sule many-seeded. Seeds albuminous. I/uxemlburcjia, Blastemanthus, Godoya, Gespedesia,
Wallaoea, Pceeilandra. — Ed. J

Ochnaeets, which are near Sviaoecs, DiosmecB, and Zanthoxylete, are separated from them by their
stipulate not dotted leaves, neither annular nor glandular disk, acute gynobasic style, and never free
carpels. They differ from Simarubees in their disk, filaments without scales, anthers opening by terminal
pores, and style undivided at the base.

OchnacecB are dispersed over all tropical regions ; the capsular-fruited genera are American, the
drupaceous Asiatic and South African. Ochnacecs are bitter, like Simarubees, but their bitterness is
tempered by an astringent principle. The aromatic root and the leaves of Oomphia anyuetifolia, an Indian
tree, are employed as tonics and stomachics. The bark of G. hexasperina, a Brazilian shrub, is astringent,
and very useful for the cure of ulcers caused by the stings of flies. The berries of O.jabotapita, a tree of
the Antilles and Brazil, are edible, like those of the Bilberry ; its seeds are oily.

LVII. BUBSERACEyE,^ Kunth.

[Trees or shetibs, often lofty, abounding in resinous or oily secretions. Leaves
alternate, very rarely opposite, exstipulate, 3- (rarely 1-) foliolate or imparipinnate ;
leaflets rarely pellucid-dotted, the lowest pair sometimes stipuliform. Flowees 5 ,
often small, racemed or panicled, regular. Calyx 3-5-lid or -partite, imbricate or
valvate in bud. Peta-ls 3 to 5, erect or spreading, free or rarely connate, deciduous,
imbricate or valvate in bud. Disk annular or cupular, rarely obsolete, free or adnate to

' This order is not described in the original, but is and disposition of the genera are taken from Bentham
mentioned as an ally of Terebinthaces j the characters and Hooker's ' Genera Plantarum.'— Ed,

332 LVII. BUESEEACE^.

the calyx-tube. Stamens usually twice as many as the petals, rarely as many, inserted
at the margin or base of the disk, equal or unequal, or the alternate longer; filaments
free, naked, subulate, stamiuodes ; anthers oblong or subglobose, often versatile.
OvAET free, trigonous, ovoid or globose, 2-5-eelled, usually contracted into the short
style; s%ma undivided or 2- 5-lobed; ovules 2 (rarely 1) in each cell, usually col-
lateral and pendulous from the top of the cell, rarely ascending ; micropyle superior
and raphe ventral. Fruit a drupe, indehiscent, with 2-5 pyrenes, or with a bony
or thin endocarp, or a capsule with the epicarp dehiscing and exposing bony cocci,
which are connate, and separate from a central column. Seeds pendulous, testa
membranous, albumen 0; cotyledons usually membranous, contortuplicate, rarely
plano-convex or thick ; radicle superior.

Tribe I. Bueseeb^. — Ovary 2-5-celled.

a. Calyx free. Petals free. Drupe with a valvate epicarp and 3 separable
pyrenes. Boswellia, Trionema.

h. Calyx free. Petals free. Drupe with a valvate epicarp and 3 connate
pyrenes.

* Stamens 6-10. ** Stamens 5.

Garuga. Balsamodendron. Filicium.

Protium. Bursera. Ganojphyllum.

Ganarium. Santeria, &c. Nothoprotium.

c. Calyx free. Corolla gamopetalous. Trattinichia, Hedivigia.

d. Calyx adnate to the ovary. Darryodes.

Tribe II. AMTRiDEiE. — Ovary 1-celled. Amyris, Remprichia. — Ed.]

Burseraceai, whose close affinity to Terehinthacece we have noticed, and to which has been annexed
the genus Amyris (which only differs in its one-celled ovary and generally opposite leaves), yield spon-
taneously, or by incision of their stems, balsamic resinous substancss, employed in medicine. The incense
called Olibanum is a resin of balsamic odour and stimulating properties, obtained from Boswellia thurifera,
an Indian tree ; the Arabian incense is the product of one or more allied species. The resin Elemi of
Ceylon, which is yellow, and of a penetrating odour, is furnished by Canarimn commMne, and the Javanese
Elemi by Sursera guminifera. The Mexican Elemi comes from Elaphrium elemiferum. The Balm of
Mecca or Gilead is a sweet smelling turpentine obtained by incision from two species of the genus Bal-
samodendron, natives of Arabia. Bdellium, a gum-resin of a sweet smell and bitter taste, used externally
medicinally, comes from B. africanum (Heudelotia africana). Guggur is furnished by B. Mukul, a tree
of the province of Scinde in India. The Kafal (-B. Kafal and B. Opohalsamum) produces gum and red
aromatic wood, which are the objects of considerable commerce in Arabia. Myrrh, a gum-resin, whose
use aa an aromatic and medicament goes back to the highest antiquity, is furnished by B. Myrrha, a
tree of Arabia and Abyssinia. [B. Roxburghii yields the Gogul balsam of Bengal.] Idea guianensis,
a Guiana tree, commonly called Incense- wood, yields a resin used similarly to Olibanum. I. altissima
gives the Carana gum, which talces the place of Balm of Gilead in America. The resin Ohibou or Ca-
chibou comes from the American Gum-tree (Bwsera gummifera), which grows from Guiana to Mexico.
[_Amyris halsamife^-a yields the Jamaica Lignum Rhodium. — Ed.]

Hedioigia baJsamifera is a tree of the Antilles, yielding in abundance a resin called ' Baume a
cochon,' because the wild pigs, when wounded by hunters, pierce, it is said, the bark with their tusks, to
rub their wounds with the balsamic juice which exudes. [Tacamahac is the resin ot Elaphrium tomento-
sutii. Bursera altissima is a very lofty American tree, of whose aromatic wood canoes forty-two feet long
have been made. Many species of Cannrium are very lofty Indian forest-trees, abounding in resinous

LVIIi. MELIACEiE.

333

balsams; that of C. Zeylanica is used for torolies in Ceylon. The oil expresed from tlie nuts of C. com-
mune is used for lamps and as food, but if eaten fresh brings on diarrhoea ; its bark is said to yield a
pungent terebinthaoeous oil, which has the properties of Copaivi. ~ C. striatum is the Black Dammar
tree of Malabar, which yields a transparent resin. — Ed.]

LVIII. MELIACE^.

(Meliace^ et Cedeelace^3 Adr, Jussieu,]

Melia.
Stone (mag.).

Melia.
Seed, entire and cut longitudinally.

Melia.
Pistil (mag.).

Melia.
Diagram

Swielenia.
Parb of androecium (mag.).

Pistil, entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Petals hypogynousy 4-5 or 3—7, distinct or coherent, or adnate to the staminal
tube, cestvvation contorted^ imbricate or valvate. Stameists usually double the number
of the petals, inserted with, them ; filaments joined into a tube, Ovaut free, girt or
sheathed at the base by a more or less developed disk of 2-several 1-2- or severaUovuled

334 LVIII. MELIACE^.

cells. Ovules ascending or jpendnlous, hiluw, usually ventral, microjpyle superior.
Fetjit dry or fleshy. Embryo albuminous or exalbuminous. — Stem woody. Leaves
alternate.

Large or small trees, or rarely undeeshrubs ; wood often hard, coloured,
sometimes odoriferous. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, very rarely dotted {Flin-
dersia), pinnate or rarely simple, entire. Flowees ^ , or rarely polygamo-dioecious,
regular, terminal or axillary, panicled. Calyx generally small, 4-5-fid or -partite,
Eestivation usually imbricate. Petals hypogynous, 4-5, rarely 3-7, sometimes free
and contorted or imbricate, sometimes connate, or adnate to the staminal tube, and
valvate. Stamens generally 8 or 10, rarely 5, very rarely 16-20, inserted with the
petals outside of the base of a hypogynous disk ; filaments united by their margins
into a more or less complete tube, entire or toothed or variously laciniate, very
rarely free [Gedrela) ; anthers introrse, sessile or sub-sessile on the staminal tube,
included or exserted, dehiscence longitudinal, connective sometimes lengthened.
Disk various, usually annular or tubular and sheathing, free, or adnate to the
ovary {Trichilia) or staminal tube [Mallea). Ovary free, usually 3-5-celled ; style
simple ; stigma disciform or pyramidal ; ovules usually 2 in each cell, collateral or
superimposed, very rarely solitary, sometimes 6 or more {Gedrela, Swietenia), ascending
or pendulous, raphe ventral, micropyle superior. Fruit various : sometimes a drupe
{Melia, Mallea) or berry [Vavcea, Sandoricum), sometimes a capsule, loculicidal
[Trichilia, &c.) or septifragal {Gedrela, Swietenia, &c.). Seeds exalbuminous, or
with fleshy albumen, winged {Swietenia, Gedrela, &c.) or not {Melia, Trichilia, &e.).
Embryo flat, hilum usually ventral ; cotyledons fleshy ; radicle usually sunk between
the cotyledons and superior, sometimes vague.

Tribe I. MELTED.

Stamens united into a tube. Ovary with 2-ovuled cells. Seeds not winged;
albumen thin, fleshy. Fruit a capsule {Quivisia, Turrwa, &c.) or drupe {Melia,
Mallea) or berry {ya,voea).- Cotyledons plano-convex or foliaceous. — Leaves simple,
3-foliolate or pinnate, or decompound.

GENERA.

Quivisia. TiuTEea. Vavtea, Munvouia. Melia. Mallea.

Azadirachta. Na,regamia. Calodryum.

Teibe II. TBIGHILIE^.

Stamens united in a tube. Ovary with 1-2-ovuled cells. Seeds not winged,
exalbuminous. Fruit a capsule {Garapa, Trichilia, Guarea, &c.) or berry {Sando-
ricum, Milnea~ Dasycoleum, Lansium, &e.). Cotyledons thick. — Leaves pinnate.

PEINCIPAl GENERA.

Dysoxylum. Chisocheton. Epieharis. Cabralen. Sandoricum. Aglaia

Milnea. Lansium. Amoora. Guarea. Walsura. Ekebergia.

Odontandra. Heynea. Moschoxj'lon. Trichilia. Oarapa. Owenia. .

' Theae tribes are those proposed by Bentham and Hooker fil. in the 'Genera Plantariim.'— Ed.

LVIII. MELIACEJ?.

Tribe III. 8WIETENIEJE.

Stamens united in a tube. Ovary with many-ovuled cells. Capsule septifragal
at the top by 3-5 bilamellate valves detached from the axis. Seeds numerous,
albuminous or not, usually winged, hilum lateral or apical, raphe along the wing. —
Leaves pinnate.

GENEEA.

Khaya. Soymida. Swietenia. Ohickrassia. Elutheria.

Teibe IV. GUDBELE^.

Stamens free. Ovary with many-ovuled cells. Capsule septifragal or loculi-
cidal at the top by 3-5 valves detached from the axis. Seeds numerous, compressed,
winged, albuminous or not. — Leaves usually pinnate.

GENEEA.
Cedrela. Chloroxylon. Fliiidei-sia,

Meliea and Cedrekcs are near Aurantiacees and Hutacete (■which see). They approach Sapindacece in
hypopetalism, diplostemony, union of filaments, hypogynous disk, 1-2-ovuled ovarian cells, simple style,
woody stem, and alternate leaves ; "but in Sapindacece the filaments, when connate, are only so at the
base, the stamens are inserted within the disk, and the radicle is inferior. Between Meliacecs and Humi-
riacetB there are also some points of analogy, founded on the insertion of the petals, the number of
the stamens, and the connection of their filaments, the 1-2-ovuled ovarian cells, simple style, lobed
stigma, berry, drupe or capsule, woody stem, and alternate and often dotted leaves. The same analogy
exists with Burseracece, which are distinguished by their exalbumiuous seed and folded contorted coty-
ledons.

Meliece inhabit the tropics of Africa and Asia. TrichiliecB are more common, especially in Asia and
America. Sioietenieis and Cedrehm inhabit the tropics of both continents, and some grow in the
Moluccas and Australia.

This family is useful to man both in medicine and manufactures. The acrid, bitter, astringent, and
aromatic principles which it possesses in various proportions are tonic, stimulating, purgative, or emetic.
Some species have agreeable sugary and refreshing fruits.

Melia Azedarach is a small Asiatic tree naturalized in all warm climates, all pnits of which are bitter,
. purgative, vermifuge, but poisonous in large doses ; the seeds contain a fixed oil, useful for burning. The
fruit of M. sempervirens, or Indian Lilac, is poisonous. The bark of M. Azadirachta is bitter and power-
fully tonic, and the oil in its seeds is a reputed remedy for headache from sunstroke. The aromatic root of
Sandoricum indicum is employed for heartburn. Trichilia and Guarea, American species, are very ener-
getic purges and emetics. Several species of Dysoxylum have a strong smell of garlic. In Asia the bark
of Walsura pistidia is used to stupefy fish ; that of Carapa gidanensis is considered in America to be a
febrifuge, the fatty oil of its feeds (Crab-oil) is a reputed anthelminthic, and is largely used in machinery.
The Xylocarpi of Asia are praised as stomachics. The pulp which surrounds the seed of Milnea edulis, an
Asiatic species, is delicious. The pericarp of Zansitim is acidulous and sugary. Soymida fehrifug a, cele-
brated in India for the virtues of its bitter, astringent, and aromatic bark, is admitted by European doctors
among the substitutes for quinine, as is also Cedrela feh-ifiiga, a native of Jara. The Khaya used in
Senegal, and the Chickrassia in tropical Asia, possess the same properties. The- bitter and styptic bark of
Swietenia Maliogoni, a native of tropical America, is employed, mixed with quinine, in intermittent fevers.
The wood of most of the species of this family, often called Cedar, is esteemed, not only on account of its
sweet scent, but especially for its density and fine colour. The most celebrated species is the Swietenia

336 LIX. CHAILLETIACE^.

Mahogoni, which yields Mahogany, a fine wood, close in texture, of a reddish colour shaded with brown,
becoming darker when exposed to the air, and much used because it is easy to work, and takes a fiine
polish.

LIX. CBAILLETIACE^}

[Shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate, petioled, quite entire, penninerved,
coriaceous ; stipules petiolar or close to the axils, deciduous. Infloeescenoe of
dense sometimes almost capitate corymbose cymes ; peduncles axillary, often aduate
to tlie petiole, the flowers thus appearing to be placed at the base of the leaf-b]ade>
Flq-weks small, ^ or unisexual. Sepals 5, free or connate, sometimes unequal,
coriaceous, imbricate in bud. Petals 5, inserted on the calyx, rather longer than
the sepals, imbrica.te or open in bud, free and equal, or connate and unequal,
broadly clawed, often narrow, 2-fid or -lobed, with a terminal inflexed ligule, the
edges of which are adnate to those of the fissure of the petal. Disk various, cup-
shaped, entire or lobed or broken up into hypogynous glands or 5 free scales.
Stamens 5, inserted with the petals, alternate with the scales or lobes of the disk,
free or adnate to the gamopetalous corolla-tube ; anthers shortly oblong, dehiscing
longitudinally, connective usually thickened at the back. Ovaet free, usually
depressed, globose, pubescent or villous, 2-3-celled; styles 2-3, terminal, short or
long, free or connate ; stigmas sub-terminal, simple or capitate ; ovules 2, geminate,
pendulous from the top of each cell, anatropous, raphe ventral, micropyle superior.
Drupe oblong or compressed, pubescent, dry ; epicarp coriaceous, entire or dehiscing
and disclosing the 1-2-celled, sometimes 2-valved bony or crustaceous endocarp,
cells 1-seeded. Seeds pendulous, adnate by a broad hilum to the top of the cell ;
testa membranous ; albumen 0. Embryo large ; cotyledons amygdaloid ; radicle small,

superior.

GENERA.

Ohailletia. Stephanopodium. Tapura,

A small order of three genera and about forty species, allied to Cdastrinem and Shamnece, but
differing in the disk, pendulous ovules, position of the raphe, and amygdaloid cotyledons. Miiller (Argan)
placed Moacurra, Roxb., which is a true Chctilletia, in JEiqihorbiacece, but he was ignorant of the structure
of the fruit.

Chailletiacecs are natives of the tropics of Asia, Africa, and America, with one South African species.
Of their properties little is known ; the fruit of Ch. toxicaria is said to be poisonous, and is called Batsbane
by the Sierra Leone colonists. — Ed.]

LX. OLACINEJS, Endl.

Trees or shrubs, erect, climbing or twining, rarely suffruticose. Leaves
usually alternate, exstipulate. Flowers J or unisexual, regular, axillary, in a
raceme, corymb or spike, very rarely terminal and paniculate ; peduncles jointed at
the base ; receptacular cup {calycode) toothed or lobed, often accrescent when ripe.

' This order is omitted in the original, — Ed.

LX. OLACINE^. 337

Perianth ' single. Sepals 4-5 (rarely 6), distinct, or coherent in a campanulate or
tubular calyx, valvate in sestivation. Stamens 4-10 (rarely 12), often adnata to the
sepals, all anther if erous, or rarely some sterile {Olax, Liriosma) ; filaments free, or
very rarely monadelphous (Aptandra) ; anthers ereci, versatile or rarely adnate {Cathe-
dra, Lasianthera, &c.). Disk very various, free, or adnate to the calycule or ovary,
sometimes or inconspicuous. Ovakt free, or the base partially sunk in the disk, 1-
celled, or falsely 3-5-celled by imperfect septa, or very rarely truly 3-celled {Emmotum);
ovules anatropous, without coats and reduced to the nucleus, sometimes 2-3 (rarely
4-5), collaterally pendulous, either from the top of a central placenta, or from the
top of the ovarian cavity, and excentric (in consequence of the lateral union of the
placenta with the wall), rarely solitary and similarly pendulous [Opilia, Pennantia),
very rarely nearly erect and basilar (perhaps owing to the suppression of the placenta)
{Gansjera, Agonandra). Fruit mostly a drupe, 1-celled, 1-seeded, superior, or be-
coming inferior by the accrescence and adherence of the calycule. Seed with
fleshy copious albumen, which is entire or sometimes ruminate, lobed, or partite
{Aptandra, Gomphandra, &c.). Embryo small, at the top of the albumen, or nearly
as long as the albumen, and straight ; radicle cylindric, superior ; cotyledons small, or
large and foliaceous, entire or cut.

Tribe I. OLAGE^.

Stamens unequal in number with the sepals {Olax) or double {Ximenia, Heisteria,
&c.), or equal and opposite {Erythropalum, Anaeolosa, Strombosia, &c.). Ovary 1-
celled {Erythropalum, Olax, Ptychopetalum, &c.), or with 3-5 incomplete 1-ovuled
cells {Ximenia Heisteria, Liriosma, Schoepfia, Anaeolosa, Aptandra). Ovules pendu-
lous from the top of a central placenta.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Aptandra. Heisteria. Ximenia. Olax. Liriosma.

Erythropalum. Strombosia. Cathedra. Anaeolosa. Schcepfia.

Tribe II. OPILIEjE.

Flowers isostemonous. Stamens opposite to the sepals. Ovary 1-celled, 1-
ovuled. Ovule basal, nearly erect.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
Cansjera. Agonandra. Lepionurus. OpUia.

Tribe III. IGAGINE^.

Flowers isostemonous. Stamens alternate with the sepals. Ovary l-celled,

with 1-2 ovules pendulous from the top of the cell, very rarely with 3 perfect 1-2

ovuled cells.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Lasianthera. Gomphandra. Desmostachys. Apodytes., Mappia. Emmotum.
Pennantia. Poraqueiba. Icacina. Platea. Villaresia.

' Most authors regard the receptacular cup here alluded to as a calyx, and the calyx as a corolla. — Ed.

7.

338 LXI. ILICmE^.

[The above tribes are adopted from tlie ' Genera Plantarum ' of Bentham and Hooker, in
vvbich work a fourtb is added, often regarded as an order, biit which is omitted in the original
of this book, i.e. —

Teibe rV". Phttocrbnej!. — Mowers and fruit of Icacinece. Embryo more developed ;
cotyledons broad, foliaceous or thick and fleshy. — Stem climbing. Flowers dioecious. Phyto-
crene, Miquelia, Sarcostigma, Natsiatium, lodes.

To this order the above authors have further appended the singular Indian and Javanese genus
Cardiopteris, a slender annual climbing glabrous herb with milky juice, imbricate sepals, and gamopetalous
five-lobed imbricate corolla. Stamens and ovary of Icacinece, but two short styles with capitate stigmas,
one (?) of which grows remarkably after impregnation. The one-celled superior ovary is succeeded by a
broadly two-winged coriaceous white fruit with a narrow central longitudinal cell containing one pen-
dulous seed with very minute embryo next the hilum, in a dense granular albumen. Of the two collateral
pendulous ovules one only is impregnated; it consists of a naked nucleus, the embryo-sac of which is
exserted as a very slender long tube.

About 170 species of Olacinece are known, included in 36 genera ; they are dispersed over the tropical
and sub- tropical regions of the whole globe, but are rare in South Africa and Australia ; Pennantia irihahiU
New Zealand and extra-tropical Australia. Various species of Villaresia advance into Chili. Phytocreneee
are tropical Asiatic and African.

Olacirwce are so closely allied to Santalacecs and Contacecs that it is impossible to separate tbem by any
natural characters ; and these, together with Loranthaceai, form one great family. Hicinece are separated
from Olacinece solely by the complete cells of their ovary, Villaresia being in this respect quite intermediate.
Cornaceee differ in their completely inferior ovary.

Little is known of the properties of Olacinea. The drupes of Ximenia are eaten in Senegal, and said
to be sweet and aromatic, but rough to the palate. Olax zeylanica has a foetid wood with a saline taste,
and .is employed in putrid fevers; its leaves are used as salad. The stem of Phytocreneis very curious,
being white and very porous, and discharging when cut a stream of limpid potable water. — Ed.]

LXI. ILICINEJE.

(Rhamnoeum genera, /wssiieM.— Aquifoliaoe^, B.C. — Ilicine^, Brongniart.)

COKOLLA sub-polypetalous or polypetalous, hypogynous, isostemonous, wstivation
imbricate. Stamews inserted at the base of the petals, or on the receptacle. Otaet of
many l-ovuled cells. OyvijES pendulous from the central angle of the cells. Feuit a
drupe. EnBETO minute, albuminous. Radicle superior. — Stem woody.

Trees or shextbs with persistent or caducous leaves. Leaves alternate or
opposite, simple, coriaceous, glabrous, sMning, exstipulate. rLOWEKS 5 , or rarely
unisexual, small, solitary, or fascicled in the axils of the leaves, on simple peduncles,
sometimes branching into dichotomous cymes. Calyx 4-6-fid or -partite, persistent,
with obtuse segments. Coeolla inserted on the receptacle, of 5-4-3 free or nearly
free petals, aestivation imbricate. Stamens 6-4-3, alternating with the petals, and
cohering to their base, or on the receptacle ; filaments filiform or subulate, shorter
than the petals ; anthers introrse, dorsally adnate, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovakt
free, fleshy, sub-globose, 2-6-8-celled ; stigma subsessile, lobed ; ovules solitary in
each cell, pendulous from the top of the central angle, anatropous. Deupb fleshy,

LXI. ILICINE^.

339

HoUy.

Flower with abortive pistil, cut vertically

(mag.).

Holly.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

HoUy.
Diagram.

Holly.

Transverse section of fruit

(mag.).

II 1--

Vi-t— -i - ri n _r fruit

(mag.).

ll'l .

See'lm' vcitioally

(mag.).

of 2-8-00 woody or bony one-seeded indehiscent pyrenes. Seed inverted ; testa
membranous, raphe dorsal ; hilum turned towards the top of the cell, naked, or capped

z 2

840 LXII. EMPETRE^.

by tlie funicle dilated into a ciipule; albumen fleshy, copious. Embryo straight,
minute, at the top of the albumen, sub-cylindric or globular ; radicle near the hilum,

superior.

GENERA.

Cassine. Ilex. Prinos. Byronia. Nemopanthes. .

Ilicinets were for a long time placed in the family of Celastrinea, which approach them in their per-
sistent calyx, hypogyniam, isostemony, aestivation of their corolla, their many-celled ovary, anatropoua
ovule, sessile or suhsessile^ stigma, sometimes drupaceous fruit {Elceodendron), straight albuminous
embryo, woody stem, alternate leaves, and axillary small and greenish flowers ; but CelastrinecB differ in
the fleshy disk which lines the bottom of the calyx and often the base of the ovary, in the erect or as-
cending ovule, and finally in their corolla, which is clearly polypetalous. We shall indicate'the affinity
of IlicinecB with Ebenacece under that family. They have also a connection with Olacine<s, founded on the
hypogynous corolla, pendulous and anatropoua ovule, fleshy fruit, albuminous seed, and woody stem ; but
Olacinecs have an anisostemonous corolla with valvate aestivation, and their embryo is axile, and not apical.'

Ilicine<B are rare in Europe ; they are more numerous in Asia, South and Central America, and at the
Cape of Good Hope.

Ilicine(S contain a bitter principle, the ilicine of chemists, combined in various proportions with an
aromatic resin and a glutinous matter, to which some species of Holly owe medicinal properties. Ilicine
has Ijeen proposed as a substitute for quinine. An infusion of the leaves of Ilex vomitoria is diuretic
and diaphoretic; in large doses it produces vomiting, and is the usual, emetic of the savages of South
America. Ilex Paraguayensis yields mate, which takes the place of tea in South America. The bark of
Prinos verticillata is astringent, and is used in the United States as a tonic and antiseptic. Many kinds of
Holly are cultivated in Europe as ornamental plants (7. Dahomi, halearica, iimderensis, latifolia, &c.) ;
but the most interesting species is the common Holly {Ilex aquifoUum), which grows in the hilly forests
of western Europe, and the spiny and persistent leaves of which were formerly used as a febrifuge.
The berries are of a brilliant red, and with the shining green leaves greatly contribute to the beauty of
our winter bouquets. The bark yields bird-lime, used by birdcatchers, and formerly emploved topically
to reduce tumours. Holly-wood is close and hard, and much esteemed for cabinet-work.

LXII. EMPETREyE, Nuttatl.

Low heath-like dry erect or prostate much-brauched shrubs, branches cylin-
dric. Leaves alternate, sometimes sub-whorled, coriaceous, entire, exstipulate.
Flowbks small, regular, usually dioecious, rarely polygamous, sessile in the axils of
the upper leaves, solitary {Empetrum), or fevr together {Geratiola), rarely crowded at
the top of the branches (Gorema), naked, or furnished with scaly imbricate bracts.
Calyx 3-2-phyllous ; leaflets imbricate in sestivation, coriaceous or membranous, and
like the bracteoles. Petals hypogynous, shortly clawed, persistent, marcescent.
Stamens (rudimentary or in the ? ) inserted with the petals, equal and alternate
with them ; filaments filiform, free, persisting after the fall of the anthers ; anthers
extrorse, sub-globose, didymous or oblong, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary (rudi-
mentary in the $ ) seated on a fleshy sub-globose disk, 2-3-6-9-celled, cells 1-ovuled ;
style short, angular, or obsolete ; stigma lobed, radiating, lobes truncate, laciniate or

• Various OZflcincffi have isostemonous imbricate corollas the habit of .Z7ca:, and stamens cohering to the base
and apical embryos, notably Villaresia, which has further of the connate petals. Ed.

LXII. EMPETREiE.

341

incised; ovules ascending from the base o£ tte central angle, anatropous. Detjpe
flesliy, spherical, sub-depressed, umbilicate, of 2-3-6-9 connate or distinct bony 1-

Empetrum nigrum.

Empetj-um.

Q flower cub vertically

(mag.).

Empelrum.

^ flower ; stamens cut

(magO-

Bmpelrunu
Stameii
(mag.).

'Empetrum.
Portion of stigma laid open (mag.),

Empetrum.
Pyrene, entire and cut (mag.).

Seed, entire and cut (mag.).

Empetrum,
Fruit, entire and cub vertically (mag.).

seeded pyrenes. Seeds triangular, erect ; testa membranous ; albumen fleshy, dense.
Embryo straight, axile, cylindrio ; cotyledons short, obtuse ; raddcle near the hilum,

inferior.

GENERA.

Empetrum, Corema. Ceratiola.

The little family of Empetrece approaches CelastnnetB, IlicinecSj and especially Ericinece properly so
called. It has the habit of the latter, their marcescent hypogynous corolla, several-celled ovary with
anatropous ovules, albuminous seed and straight embryo, and it also recalls the tribe of Mhodoracetie
by the structure of the stigma ; but EncinecB are gamopetalous and gamosepalous, their flower is perfect,
and their fruit is a capsule or berry. The affinity with IlicinecB ie not doubtful j i^ both families we find

342

LXIII. CELASTEINEiE.

diclinism, hypocoroUism, isostemony, imbricate aestivation, several-celled and 1-ovuled ovary, anatropous
ovules, very short style, drupaceous fruit, fleshy albumen, woody stem, alternate leaves, and axillary flowers.
Celastrinece have, like Empetreee, small axillary flowers, polypetalous and isostemonous imbricate corollas, a
fleshy disk, an ovary with several 1-ovuled cells, ascending and anatropous ovules, a sub-sessile lobed stigma,
drupaceous fruit, albuminous seed, and straight and axile embryo. Celastrinee> chiefly differ in habit, stipu-
late leaves, perigynism, introrse anthers, often 2-ovuled ovarian cells, and the fleshy aril of the seed. The
few species of this family are dispersed over the Iberian peninsula. Central Alpine and North Europe,
North America, and the Magellanic region.

The leaves and drupes are acidulous ; the fruits of JEmpetrum niffrum are eaten in the North of
Europe for their antiscorbutic and diuretic properties. The Greenlanders ferment them, and obtain a
spirituous liquor. From the drupes of Corema an acid drink is prepared in Portugal, and employed as a
febrifuge in popular medicine.

LXIII. CELASTRINE^.

(EhAMNORUM sectio^ Jussieu. — CELASTEINIhEy Br. — CELASTRACEiE, LindL)

Euonymus.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Euonymus,

Seed without

aril, cut

vertically (mag.).

Euonymus. Diagram.

Euonymus.

Seed cut transveraely

(mag.).

Splndle-tree. (Euonymus europfsus.)

LXIII. CELASTEINB^.

343

Euonymus.
Seed -vntli its aril (mag.).

E. latifolius.
Penclulous ovules (mag.).

E, linifolius.
Upright ovLiles (mag.).

Corolla polypetalous, perigynous, isostemonous, wstivation imbricate. Pbtal,s
4-5, inserted on a fleshy disk, surrounding the ovary and occupying the bottom of the
calyx. Stamens 4-5, inserted like the petals. Ovary 2-8-5-celled, cells l-2-ovuled.
Ovules ascending or erect, anatropous. Fruit dry or fleshy. Seeds usually arillate,
albuminous. — Stem woody. Leaves simple, stipulate.

Small TREES or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves alternate,, or rarely opposite,
simple, entire or tootlied, often coriaceous ; stipules small, very caducous. Flowers
5 , or unisexual, regular, axillary, cymose, small, greenish or reddish. Calyx 4-5-fid
or -partite, segments equal, imbricate in aestivation, persistent. Disk fleshy,
annular or orbicular, lining the bottom of the calyx, and sometimes adnata to the
ovary. Petals 4-6, alternate with the sepals, inserted under the edge of the
disk by a broad base, sessile, imbricate in sestivation, deciduous. Stamens 4-5,
inserted under, on, or within the edge of the disk; filaments short; anthers in-
trorse, erect, fixed by the base or back, connective often dilated, dehiscence longi-
tudinal. Ovary sessile, more or less buried in the disk, and sometimes adhering to
it by its base, of 2-3-5 1-2-inany-ovuled cells ; style short, thick ; stigma of 2-3-5
lobes; ovules usually 2, collateral, erect or ascending, with a ventral raphe, some-
times pendulous, and then with a dorsal raphe (rarely many-2-seriate) . Fruit 2-5-
celled, sometimes an indehiscent drupe or samara with 1-seeded cells, sometimes a
loculicidal capsule with semi-septiferous valves. Seeds erect or ascending, usually
furnished with a pulpy coloured sometimes very much developed and cupular aril ;
testa crustaceous or membranous, traversed by a longitudinal raphe. Embryo
straight, occupying the axis of a fleshy copious albumen ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat ;
radicle cylindric, inferior.

[Disposition of the tribes and genera of Celastrineae in the ' Genera Plantarum,'
including Hippocrateacece, which are omitted in the original of this work : —

Tribe I. Celastbe.s. — Stamens 4-5, very rarely 10, inserted (except Schcefferla) on or
beneath the margin of a conspicuous disk. Filaments subulate, often incurved. Seeds
albuminous (exalbuminous in Hartogia, Kohoona, and some species of Maytenus). Euonymus,
Miorotropis, Maytenus, Elceodendron, Gatha, Lopliopetaluin, Cfymnosporia, Perrottetia, Kokoona,
Sariogia, Kurrimia, Oasslne, Gelastrus, Myginda.

Teibe II. H1PPOCEATIB.E (order Eippocrateacece, Endl, Lindl.).— Stamens 8, rarely 2, 4, or
8, inserted on the face of the disk ; filaments flattened, recurved, sometimes adnate to the disk ;
anthers extrorse from the reflexion of the filaments. Seeds exalbuminous. — Leaves usually
poposite. Hippocratia, Salacia. — Ed.]

344 LXIV. STAPHYLEACEiE.

For the affinities of CelastrinecB with jKcinea, Pittospoi-ets, and Stapliyleacem, see these families. Their
affinity with Rhatnnece is very close, and Jussieu placed them in the same family ; it is founded on
the woody stem, stipulate leaves, axillary small and greenish flowers, fleshy disk lining the calyx and
often adhering to the ovary, isostemonous and perigynous corolla, 1-2-ovuled cells of the ovary, upright
and anatropous ovules, fleshy or capsular fruit, the often arillate seeds, and the alhuminous emhryo; but
in Rharmiem the aestivation is valvate, the stamens are opposite to the petals, and the fruit, if a capsule,
usually divides into cocci. The two families inhabit the same country. JEtionynms inhabits the temperate
regions of the northern hemisphere ; Celastrus and the other genera are, with few exceptions, tropical and
sub-tropical, and dispersed over Asia, America, the Pacific islands, Australia, and South Africa. Hippo-
cratiecB are also pretty equally distributed through Asia, Africa, and America. Celastrinece usually possess
purgative and emetic properties, but are not used in European practice ; the bark of Celastrus is used as
an emetic in South America. The root and leaves of Myginda are esteemed as diuretics in tropical
America. Catha edulis is an East African shrub, called Khat, cultivated by the Arabs, with whom it is
an article of commerce ; the bruised leaves produce an agreeable excitement, analogous, it is said, to that
induced in Peru by the use of coca ; it is also lauded by them as a sovereign remedy for the plague.

[In India the bark oi Eiiomjmus tingens is used to dye a yellow colour, with which the Hindoos make
the sacred mark on the forehead ; it is also used in eye complaints The bark of E. Roxhurghii'ii an
astringent, used to reduce swellings in India. The seeds of the European Euonyini are nauseous and
purgative, and said to poison sheep ; an oinlment made of them was formerly used to kill lice in the head.
The spines of Celastrus veneratus are said to inflict a poisoned wound. The drupes of Eltspdendron Kuba
are eaten in South Africa by the colonists. The seeds of Celastrus nutans and panicuhtus are acrid and
stimulant, and used as a medicine in India.

Of the Hippocrateaceee the fruit of Salacia pyriformis, a native of West Africa, is eatable, as are the
nuts of Hippocratia comosa, the ' Amandier du Bois ' of the French West Indies. The fruits of others are
mucilaginous and edible. — Ed.]

LXIV. STAPH YLE ACE J^:}
(Celasteineaeum trihus,D.C. — STAPHTLEACBiE, Bartling.)

CoEOLLA polypetalous, suh-hypogynous, isostemonoiis, oestivation imbricate. Petals
6, inserted on a hypogynous disk. Stamens 5, inserted with the petals. Ovaet 2-3-
lobed. Ovules anatropous. Eetjit dry or fleshy. Embeto albuminous. — ^T'E'M.ivoody.
Leaves compound, bistipulate.

Teees or erect sheubs. Leaves generally opposite, 3-foliolate, or impari-
pinnate ; leaflets opposite, petiolulate ; stipules, twin, at the base of the petioles,
deciduous. Flowees ^ or imperfect, regular, racemed or panicled, pedicels brac-
teate at the base. Calyx free, coloured, 5-partite, asstivation imbricate. Petals
inserted on or beneath a hypogynous disk, crenulated, aestivation imbricate,
deciduous. Stamens 6, inserted like the petals ; fllaments subulate, free, equal ;
anthers introrse, opening longitudinally. Caepels 2-3, united at the base, or
throughout their length, into a 2-3-celled and -lobed ovary ; styles equal in number
to the lobes of the ovary, distinct or cohering, finally free ; stigma undivided ; ovules
many, inserted along the ventral suture, 1-2-seriate, horizontal or ascending, ana-
tropous. Feuit a membranous turgid capsule, its lobes opening at the top by the
ventral suture ; or a berry, 8-celled, or 2-celled by suppression. Seeds few or solitary

' Sr(> Sapindaccte, Sub-order V., p. 353.

LXIV. STAPHYLEACE^.

345

Staphylea,
Seed (mag.).

StapTiylea.

Seed cut parallel to

tUe cotyledons.

Staphylea,

Seed cut

perpendicularly to

the cotyledons.

StapJujleci.
Pistil (mag.).

Staphylm.
Seed cut transversely.

Staphylea.

Vertical section of flower

(mag.).

StaphyUa pinnala.

Stap?iylea. Diagram.

in each cell, globose, truncate at
the base; testa bony, shining.
Embeto stiaight, in a fleshy
scanty albumen, reduced to a
thin layer when ripe ; coty-
ledons thick, fleshy, pla,no-
convex; radicle short, inferior
or centrifugal.

Euscaphis.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Staphylea. Turpinia.

Staphyleacea, joined by De Candolle to Celustrinecs, are connected with them by the pqlypetalouS
isostemonous corolla, imbricate sestivation, fleshy disk on which the petals and stamens are inserted, as-
cending and anatropous ovules, woody stem and stipulate leaves ; but Celasirinece have simple and alternate
leaves, usually arillate seeds, and a copious albumen. A still more legitimate affinity links Staphykacece
with SapmdacetB and Acerineis; ior in the latter the petals are imbricate, and inserted, like the stamens,
on a fleshy, hypogynous disk, the ovary is two-lobed and of two carpels, the fruit is a capsule, the seeds are
ascending, and scarcely or not albuminous, the stem is woody, and leaves opposite. There is the same
relationship with Sapindacece, in many genera of which the leaves are stipulate, though not opposite.

346 LXV. STACKHOUSIB^.

These two families are scarcely separated from Staphyleacece except bj' the diplostemonous corolla and
curved embryo ; and they are united in the ' Genera Plantarum ' as tribes of Sapindacees. It is the same
iu Hippoonstanece (see this family).

The few species of this little family are scattered over temperate Europe, North America^ the Antilles,
Mexico, Japan, and tropical Asia. Their u.seful properties are little known. The root of a Japan shrub
(Euscaphis) is employed as an astringent in dysentery. [The seeds of Staphylea are oily, austere, and
slightly purgative. — Ed.]

LXV. STACKHOUSIE^}

[Small HEEBS with watery juice, usually woody, simple or branclied, rootstocks

giving off many erect simple or sparingly divided slender leafy branches. Leaves

scattered, alternate, rather fleshy or coriaceous, linear or spathulate, quite entire ;

stipules or very minute. Flowers 5 , regular, in terminal spikes or racemes at the

ends of the branches, or fascicled, 3-bracteate, white or yellow. Calyx small,

hemispheric, 5-lobed or -partite, lobes rather unequal, imbricate in bud. Petals 5,

perigynous, inserted on the throat of the calyx, linear or spathulate ; claws long, free

or connate ; limb reflexed, imbricate in bud. Disk thin, clothing the base of the

calyx-tube. Stamens 6, inserted on the edge of the disk, erect, included ; filaments

slender, the alternate shorter; anthers oblong, dehiscing longitudinally; pollen

obscurely 4-lobed, rough. Ovaet sessile, free, sub-globose, 2-5-lobed or -partite,

2-5-celled ; styles 2-5, free or connate ; stigma 5-lobed or stigmas 5, capitate ; ovule

solitary in each cell, erect from its base, anatropous, raphe ventral. Peuit of 2-5

globose or angular smooth or reticulate or winged iudehiscent 1-seeded cocci,

which separate from a central persistent column. Seed erect ; testa membranous ;

albumen fleshy. Embeto axile, straight, as long as the albumen ; cotyledons short,

obtuse ; radicle inferior.

ONLY GENUS.

Stackbousia.

A small and geographically limited order, embracing some twenty species, common in extra-tropical
Australia, with a solitary representative in New Zealand, and another that wanders north to the Philippine
Islands. It appears to agree most nearly with Celastrinees in technical characters, but its affinities are
quite unknown. In the disk and fruit it approaches Bhamneee. Robert Brown indicated an affinity with
Euphorhiacece, but on what grounds is not stated, nor have these been apparent to succeeding botanists.
Nothing is known of its uses. — En.]

LXVI. RHAMNEjE.

(EHAMJsroEUM genera, Jussieu. — Rhamne^, Br. — Feangulace^, B.C. — Rhamnace^,

Lindl.)

CoROhLA polypetalous, perigynous, isostemonotis, cBstivation valvate. Petals 4-5,
inserted on a perigynous dish, lining the calyx, and sometim.es the ovary also. Stamens
4-5, opposite to and inserted with the petals. Ovaet free, or adnate to the dish, of

' This order is omitted in the original. — £d.

LXVT. RHAMNEJi]. 347

2-3-4 l~2-ovul6d cells. Ovules erect, anatropous. Feuit a drupe or capsule. Embryo
large, albumen scanty , —Stem, woody. Leaves simple, 2-stipulate.

JRhamnus.
Flower (mag.).

Rhamnus.

Vertical section of flower

(mag.).

Bhamnus.
Pistil (mag.).

H. Frangula.
Transverse section of a
seed witli plane
cotyledons (mag.). »

Buckthorn, (Rhamnus Frangula.)

Rhamnus.

Rhamnus.
Vertical section of a
seed with lateral
raphe (mag.).

R. utilis.

Section of a seed with

dorsal raphe and bent

cotyledons (mag.).

TeeeSj shrubs^ or undersheubSj branches sometimes spinescent, sometimes
climbing by their extremity, -which is bare of leaves [Gouama), Leaves simple,
usually alternate, rarely sub-opposite or opposite, entire or toothed, petioled, some-
times minute or suppressed (Golletia) ; stipules small or 0, sometimes transformed
into thorns. Flowers ? ox unisexual, regular, small, greenish, usually axillary,
solitary, or variously fascicled. Calyx 5-fid or -partite, aestivation: valvate. Disk
adnate to the calyx, and lining it with a single or double layer, of various form.
Petals 4-5, usually inserted at the edge of the disk, aestivation induplicate-valvate,
rarely (Colletia, Pomaderris), Stamens 4-5, opposite to and, inserted with the
petals ; filaments sometimes adnate to the base of the petals, but not connate ;
anthers introrse, dorsifixed, versatile, sometimes ovoid, with longitudinal dehiscence,
sometimes reniform and 1-celled by confluence of the cells at the top, and opening

348 LXVI. EHAMNEtE.

into 2 valves by an arched slit. Ovary free, or buried in the disk, or more or
adnate to the calyx-tube, of 3-2-4 1-2-ovuled cells ; styles equal in number to the
cells, more or less connate ; stigmas simple, distinct or connate ; ovules usually
solitary in each cell, erect, sessile or funicled, anatropous. Fetjit superior or
inferior, rarely 1 -celled by suppression, sometimes an indehiscent fleshy spongy or
membranous drupe, sometimes winged, with a hard fibrous or woody 2-3-celled
endocarp, sometimes a capsule with 2-3 crustaceous cocci separating at the top,
pendulous from the axis, and opening when ripe at the base of their inner edge.
Seeds erect ; testa loose, raphe lateral or dorsal, chalaza thick ; albumen fleshy,
scanty. Embeto large, straight, yellow or green ; cotyledons flat, fleshy ; radicle

short, inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Paliui'us. Zizyphus. Hovenia. Rhanmus. Ceanotlius. Pliylica. Pomaderris.

[Conspectus of the tribes and genera, from the ' Genera Plantarum ' of Bentham
and Hooker fll. : —

Tribe I. VENTiLAGiNEJi.^Ovary superior or semi-superior. Disk filling the calyx-tube.
Fruit dry, 1-celled, 1-seeded, girt at the base or up to the middle by the calyx-tube. Seeds
exalbuminous. — Unarmed climbing shrubs, i/eaves altei'nate. Ventilago, Smyihea.

Teibe II. ZiZTPHB.s;. — Ovary superior or semi-superior. Disk filling the calyx-tube.
Drupe dry or fleshy, girt at the base or up to the middle by the calyx-tube ; endocarp 1-3--
celled. Paliurus, Gondalea, Beschemia, Ziayphiis, Sarcomphalus, Karwinsleia, Microrhamnus.

Tribe III. E.HAMNE.a!. — Ovary inferior or superior. Disk various or 0. Fruit dry or
drupaceous, containing 3-4 cocci or pyrenes. RJiamnus, Ceanothus, Golubrina, Trymaliuvi,
Hovenia, Smtla, Phyliaa, Spyridiujii, Sageretia, AlpMtonia, Gryptandra, Pomaderris.

Teibe IV". Coi.letiejs. — Ovary free or semi-superior. Calyx-tube deep, produced much
beyond the disk. Stamens inserted on its mouth. Fruit coriaceous, of 2-3 cocci or a 1-3-
celled drupe. — Trees or shrubs, often spinescent. Leaves opposite or small or 0. Colletia,
Discaria, Retanilla, Trevoa, Talguenea.

Teibe V. GouANiEiE. — Ovary inferior. Disk various. Fruit coriaceous, containing 3
cocci, usually 3-gonous or 3-alate. — Shrubs. Leaves alternate, often broad. Grumenaria,
Oouania, Helinus, BeisseJcia. — Ed.]

The affinities of lihamnece Tfith Cclastriiiea and Ampelidece will be found under these families. Those
with AraliacecB are the same as with Ampelidece. They also approach Eloeagnem in the valvate calyx,
stamens inserted alternately with the sepals (at least in the isostemonous flowers) on a perigynous disk,
the erect anatropous ovule, albuminous straight axile embryo, woody stem, usually alternate leaves, and
axillary flowers. But Elaiagneee are apetalous (which is also the case with some Rhamnem), their ovary
is one-celled and -ovuled, their leaves are covered with scales, and are exstipulate. The same analogies
and diff'erences are observable between lihamnece and Proteacece, and the latter also differ in the entire
absence of albumen.

EJiamnece inhabit the moderately hot regions of all countries of both hemispheres ; they are not rare
in the torrid zone, but are never met with in glacial regions. [Colleliecs, so remarkable for their
leafless hrancheswith cruciate spines, are wholly South American, New Zealand, and Australian.

Of all the genera in this family, the most useful to man are Rhamnus and Zizyphus. Rhamnus cathar-
ticus bears berries which contain a bitter prirciple, much used in the form of a purgative syrup. The fruits
of many allied species (especially i?. infectorius) yield a yellow or green colour, and as dyes are the objects of
a considerable commerce. R. utilis and chlorophorus produce Chinese green. The bark of R. catharticus m,

LXVIL AMPELIDB^.

349

also used for dyeing yellow, like that of H. Frangula, a common shrub throughout temperate Europe, the
tender and porous wood of which yields a very light charcoal, which is used, like that of Eumiynvas, in
the manufacture of gunpowder. The Zyziphi contain in every part astringent and bitter principles ; but
in the fruit this bitterness is corrected by a quantity of sugar and mucilage which render them edible.
Z. vulgaris, a native of Syria, was imported into Italy towards the first century of our era, and has lono'
been naturalized in the south of France ; its drupe is used as an emollient and laxative. The Z. Lokis,
the Nabk of the Arabs, is very abundant along the African shore of the Mediterranean ; its pulpy and
agreeable fruit vvas very celebrated among the ancients, and is still eaten. [The succulent peduncles of
^oijejMa ete«s are much eaten in China as a fruit. The Qwrna of Brazil is the acrid root of Discaria
fehrifiiga. The bitter bark of Coluhrina is said to bring on violent fermentation. The Chinese employ
the leaves of Safferetia thecezans as a kind of tea.^ — Ed.]

LXVn. AMPELIDEJE,

(ViTES, Jussieu, — Sarmbntace^, Ventenat, — Ampelide^, Kunth. — Vitace^, Lindl,)

Corolla polypetalous or sub-polypetalous, isostemonous, cestivaUhn valvate. Petals
4-6, inserted outside a dish lining the calyx, and surrounding thehase of the ovary. Stamens

Vine.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Vine.
Transvei-se section
of seed, showing

the ruminate
albnmen (mag.).

Vine, {Vitis vinifera.)

Vine
Flower without ccroHa (mag.).

Vine.

, entire and cut vertically
(mag.).

350 LXVII. AMPELIDEiE.

4-5, opposite to and inserted with the petals. Ovary free, of 2-3-6 1-2-ovuled cells.
Ovules erect, anatropous. Bbrkies 2-S-6-celled. Embryo albuminous. Eadicle
inferior. — Stem woody.

Trees or sarmentose shrubs, usually climbing, stem and branches nodose.
Leaves petioled, simple, palmate, digitate or imparipinnate, the lower opposite, the
upper alternate, opposite to the peduncles which are often changed into branching
tendrils ; stipules petiol^r, sometimes 0. Flowers 5 or unisexual, usually small,
greenish, in racemes, panicles or thyrsi. Calyx small, 4-5-toothed or entire,
clothed with a disk. Petals 4-5, inserted on the outer base of the disk, coherent
at the top, sometimes connate at the base {Leea), aestivation valvate. Stamens 4-5,
opposite to the petals, and inserted with them, or fixed to the dorsal face of a sub-
globose 5-lobed cup, adnate to the base of the corolla {Leea) ; filaments short, dis-
tinct or sub-monadelphous at the base {Leea) ; anthers introrse, dehiscence longi-
tudinal. Ovary free, of 2 2-ovuled cells, or of 3-6 1-ovuled cells {Leea) ; style short
or ; stigma capitate or peltate ; ovules anatropous when solitary, erect when 2,
collateral and ascending. Berry 2-3-6-celled. Seeds erect, testa bony, endopleura
often rugose, or folded within. Embryo short, at the base of a cartilaginous often
ruminate albumen ; radicle inferior.

GENERA.
Oissus. Auipelopsia. Vitis, Leea. Pterisanthes.

The genus Pterisanthes, which inhabits the Indian Archipelago, has a peculiar inflorescence, which
deserves to be mentioned : the flowers are unisexual, and inserted on a large flattened membranous re-
ceptacle : the <? are marginal and pedicelled ; the $ sessile on the disk.

The affinities of Ampelidea are rather obscure. They approach Araliacece, and especially the Ivy, by
their climbing stem, palmately lobed leaves, valvate aestivation of the petals, dorsifixed incumbent
anthers, berried fruit, and] small embryo with often ruminate albumen. The most important differ-
ence is in the position of the stamens, which in Araliaceai are alternate with the petals ; the epigyny
and the inverted ovule, which also distinguish these latter from Ampelide<e, are perhaps of less importance.
Hhamnece also are connected with Ampelidecs by the woody stem, often climbing by tendrils, the alternate
or opposite stipulate leaves, the valvate isostemonous petals inserted on a perigynous disk, the stamens
opposite to the petals, the' ovary often buried in the disk, its 1-2-ovuled cells, and the erect ovules. They
scarcely differ except in their penninerved leaves and in the albumen being scanty or 0. Finally, some
distant relations have been observed between Ainpelidece and Meliacece, almost entirely founded on the
monadelphous stamens of the genera Melia and Leea.

Ampelidece abound in the tropics, but are much rarer in the temperate zones. None are found wild
in Europe. The Vitis vinifera is apparently a native of Georgia and Mingrelia ; it is now cultivated
in all countries of which the mean summer temperature is not below 66° Fahr. ; where the temperature is
lower, the saccharine principle does not develop, and the grapes remain sour. The Vine, if cultivated
in the tropics, grows rapidly, but the grapes wither before ripening. Tlie V. vinifera is almost the only
species of the family useful to man ; the berries of the allied species which grow in the North American
forests are acid and little sought.'

' The Vitis Lahnisca of the United States is much parts of Cissus cordata and setosa are acrid, and applied

used in making wine, and is the origin of the Isabella in India to indolent tumours. The leaves and fruit of

Grape. V. csstivalis, of the same country, is also C tinctoria abound in a green colouring matter, which

pleasant and edible, as are the berries of various Indian soon turns blue, and is used to dye cotton fabrics in

species. The Sultana Baisin is the seedless fruit of a Brazil. V. Intifolia and others are famous in India for

variety of the common Grrape cultivated in the Levant ; their real or supposed properties in indolent ulcers and

and the Currant or Cormth Grape of commerce is the toothache, and as detergents and purifiers of the blood,

fruit of another, cultivated in the Ionian Islands. All — Er>.

LXVIII. SAPINDACE^.

351

CissHs grows in the tropics ; its terries are refreshing, and the young leaves of some species, when
cooked, serve for food.

LXVIII. SAPINDACE^, Jussieu.

Corolla either 0, or com/posed of b -4: petals, imbricate, inserted outside a glandular
or annular dish. Stamens usually inserted within the dish, double, equal, or fewer than
the sepals, rarely more. Ovaet central or excentric, usually B-celled ; cells usually 1-

Ecelmderia. Kcelreuterla. Koelreuteria.

i cut verticaUy (mag.)- Transrerse section of ovary (mag.)- Frmt.

352

LXVIII. SAPmDACB^.

Stadmannia.
Frnit.

{sometimes 2-several-) ovuled. Fruit a capsule, samara, drupe, or berry. Embeto
curved, or rolled into a spiral.

Teees, sheubs or undeeshetjbs, rarely hbebs. Stem with watery juice, erect
or climbing, often furnislied with tendrils. Leaves alternate, or very rarely opposite,
generally compound, sometimes appearing simple by the suppression of the lateral
leaflets ; petiole sometimes winged ; stipules caducous, or often 0. Flowees § , or
polygamo-dicecious, racemed or panicled, pedicels bracteolate at their base, the
lower often changed into tendrils. Caltx of 5 usually unequal sepals, the 2 posterior
often united in one, all more or less connate, aestivation imbricate. Disk fleshy,
free, or lining the base of the calyx, sometimes regular, forming an entire ring, or
lobed between the petals and stamens, sometimes unilateral, shorter, or wanting at
the posterior part of the flower, prolonged anteriorly into a lamina, sometimes
double, or divided into glands opposite to the petals. Petals 0, or inserted outside
the disk, alternate with the sepals, the posterior often wanting, the others equal or
unequal, imbricate or rarely sub-valvate ; claw velvety, or glandular within, furnished
in all the petals, or the anterior only, with a hooded or crest-like scale which often
terminates in an inflexed appendage. Stamens usually 8, sometimes 10, rarely 5
(very rarely 2, 4, 12 or oo ), usually inserted within the disk, rarely on its edge or
around its base, often excentric or unilateral ; filaments filiform- subulate, free or
united at the base, equal or unequal; anthers introrse, dorsifixed, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovaey free, central or excentric, a little oblique, 3- (rarely 2-4-)
celled ; style terminal, simple ; stigmas as many as cells ; ovules anatropous or campj'-
lotropous, inserted at the angle of the cells, usually solitary, sometimes geminate,
usually ascending, with a ventral raphe and inferior micropyle, very rarely numerous
and horizontal, or inverted, funicle often swollen. Feuit 2- 3-4-celled, or 1-celled by
suppression, rarely 5-6-celled {Dodoncea) ; sometimes a woody, coriaceous or mem-
branous loculicidal, septicidal, or circumsciss capsule; sometimes samaras winged
on their back, base or top, usually indehiscent ; sometimes a drupe or berry. Seeds
globose or compressed ; testa crustaceous or membranous, sometimes winged, often
arillate or largely umbilicate. Embeto exalbuminous, rarely straight, often bent, or
rolled into a crozier ; cotyledons incumbent, sometimes transversely folded, frequently
confluent into a fleshy mass; radicle facing the hilum, usually inferior, very rarely
superior.

LXVIII. SAPINDACE^. 353

[Sub-orders, tribes and genera of Sapindacew according to the authors of the
' Genera Plantarum ' : —

Sub-order I. SiPlNDJiJ!. — Stamens inserbed witliiii the disk, around the base of the ovary,
or unilateral. Seeds exalbuminous. Leaves rarely opposite.

A. Flowers usually irregular and 4-petalous. Disk unilateral or very oblique.

* Ovules solitaiy. — Urvillea, Serjania, Toulicia, Gardiospermum, PauUinia, Hemigyrosa,
Erioglossum, Schmidelia, &c.

* * Ovules 2 or more in the cells. — Kcelreuteria, Gossignia, ^sculus, Uagnadia, Stoohsia,
Bvplopeltis, Mngorda, &c.

B. Flowers regular or nearly so. Disk complete.

* Ovule usually solitary. Fruit capsular. — Oupania, Thouinia, Batonia, Atalaya, &c.

* * Ovule solitary. Fruit indehiscent, not lobed. — Talisia, Hippubromus, Meliaocca,
Schleicher a.

* * * Ovule solitary. Fruit indehiscent, deeply lobed, or of 1-3 cocci. — Sapindus, Euphoria,
Oapura, Pappea, Beinhollia, Pometia, Nephelium, Heterodendron.

* * * * Ovules 2 or more. — RarpulKa, ? Eypelate, Xanthoceras, Llagunoa.

Sub-order II. Aoeeinb.*. — Flowers regular. Sepals and petals (when present) isomerous.
Stamens variously»inserted. Ovarian cells 1-2-ovuled. Fruit with indehiscent lobes. Seeds
exarillate, albuminous. Leaves opposite. See order Acerinece, p. 354.

Sub-order III, Dodone^. — Flowers regular. Sepals and petals (when present) isomerous.
Disk or complete. Stamens inserted outside the disk (when present), or between its lobes.
Ovarian cells 1— 2-ovuled. Fruit various. Seeds albuminous. Leaves very rarely opposite.
Doduncea, Alectryon, Distichostemon, Pteroxylon, Alvaradoa, Aiionia.

Sub-order IV. Melianthej!. — Flowers irregular. Stamens inserted within the disk,
hypogynous. Seeds albuminous. Embryo straight. Leaves opposite. See order Melianthece,
p. 358.

Sub-order V. Staphylej:. — Flowers § , regular. Stamens inserted outside the disk at
its base. Seeds albuminous. Embryo straight. Leaves opposite. See order Staphyleacecp-,
p. 344— Ed.]

This family is very closely allied to Acmnece and Malpighiacece, as well as to Hippocastane<s and
Staphyleacecp (see these families). It has equally an affinity with Melianthea, which only differ in their
albuminous seed. Through Staphyleaced it is also connected with Celastrineee ; but is distinguished from
them by its generally compound leaves, often irregular flowers, rarely isostemonous petals, stamens in-
serted within the disk,' calyx with free sepals, and generally curved embryo.

Sapmdaeees abound in tropical regions, especially in America ; they are rare beyond the tropic of
Capricorn, and have not yet been observed north of the tropics, except in the North of China and in
India (^Xanthoceras ') ; Dodoneea abounds in Australia.

Sapindacece possesj very various properties: JNfany contain astringent and bitter priilciples, sometimes

' They are inserted outside the disk in Dodoneea and ^ Kcelreuteria, Stocksia, Vngnadia, Cardiospermum,

other undoubted Sapindace<e. — Ed. and Sapindus offer other exceptions.

A A

354 LXIX. ACEEINE^.

comtined with a resinous matter and a certain quantity of volatile oil. The berries of several species and
the aril of others have an agreeahle taste, ovping to the mucilage, sugar, and free acids vrhich they con-
tain ; while others possess narcotic principles which render them eminently poisonous. The seeds of most
yield a fixed oil by expression. The bark, root, and pulp of the fruit of the Soap Tree {Snplndm Saponarid)
are regarded as tonics; besides which, this pulp, like that of its Asiatic congeners, froths with hot water
like soap, and is used in washing, being said to cleanse more linen than sixty times its weight of soap.
The berries of jS'. seneyalmsis are sought by the negros for their sugary and vinous taste. The succulent
and well-tasted aril of Melicocca serves as food in Asia and America, as well as that of the Akee {Blighia
or Cupania sapida), an African plant cultivated over the tropics of both worlds. The fruit, cooked with
sugar and cinnamon, is taken for dysentery, and when roasted is applied to indolent tumours. The species
of the genus Nephelmm rank high among Asiatic fruits; N. Litchi (Litchi), N. Longanum (Longan), N.
lappaceum (Eambutan), and their congeners, are cultivated for their excellent fruits, which are used in
inflammatory and bilious fevers. The Serjanice and the Paulliniee, American genera, are poisonous ; the
Brazilians use their juice to stupefy fish ; and it is from the flower of Serjania lethalis that the Lecheu-
quana bee collects a narcotic-aci-id honey, of which a small quantity produces raving madness, and even
death. The juice of Paullinia Cururu is used by the savages of Guiana to poison their arrows ; the negro
slaves prepare a poison with the root and seeds of P. pinnata ; the expressed juice of its leaves furnishes
the Brazilian Indians with a powerful vulnerary. The seed of P. sorbilis is bitter and astringent ; the
Brazilians powder it, and make it into a paste called gum-ana bread, which they roll into little balls or
cylinders; on their journeys they dilute this dried paste with sugared water, when it forms a refreshing
and febrifuge drink. [It owes its properties to a principle, guaranene, identical with theine. — Ed. J Cardio-
spa-mum Halicacahum, a herb growing throughout the tropics, produces a mucous nauseous root to which
aperient and lithontriptic virtues are attributed, [but its leaves are cooked as a vegetable in the Moluccas.
— Ed.]. Dodoncsa owes its scent to a resinous principle which exudes from its leaves and capsules; the
leaves of D. viscosa are used for baths and fomentations ; its seeds are edible. [The Mamheh and Choopa
of Malacca, species of Pierardia, and the Tampui (Hedycarpus malayanus) yield esculent drupes ; these
genera, hitherto regarded as Euphorbiaceous, have recently been referred to Sapindaceee. The seeds of
the wild Prune of South Africa (Pappea) abound in oil. Many produce most valuable timber, and the
structure of the wood of many climbing species is most remarkable. The African Teak {Oldjieldia
africana), doubtfully placed in EuphorbiacecB, is referred to Sapindanea by T. Mueller. The wood or
Pteroxylon utile, of South Africa, is hard, and as handsome as Mahogany ; its sawdust causes sneezing,
whence the Oape names of Neishout and Sneezewood. Hippodromus alata, of the same country, also
yields a valuable timber. — Ed.]

LXIX. ACERINE^}
(AcEKA, Jussieu. — Aceeine.^, D.C. — Aceeaoe^, Lindl.)

Petals 4-5, hypogynous, imbricate, sometimes 0. Stamens equal or more in
number than the petals. Ovakx 2-lobed, of two 2-ovuled cells ; style central. Ovtjles
pendulous, curved. Fruit a samara. Embeyo exalbuminous ; cotyledons folded or con-
volute; radicle descending.— Stem, woody. Leaves opposite.

Tbees with sugarj, usually limpid, but sometimes milky juice; 6m*! scaly.
Leaves opposite, petiolate, usually simple, palmi-nerved and -lobed, rarely entire or
imparipinnate, leaflets petiolulate ; stipules 0. Flowees g , or often polygamo-
dicecious, regular, in a simple or compound raceme or corymb, axillary or terminal ;
pedicels with a caducous bract. Calyx 4-5- (rarely 6-8-) partite, segments often

' See Sapindacete, Suborder III,, p. 363. — En,

LXIX. ACERINEiE.

355

coloured, imbricate, deciduous. Petals 4-5 or 0, often sepaloid, inserted on the
edge of a free disk surrounding the base of the ovary, shortly clawed, aestivation
imbricate. Stamens inserted with the petals, equal or more numerous, 4-12, oftener

Maple,
Seed entire and cut (mag.).

Maple,
Young pistil (mag.).

Acer J^egUTido*
$ flower.

8; filaments filiform, free, sometimes very short; anthers 2-celled, introrse, oblong,
basifixed or versatile, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovabt free, sessile, 2-celled, 2-lobed,
compressed perpendicularly to the septum ; style central, sub-basilar ; stigma bifid ;
ovules 2 in the central angle of each cell, superimposed or collateral, pendulous,
campylotropous. Feuit of 2 samaras or 1- (rarely 2-) seeded cocci, prolonged into a
dorsal coriaceous or membranous wing, reticulate, and remaining suspended to a
carpophore, as in Wmhelliferw. Seeds ascending ; testa membranous ; mdoplewra

A A 2

866 LXX. HIPPOCASTANEiE.

fleshy. Embeto exalbuminous ; cotyledons foliaceous, green, accumbent, irregularly
folded or convolute ; radicle descending, facing the hilum.

GENEEA.
Acer. Kegundo. Dobinea.

AcerinecE, regarded bj' Bentham and Hooker fil. as a sub-order of Sapindacece (see p. 353), only differ
from tbese in their always opposite leaves and non-appendiculate petals, and in their occasionally trimerous
fruit (Acer pseudo-Platamts) , as in most Sapindacece. Hippocastanea only differ from Acerinece in their capsvde
with semi-septiferous valves ; and are further allied, since in both orders the buds bear both leaves and
flowers. For the affinity with Malpighiacece see p. 301.

Acerine(S inhabit northern temperate regions, and especially Japan, the Himalayas, and eastern North
America. The curious genus Dohinea, which is placed in Acerinece, is Plimalayan ; [it has apetalous ?
flowers -without a disk, and a one-celled ovary, which ripens into a small broadly-winged achene. — Ed.].

Acerinece contain a sugary sap, milky in some, limpid in others, which is obtained by incision of the
trunk, and is either evaporated for sugar (the Maple Sugar of Canada), or allowed to ferment and thus
form spirituous or acid liquors. Their bark is astringent, and yields reddish or yellow colouring principles.
[The wood of various species is of great value, especially the Bird's-eye Maple of America. — Ed.]

LXX. HIPPOCASTANEyE,"- Endlicher.

Large or small teees with scaly buds. Leaves opposite |^alternate in
Ungnadia. — Ed. J, generally digitate, rarely imparipinnate, with toothed or crenate
leaflets ; stipules 0. Flowees ^ or polygainous, in racemes or terminal thyrsi.
Calyx campanulate or tubular, 5-fid, lobes unequal, imbricate. Petals 4-6,
inserted on the receptacle, unequal, clawed, not appendiculate, imbricate. Disk
hypogynous, entire, annular or unilateral. Stamens 5-8, usually 7, inserted within
the disk, and free ; filaments filiform, exserted, ascending ; anthers 2-celled, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovaet sessile, oblong or lanceolate, of 3 2-ovuled cells ; style conical
or filiform ; stign%a pointed ; ovules curved, fixed to the central angle of the cell,
superimposed or horizontal, or one ascending, the other pendulous. Capsule coria-
ceous, naked or spinous, 3-eelled or 2-1 -celled by suppression, loculicidal, valves
semi-septiferous. Seeds usually solitary in each cell; testa coriaceous, shining;
hilum basUar, large. Embeto exalbuminous, curved ; cotyledons large, thick, fleshy,
often more or less confluent ; radicle short, near the hilum.

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.
^sculus. Pavia. Ungnadia.

The little group of Sippooasfanecs, which evidently belongs to the family of Sapindacece, is only dis-
tinguished from the latter by its opposite digitate leaves and the 2-ovuled ovarian cells; and it must
further be observed that the genus Ungnadia, placed by botanists near ^scmIuh, has alternate and impari-
pinnate leaves, which bring it still nearer to Sapindacece. For the affinity with Aoerinecs, see this family.

Hippocastama are chiefly North American, except Castanella [which is not referable to Hippooastaneee,

' Included in the ' Genera Plantarum ' in Sapindaces, nadia being alternate invalidates the only character
where it does^ot even form a tribe ; the leaves^f Uiig- distinguishing it from Sapindacece proper. En.

LXX. HIPPOCASTANBiE.

357

Horse-cliestnut.
Diagram.

Horse-chestnut-
Stamen (mag.).

Horse-chestnut.
Seedj entire and cut vertically.

in its restricted sense], which belongs to New Grenada ; one species, the Horse-chestnut (yE. Hippo-
castanum) is cultivated in Asia and Europe [but its origin is wholly unknown. There are also two Indian
species, one Himalayan, and the other tropical, found in Silhet and Assam. — Ed.]. The bark of the
Horse-chestni;t contains gallic acid and a bitter principle, which make it rival, as a tonic, that of the
Willow; its seeds, the taste of which is at once mild and bitter, are rich in starch, and are given in
Turkey to broken-winded horses ; reduced to powder they serve as soap ; roasted they are used as coffee ; and
fermented they yield a spirituous liquor, which yields alcohol by distillation ; the young aromatic buds
have been employed in place of the Hop in the manufacture of beer. [The fruit and leaves of the American
^. Ohioemis (Buckeye) are considered to be deadly poison. — Ed.]

358

LXXI. MELIANTHBiB.

LXXI. MELIANTHEyE,^ Endlicher.

Meliaiithus.
Flower (mag.)

MeUanthus.
Seed (mag.).

MeUanthus.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

Mdiantlms.
Plowef deprived of part of its
calyx and petals (mag.).

MeUaiiihu
Fruit.

Bevsema ahyssinica.

Diagram. (From

Planchon's ' Mtooire.')

Shrubs, glabrous, glaucious or whitish. Leaves alternate, stipulate, impari-
pinnate, leaflets unequilateral, toothed, decurrent ; stipules 2, free, or united into
one, very large, intrapetiolar. Flowers g , in axillary and terminal racemes,
shortly pedicelled, bracteate, the lower sometimes apetalous, with 2 fertile and 2 '
sterile stamens. Calyx compressed, of 5 unequal segments, the inner very short,
distant, gibbous below, hooded at the top ; the others lanceolate, flat ; the two upper
larger, covering the lateral. Petals 5, excentric (the fifth minute or 0), subperi-
gynous, narrow, long-clawed, cottony in the middle. Disk thickened, unilateral,
lining the gibbous bottom of the calyx, and distilling an abundant nectar. Stamens

' A sub-order of Saplndaceis ; see p. 3o3.— Ed.

LXXII. SABIACE^. 859

4, hypogynous, inserted within the disk, nearly central, didynamous and a little
inclined ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, ovoid-oblong, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet
oblong, 4-lobed, 4-celled; style central, arched, fistular, {nrvowedi;. stigma 4-toothed ;
ovules 2-4 in each cell, 2-seriate on the inner angle above the middle, ascending or
horizontal, anatropous. Capsule papery, deeply 4-lobed, with 4 1 -seeded cells
opening ventrally at the top. Seeds sub-globose, without aril ; testa criistaceous,
shining ; hilwm conical, foveolate ; -albumen copious, fleshy or horny. Embeto small,
green ; cotyledons linear-oblong ; radicle thickened at the tip.

GENERA.
Melianthus. Bersama. Greyia.

The genus Melianthus, which was formerly placed in Zygophyllece, is separated from it by its irregular
and racenaed flowers, perigynous and isostemonous petals, and ascending ovules. It is only distinguished
from 8apindace<B by its albuminous ' seed ; and it has therefore been annexed to this family by Planchon
and Bentham and Hooker, together with the genus Bersama, which differs in its often polygamous
flowers, its stamens all (or two only) united at the base, its one-ovuled ovarian cells, its capsule with
four semi-septiferous valves, and its arillate seeds. [The remarkable and beautiful Natal genus Qreyia
is referred here by Bentham and Hooker ill. (Gen. PI. p. 1000), and though exstipulate, is regarded as a
member of Melianthem with partially consolidated carpels, which, being united by the margins only,
enclose one cell with parietal placentas. The fruit breaks up into five follicles.- — Ed.]

Melianthus inhabits South Africa ; one species has been introduced into Nepal [no doubt in gardens
only. The whole plant has a remarkably heavy smell. — Ed.].

The sugary-vinous nectar secreted by the disk of M. major is much sought by colonists and natives
of the Cape. That of M, minor is thicker and less esteemed.

LXXII. SABIAGE^, Blume?

[Shrubs or trees, erect or scandent or sarmentose, with watery juice, glabrous
or with simple hairs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, simple or pinnate, entii-e or
serrate, penninerved. Ineloeesoence various, usually panicled. Elowees S of
polygamo-dioecious, small or minute. Calyx 4-5-partite, imbricate in bud. Petals
4-5, equal or unequa,!, inserted on the receptacle, alternate with or opposite to the
sepals, imbricate in bud. Disk small, annular, lobed, rarely tumid. Stamens 4-5,
inserted at the base or on the top of the disk opposite the petals, free or adnate to
the petals, rarely all equal and fertile with thick filaments, often 2 opposite the inner
smaller petals, perfect with clavate or obcuneate filaments, and 3 antherless scale-
like ; anthers didymous, separated by a thick connective, or dehiscing transversely
or by a deciduous calyptra ; pollen minute, globose. Ovart sessile, 2-8-celled, com-
pressed or 2-3-lobed ; styles connate or cohering, with stigmatiferous tips, or stigmas
simple, sessile on the lobes of the ovary ; ovules 1-2 in each cell, collateral or super-
imposed, horizontal or pendulous, raphe ventral, micropyle inferior, remote from the
funicle. Eeuit of 1 or 2 dry or drupaceous indehiscent carpels, often sub-globose,

' Staphylm having albuminous seeds completely unites these families. — En.
,'■' This order is omitted in the original. — En.

360 LXXIII. TBEEBINTHACE^.

top usually deflexed, compressed and reniform in Sabia ; endocarp crustaceous or
bony, 1-seeded. Seeds compressed or siib-globose, adnate by a broad hilum to the
base of the cell ; testa membranous or coriaceous ; albumen 0, or a thin layer adnate
to the testa. Embeto with thick rugose or membranous contorted cotyledons, and
an inferior curved radicle pointing upwards to the hilum.

GENERA.
Sabia. Meliosma. Phoxanthus. OpLioeavyon.

A small but well-defined order of four genera and about tbirty-two species, differing from its allies
in the isomerous stamens opposite the petals. It is related to Terebinthacecs and Sapindaceee, but diifera
from both not only in the above character, but from TereUnthacece in the always few stamens, anthers, fila-
ments, two-OTuled ovarian cells, and deflexed carpels ; and from Sapindacea: in the short stamens, never
eight- in number, which are not decliuate. Sahia is very remarkable for the opposition of its bracts, sepals,
petals, stamens, and ovarian carpels, which is perhaps unique in the Vegetable Kingdom. 'Its fruit and
certain other characters have caused authors to assign it to Menispermaceai, with which it has nothing
whatever in common.

Sabiacece are for the most part tropical Indian , but Sabia is Himalayan also. Meliosma is common
to Asia and America; Phoxanthus and Ophiocarymi, monotypic genera, are from North Brazil and
Guiana.

The wood of the Indian Meliosma is of excellent quality, and in considerable demand for house-
building. The singular embryo of Ophiocaryon, resembling a snake coiled up inside the nut, gives the
name of Snake-nut to the fruit. — Ed.]

LXXIII. TEREBINTtJACE^.
(Anacaebie^, Br. — Teeebinthace.*;, Kunth, — Anacaediaoe^, Lindl.)

FlOWEES very often diclinous. Petals inserted on an annular dish, equal in
number to the calyx-lobes, sometimes 0. Stamens equal or double the number of the
petals. OvAET generally solitary, l-celled, 1-ovuled. Ovule suspended from a basilar
or lateral funicle. Feuit usually a drupe. Embeyo exalbuminous. — Stem woody.
Leaves exstipulate.

Teees, large or small, with gummy or milky-resinous juice, often poisonous.
Leaves alternate, or very rarely opposite (Bouea), simple, 3-foliolate or impari-
pinnate, exstipulate. Flowees S , or polygamo-dicecious, or monoecious, regular,
small, axillary or terminal, fascicled, spiked or panicled. Calyx 3-5-fid or -partite,
often persistent, sometimes accrescent [Loxostylis). Petals equal in number to the
calyx- lobes, inserted at the base or top of an annular disk, aestivation usually imbri-
cate, sometimes accrescent {Melanorrhaea), or (Pistacia). Stamens inserted with
the petals, or double in number, very rarely more (Melanorrhaea), and then some
imperfect ; filaments subulate or filiform ; anthers very often versatile, introrse, dehi-
scence longitudinal. Ovaet l-celled (Anacardiew), or 2-5-celled [Spondiece), or very
rarely of 5-6 distinct carpels, of which all but one are sterile, or reduced to the style
[Buchanania] ; style simple, terminal or sublateral, sometimes several by the sup-

LXXIII. TEREBINTHACfEiE.

361

Sumach, {Rhus Cotinm.)

Sumach,
■pruit, entire and cut Tertically.

Sumach.
Stamen (mag.).

Sumach.

Fertile flower accompanied by

abortive flowers.

Sumach..

Vertical section oE flower

(ma^.).

Pistachio.
(? flower (mag.).

Pistachio.
9 flower (mag.).

Hi

Pistachio.

Embryo, entire

and cut transversely

(mag.).

Sumach.

Fruiting and sterile pedicels.

Pistachio,
Fruity entire and cut (mag.).

Pistachio.
Young ovules with strongly
developed funicle (mag.).

362 LXXIII. TEEEBINTHACE^.

pression of the ovaries, whicli have become confluent with the fertile one ; ovules
solitary, pendulous, or broadly adnate to the wall of the cell, or suspended to a basal
ascending funicle, micropyle superior and raphe dorsal, rarely erect with the micro-
pyle inferior and raphe ventral {Anacardium, Mangifera, &c.). Feuit usually
superior, rarely inferior {Eoligarna), free, or girt by a receptacular cup, sometimes
seated on a broadened pyriform fleshy receptacle {Anacardium), usually a drupe,
indehiscent, or with a dehiscent endocarp, rarely nut-like {Anacardium). Seed
erect, horizontal or inverted ; testa membranous, sometimes confluent with the endo-
carp ; hilum usually ventral. Embeto exalbuminous ; cotyledons plano-convex ;
radicle more or less curved, superior or inferior.

[The following is the new arrangement of Anacardiacece {Terebinthacew) in the
' Genera Plantarum ' :—

Tribe I. Anacaediej;. — Ovary 1-celled.

A. Ovule usually suspended from a basilar funicle.

* Sepals and petals not accrescent. — Blius, Pistacia, Sorindeia, Buchanania, Gomocladia,
Mangifera, Anacardium, Bouea, Qluta.

* * Sepals or petals accrescent. — MelanorrJicea, Swintmiia, Loxostylis.

B. Ovule suspended from above the middle of the cell.

* Leaves compound. Calyx not accrescent. — Scliinus, Bolenocarpiis, Sinodingium, Odina.

* * Leaves compound. Calyx accrescent. — Astroniutn, Parishia.

*** Leaves simple (or pinnate in Mauria).—Semecarpus, Gorijnocarpus, Drlmy carpus,
Maitria, Holigana, Buvava.

Tribe II. Spomdieji. — Ovary 2— 5-celled. Ovules pendulous. Spondias, Dracontomelum,
Sclerocarya, Sarpephyllum, &c. — Ed.J

Terebintliaceee approach JRosacece, tribe Amygdalem, in their habit, woody stem, alternate leaves, peri-
gynous insei-tiou of their polypetalous corolla and (sometimes polyandrous) androecium ; in the solitary
carpel, usually drupaceous fruit, and exalbuminous seed. They approach some Leguminonm in the same
points, and also in the frequently monadelphous stamens, and in the more or less curved embryo. Teire-
hinthacecB are allied to Juglandem, which, like them, have diclinous ilowers, a one-celled one-ovuled ovary,
drupaceous fruit, exalbuminous embryo, woody stem, and alternate usually pinnate leaves. They are
also closely allied to Connaracece and Zanthoxyhce, and have therefore been placed in the same class.
JBurseracets scarely differ save in the two-ovuled ovarian cells and the ovules with superior micropyle and
ventral raphe. Connnracem diifer in their distinct carpels with two collateral and erect ovules, and
their capsular fruit. Finally, Zanthoxylecs chiefly differ in their seed, which is furnished with a more or
less copious albumen.

TerehinthactcB are frequent in the intertropical zone of both continents ; they diminish rapidly
beyond this zone, so that they are rare in the Mediterranean region,', in South Africa, North America, and
Australia, where however, five genera occur.

Terehmthacece yield medicinal substances, edible fruits, [fine varnishes, Ed.], and many woods useful
to dyers and cabinet-makers. The principal species are the following : —

' This refers to genera and species, and not to individuals ; for Fistacia of three species abounds, as do several
of Rhus, in some districts of the Mediterranean. — Ed.

LXXIII. TBEEBINTHACE^-. 363

Pistada vera (Pistachio). A tree of Persia and Syria," now cultivated throughout the Mediterranean
region. Fruit with an oily green seed of an agreeable taste, used by confectioners and pharmacists. — P.
LentisKus. A small tree, cultivated in the Greek Archipelago, and especially at Scio, yielding by incision
of its trunk an aromatic resin called mastic, softening in the mouth, slightly tonic and astringent, and much
used in the East to perfume the breath and strengthen the gums [as also to flavour wines and confec-
tionery. In England it is used for varnishing pictures and in dentistry. — Ed.]. — P. atlantica, from Mauri-
tania, also yields a mastic, employed in the same way. — P. Terebintkus, a Mediterranean tree, yields by
incision the Ohio or Cyprus turpentine, formerly used in medicine, but now unjustly depreciated; [it
further produces curious horn-shaped galls, used for tanning leather in the East. — Ed,]. ,

Schinus Molle (False Pepper) is a small tree of tropical America with a sugary edible drupe and a
mastic with the odour of pepper, slightly purgative. [Fragments of the leaf floated on water move about
by jerks, owing to the discharge of a volatile oil from the tissues. — Ed.]

Duvaua dependens is a small Chilian tree with fermentable seeds which yield an intoxicating drink.

Shus Coriaria (Varnish-tree) is a small Mediterranean tree, the dried and pulverized leaves of which
furnish a tan much used in the preparation of leather ; its acid fruit is used in Turkey as a condiment. —
The flowers and fruits of R. typhina, a North American shrub, are there used to sharpen vinegar, whence
its name of Vinegar-tree. — R. Cotimis, a South European shrub, yields Venetian Sumach, or Young
Fustic, a valuable orange-yellow dye. Its bark is aromatic and astringent, and is used as a febrifuge. — R.
Toxicodendron (the Poison Sumach or Poison Ivy), of North America, has a milky volatile very acrid
juice, the touch of which, or even an exhalation from it, brings on violent erysipelas [in many persons,
whilst others are wholly unaffected by it. — Ed.]. An extract is prepared from the leaves, and used in
some cutaneous disorders. — ft. Vemix, a Japanese shrub with milky juice, of which is composed Japanese
varnish. Other trees of the same family, natives of China and India, yield also by incision a very dele-
terious resinous juice, employed in the composition of Chinese lacquer. The juice of R. venenata, of North
America, is not less deleterious, and is similarly employed. R. Succedanea yields the Vegetable Wax of
Japan [which is found as a thick white coating of the seed within the capsule.— Ed.].

Melanorrhma usitntissima yields the celebrated black varnish of Burmah and Martaban. [A similar
varnish is yielded in India by the fruits of Soligarna Imigifolia. — Ed.]

Mangifera indica, an East Indian tree introduced into the Antilles, yields the Mango, a large drupe,
variable in colour and size, of a perfumed and sugary-acid taste, becoming purgative when eaten to
excess ; [but which is one of the best of tropical fruits. Its bitter aromatic root is used medicinally. — Ed.].

Anacardium occidentale, an American tree now naturalized throughout the tropics, yields the Cashew-
nut, which contains in its pericarp a caustic oil [and black varnish], and in its seed a sweet oil. Its
greatly enlarged and pear-shaped receptacle, called the Cashew-apple, is juicy, fleshy, sugary and acid in
taste, but a little acrid. The true Cashew wood is furnished by a tree of the Antilles belonging
to the family of Cedrelacea. The juice of the pericarp oi Semecarpus gives an indelible black dye, used
for marking linen.

Spmdias purptirea (Spanish Plum) is a West Indian tree with an acidulous sugary drupe. 8. dukis is
cultivated in the Friendly and Society Islands for its wholesome and refreshings fruit. [S. kitea, Mombra,
and tuberom, yield the Hog Plum of the West Indies.— Ed.] S. birrea, a native of Senegambia, has
a fermentable fruit from which the negros make a spirituous liquor.

[The gum of Odina Odier is used for plasters in India.— Ed.]

' The native country of the cultivated Pistachio nut ' Gtographie Botanique.' I did not find it in Syria, and

(P. vera) is unknown, and it is doubtful whetliei' it may was informed that it was known there in cultivation

not he a cultivated form of P. atlantica, or some only told.— Ed.
other species. The plant is omitted in De Candolle's

364 LXXIV. CONKAEACE^.

LXXIV. CONNARACEJ^}

[Erect or climbiug trees or shrubs with watery juice. Leaves alternate, ex-
stipulate, 1-3-foliolate or imparipinnate ; leaflets coriaceous, always quite entire.
Flowers rather small, usually g , regular or nearly so, in racemes or panicles.
Calyx 5-fid or 4-5-partite, usually persistent and embracing the base of the fruit,
imbricate or valvate in bud. Disk 0, or membranous, or annular and embraeing the
bases of the stamens, sometimes unilateral. Stamens 5 or 10, perigynous or hypo-
gynous, sometimes deelinate, if 10 those opposite the petals usually smaller and
often, imperfect ; filaments filiform, usually monadelphous ; anthers short, didymous,
bursting longitudinally, introrse or extrorse after flowering. Petals 5, linear-
oblong, free, or cohering slightly in the middle, imbricate or very rarely valvate in
bud. Carpels 5, rarely 1-3, globose, free, hirsute, 1-celled ; styles subulate or fili-
form ; stigmas capitellate, simple or 2-lobed ; ovules 2, collateral, ascending from the
inner angle of the cell, orthotropous. Fruit of usually a solitary sessile or stipitate
follicle, dehiscing by the ventral (rarely by the dorsal) suture, often hairy within, 1-
(rarely 2-) seeded. Seed erect, arillate or not ; testa thick, sometimes fleshy, coloured,
and aril-like around the lower half of the seed ; aril fleshy, coloured, entire, dimi-
diate or cupular. Embryo either exalbuminous with amygdaloid cotyledons, or
with fleshy albumen and foliaceous cotyledons ; radicle superior, very rarely ventral.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Byrsocarpus. Ageltea. Eourea. Connarus.

Manotes. Onestis. Tricliolobua. EUipanthiis.

A considerable order, of a dozen genera and 140 species, of very complex affinities, perhaps moat
closely allied to TereUnthacecB, but differing in the hermaphrodite flowers, geminate orthotropous ovules,
and constantly superior radicle. The exstipulate leaves, usually albuminous seed, orthotropous collateral
ovules and superior radicle distinguish it from Leguminoscs. Planchon has pointed out its many points
of analogy with O.raZjtfefS, especially through the genus Connaropsis ; but their corolla is not contorted,
their carpels are free, and they differ essentially in the ovules, seed, and embryo. Byrsocarpus presents
the remarkable structure of lacunose cotyledons. Sic. ; the petals are valvate in Tricholobus, and (according
to Blume) its ovules are anatropous, which character may remove it from the order.

Connaracece are altogether tropical, and chiefly Asiatic and Malayan ; but many are American, African,
and several Australian and Pacific. They are chiefly valuable in an economic point of view for their
woods : of these one is the beautiful Zebra wood {Connarus Lambertii), a native of Guiana. The aril of
some species is edible. The seeds of C. speciosas, a large Rangoon tree, yield an abundance of oil, and
its wood is very useful, as is that of C. paniculatus. — Eb.]

LXXV. LEGUMINOSJE.

(Papilionace^ et LoMENTACE^, L, — Leguminos^, Jussieu.)

Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, usually compound, stipulate.
Flowers irregular or regular, 5 , or sometimes diclinous. Corolla perigynous or
hypogynouSf regular and valvate in aestivation, or irregular and imbricate, rarely 0.

' This order is not described in the original,— Ed.

LXXV. LEGUMINOS^.

365

Stamens inserted with the corolla, double in number to the petals, or indefinite ; anthers
2-celled. Pistil generally 1-carpelled, becoming a pod or an imdehiseent fruit, often
jointed. Embeyo generally exalbuminous.

SuB-OEDEE I. MIMOSE^, Br.

Mimosa pudica.

Acacia iaxa.
Agglomerated pollen-grains.

Albizzia.
Embryo (mag.).

Albizsia,
Andrceclmn (mng.).

Stem woody, rarely herbaceous, unarmed or thorny, straight or sarmentose
sometimes aquatic and floating (Neptunia). Leaves simple {phyllodes) or 2-3-pin-
nate, sometimes irritable ; petiole inserted on a small cushion, usually furnished
with petiolar or spinal glands; stipules free, caducous, sometimes persistent and
spinescent. Flowbes ? , often polygamous, regular, in a spike or head, rarely in a
panicle or corymb. Calyx 4-5-fid or -partite, aestivation generally valvate. Petals
as many as the sepals, inserted on the base of the calyx, or distinctly hypoo-ynous
free {Parkia, Prosopis), or more or less coherent into a tube {Acacia, Mimosa, Inga,
&c.), sestivation generally valvate. Stamens usually double or multiple the petals,
very rarely equal {Desmanthus) ; filaments free (Adenanthera, Desmanthus, Entada

366 LXXV. LBGUMINOS^.

Gagnebina, &c.), or monadelphous [Alhizzia, FarJcia, Prosopis, Inga, &c.) ; anthers
small, rounded, dorsifixed; pollen-granules often agglomerated in fours or sixes.
Eipe CAEPELS solitary, or very rarely many, free (Affonsea) ; ovary 1-celled ;
ovules anatropous. Pod 1-celled and 2-Talved, or pluricelled owing to transverse
or lomentaceous septa, wMcli sometimes attain enormous proportions {Entada).
Seeds often marked with an areola. Embbto straight, usually exalbuminous, very
rarely albuminous [Filloea).

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Pavkia.

Entada.

Adenanthera.

"Calliandra,

Gagnebina.

Neptunia.

Desmantliua.

•Albizzia.

•Mimosa.

*Acacia.

•luga.

[The Sub-order Mimosece is subdivided into five tribes by Bentham : —

Tribe I. Paekie.*. — Calyx-teeth short, broad, imbricate. Corolla 5-fid. Stamens (perfect)
5-10 ; anthers crowned with a deciduous gland. Parhia, Pentaclethra.

Tribe II. Adenanthere^. — Calyx valvate. Stamens free, usually twice as many as the
petals ; anthers usually crowned with a stalked gland ; pollen-grains many, distinct. JSntada,
Piptadenia, Adenanthera, Prosopis, DichrostacJiys, Neptunia, &c.

Tribe III. EuMiMOSSiE. — Calyx valvate, pappose, or 0. Stamens free; anthers eglandular;
pollen-grains many, distinct. Desmanthus, Mimosa, Schranclcia, Leuccena, Xylia, &c.

Tribe IV. Acaciej!. — Calyx valvate, rarely 0. Stamens indefinite, usually many, free or
connate at the base ; pollen-grains aggregated in 2-6 masses. Acacia.

Tribe V. Ingejb. — Calyx valvate. Stamens indefinite, rarely 10-15, connate at the base,
rarely beyond the middle; anthers small; pollen-grains usually aggregated in 2-6 masses.
CaJlianclra, Albizzia, Pitliacolohivm, Inga, Affonsea, &c. — Ed.].

SuB-ORDEE II. SWABTZIEJE, B.C.'

Unarmed teees. Leaves unequally imparipinnate or simple, stipulate.
Flowers § , sub-irregularly racemed. Caltx valvate in aestivation, 4-5-lobed, or
rarely splitting along one side {Zollerma). Petals more or less unequal, imbricate
in aestivation, 5-3-1, sometimes 0, generally hypogynous, rarely perigynous {Aldina}.
Caepel solitary. Ovaet 1-celled, stipitate. Pod 1-celled, 2-valved, few-seeded,
rarely an indehiscent drupe [Betariwn), Embeto exalbuminous.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Swartzia. Aldina. Detarium.'

' Regarded as the last tribe of Sub-order Papilionacea by Bentham.
' Referred by Bentham to Tribe VI. of C<esalpinie<s.—'Ex>.

LXXV. LEGUMINOSiE.

367

SuB-OEDER III. GJHSALPINIE^, Br.

Cercis. CercU.

Section ol seed Section of seed

parallel to plane perpendicular to

of cotyledons. plane of cotyledons.

Cei'cis Siliquas/rum.

Cercis. Calyx.

Cercis.
Flower cut vertically.

Cercis. Pod,

Cercis.
Wings.

Cercis.
Keeh

Cassia tora. Copai/era Langsdorfii.
Transverse section Arillate seed

of seed (mag.). (mag.).

Stem woody, straight or climbing, sometimes flexuous, flattened, ribbon-like
(Bauhinia). Leaves, generally compound, stipulate. Flowers 5 , rarely dioecious
COeratonia), imbricate in sestivation, nearly regular or sub-papilionaceous, in
racemes or spikes. Calyx usually 5-nierous. Petals inserted on the calyx,
usually 5, alternate with the sepals, rarely 3, 2, or 1, sometimes {Oopaifera,
Geratonia). Stamens 10 or fewer, inserted with the petals ; filaments generally
free rarely coherent {L&ptoloiium) , more or less unequal. Carpel solitary; ovules
anatropous. Pod dehiscent or often indehiscent, sometimes pluricelled by
transverse septa {Cassia, OleditscUa). Seeds often marked with an areola. Embryo
straight, exalbuminous, or often albuminous.

368 LXXV. LEGUMINOS^.

[The Sub-order OoBsaljpiniece is subdivided into seven tribes by Bentham : —

Teibe I. ScLEEOLOBiBa;. — Leaves usually unequally pinnate. Sepals free, imbricate. Petals
usually 5, subequal. Ovary-stalk free in the bottom of the calyx-tube ; ovules 3-ao . Sclera-
lohhim, Fceppigia, Genostigma, &c.

Teibe II. Eucjisalpinieji. — Leaves 2-piiinate. Sepals free. Petals usually 5, subequal.
Ovarj-'-stalk free in the bottom of the calyx-tube ; ovules 3-oo , rarely 1. Pellophomm, Mezo-
new-um, Gcesalpinia, Hoffmanseggia, Hmmatoviylmi, Fterolobium, Gleditschia, Poinciana, Parkin-
sonia.

Teibe III. Cassie^!.— Leaves equally or unequally pinnate. Sepals 6, rarely 3-4, free,
imbiicate, rarely subvalvate. Petals 5-0. Anthers bursting by slits or pores. Ovary free in
the base of the calyx-tube. Seeds albuminous. Cassia, Labichea, Bialmm, Oeratonia, &c.

Teibe IV. BAUHiNiEiE. — Leaves entire, 2-lobed or -foliolate. Calyx gamosepalous. An-
thers versatile. Ovary-stalk free or adnate to the calyx-tube. Seeds albuminous. Bauldnia,
Cercls, &c.

Teibe V. Amheestie^. — Leaves usually pinnate. Sepals free, rarely valvate. Anthers
versatile. Ovary-stalk laterally adnate to the calyx-tube ; ovules 3-co . Brownea, Amherstiu,
Heterostemon, Humboldtia, Maerolobium, Afzelia, Tamarindus, Sohotia, Hymencea, Orudia.

Teibe VI. CYNOMETEEiB. — Leaves equally pinnate, or 2-8-foliolate. Flowers small. Sepals
free, imbricate or valvate. Petals 5-0. Anthers versatile. Ovary 1-2-ovuled. Detarivm,
Gopaifera, Hardwickia, Gynometra.

Teibe VII. DiMOEPHANDEEiE. — Leaves 1-2-pinnate. Flowers small, spicate. Calyx 5-
toothed or -lobed. Petals 5, imbricate. Anthers versatile. Ovules oo . Backia, Dimorphandra,
Eryihrophlmum. — Ed. J

Stjb-oedek IV. PAPILIONAGEM, Br.

Stem woody or herbaceous. Rootlets often covered with small tuberous excres-
cences. Leaves stipulate, with no petiolar glands, often terminating in tendrils,
sometimes 0, and replaced either by stipules {Lathyrus Aphaca) or by herbaceous and
membranous wings edging the stem {Orotalaria Vespertilio) ; sometimes opposite
when young {Phaseolus). Flowers perfect, very rarely polygamous (^racAis), inflor-
escence axillary, in a raceme, spike, head, or umbel, or solitary, imbricate in aestiva-
tion. Caltx more or less irregular, 6-toothed, -fid, or -partite, or 2-labiate, the two
posterior divisions forming the upper lip, the two lateral and the anterior forming the
lower lip. Petals usually 5, alternate with the sepals, soijjetimes 4, 3, 2, or 1
(Amorpha), inserted on a disk lining the bottom of the calyx, usually free, or rarely
coherent (Trifolium), unequal, the posterior petal {standard) embracing the others,
the two lateral {wings) alike, pressed upon the two anterior, which also are alike, often
conniving, and simulating a single petal {keel or loat). Stamens 10, or less by
abortion ; filaments either monadelphous, or diadelphous by the separation of the
stamen opposite to the standard; or completely- free {Sophora, Cladrastis, Anagyris,
&c.). Otakt solitary, opposite to the anterior sepal, sessile or pedicelled, usually
pluriovuled ; ovules situated along the suture facing the standard, campylotropous ;

LXXV. LEGUMINOS^.

369

Lathyrus.
Diagram.

Lathyrm.
vertical section of flower (mag.)-

Lathyrus.
Calyx (mag.).

Tetragonolobus. Fruit

_ Seed cut entire and

vertically (mag.). dehiscent.

Lathyrus.
■ Part of pod and seed,

B B

Colutea,
Seed <mag.).

370

LXXV. LEGUMINOS^.

Broom. Fruit. Astragalus. Open fruit. Trefoil. {Tri/olium pratense.) Lucern. Fruit (mog.). Sainfoin. Fruit.

LXXV. LEGUMINOS^. 371

style filiform ; stigma terminal, or situated laterally on tlie inner side, below the
extremity of the style. Pod either 1 -celled, opening in 2 valves, which sometimes
separate from the placentas {Oarmichwlia) ; or divided into 2 cells by a longitudinal
septum {Astragalus, Oxytropis) ; or divided by transverse septa into superimposed
cellules; or divided by strangulation (isthmus) into 1 -seeded joints, which separate
when ripe. Seed with a soft, generally carunculate testa. Embeto exalbuniinous
or albuminous; radicle bent.

[Divided by Bentham in the 'Genera Plantarum ' into the following eleven
tribes.

Teibe I. PoDALTElEj;. — Shrubs, rarely herbs. Leaves simple or digitately compound.
Stamens 10, free. Anagijris, Thermopsis, Baptisia, Podalyria, Brachysema, Oxylohium, Ghorizema,
Mirhelia, and numerous other (chiefly Australian) genera.

Tbibe II. Geniste J!. — Shrubs or herbs. Leaves simple or digitately compound, leaflets
quite entire. Flowers solitary, fascicled, or in terminal or leaf-opposed racemes- Stamens' 10,
iisually monadelphous. Priestleya, Bossicea, Hovea, Ooodia, Bafnia, Lotononis, LebecJcia, Aspa-
latJms, Crotalaria, Impinus, Ldburnum, Genista, TJlex, Oytisus, &c.

Teibe III. Teifouej;. — Herbs, rarely shrubby. Leaves 3-foliolate, usnally toothed by
the excurrent nerves. Stamens 10, monadelphous or diadelphous. Ononis, Trigonella,
Medicago, Melilotus, Trifolium, Paroohetus.

Teibe IV. Lotej;. — Herbs or shrubs. Leaves pinnately 3-foliolate, leafle^is quite entire.
Flowers usually umbelled or capitate. Stamens 10, monadelphous or diadelphous ; alternate
filaments often dilated. Anthyllis, Lotus, Hosackia, &c.

Teibe V. GALEGEiE. — Herbs (not climbing), trees, or erect or climbing shrubs. Leaves
pinnately S-oo - (rarely 3-1-) foliolate ; leaflets usually quite entire. Pod 2-valved or small, 1-2-
seeded, and vesicular. Psoralea, Amorpha, Dalea, Indigofera, Gcdega, Tephrosea, Milletia,
Wistaria, Bobinia, Sesbania, Garmichcelia, GUanthus, Lessertia, Swaimsonia, Oolutea, Oaragana,
Astragalus, Oxytropis, Olyoirrhiza.

Teibe VI. Hedtsabej;. — Habit of IV., V., and VIII., but pod inarticttla^e. Sempiurus, Or-
nithopus, Goronilla, Hippoorepis, ILedysarum, Onobryohis, Ormocarpium, MsoK^niOmyne, Smithia,
Adesm/ia, Araahis, Desmodium, Uvaria, Alysicarpus, Lespedeza. \.

Teibe VII. Vicieji. — Herbs. Leaves abruptly pinnate, petiole ending in a tendril or
point, leaflets usually toothed at the tip. Stamen and pod of VIII. Gicer, Vicia, Lens,
Lathyrus, Pisum, Abrus, &c.

Teibe VIII. Phaseole^. — Herbs, usually twining, rarely erect, or shrubs or trees. Leaves
usually pianately 3- (rarely 1-7- ) foliolate ; leaflets entire or lobed. Pod 2-valved. Gentro-
sema, Glitoria, Glycine, ITardenbergia, Kennedya, Brythrina, Mucuna, Butea, Galactia, Gampto-
sema, Bioclea, Pueraria, Ganavalia, Phaseolus, Vigna, Dolichos, Bhynohosia, &c.

' Teibe IX. Dalbeegie.s;. — Erect or climbing trees or shrubs. Leaves pinnately 1-3-5-qo -
foliolate. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous. Pod indehiscent. Dalbergia, Pterocarpiis,
Lonchoearpus, Derris, Dipteryx, Inocarpus, &c.

Teibe X. Sophorej;. — Trees or shrubs, erect or climbing, rarely small or subherbaceous.
Leaves pinnately 6-oo -foliolate, or broad and 1-3-foliolate. Stamens 10, free. Dalhousiea,
Baphia, Galpv/rnea, Sophora, Ormosia, Myroxylon, &c.

Tbibe XI. Swaetziej;. See sub-order Swaetziej;, p. 366. — Ed.J

EB 2

372 LXXV. LEGUMINOS^.

The extensive famil}' of Legmninosm is closely allied to Amyydakce (see tliis family). Mimosece
obviously, as M. Planclion has demonstrated, approach O.validei^, in which, as in many Mimosece, the
corolla is diplostemonous, the stamens monadelphous, the ovules anatropous, the embryo albuminous and
straight, the seeds aiillate, and the leaves alternate, compound and irritable : but the calyx of Oxalidece is
imbricate, the ovary 5-celled, the leaves are exstipulate, and the sten^ is generally herbaceous (except in
the genus Averrhoa). PapiliotwcecB are also near TereUnthacece, which resemble them in habit, their
alternate often compound leaves, perigyuous stamens, often solitary ovary, campylotropous ovule, and
exalbuminous embryo; but which differ in their regular flower, free stamens, usually fleshy fruit, and
exstipulate leaves; but here again the affinity is re-established by some Ccesalpinece {Ceratonia), which
are apetalous and dicecious, like many Terehinthacece, and the flower of which is sub-regular, and the
stamens nearly free.

Mimosece abound in the tropical zone ; they are rare in the sub-tropical regions of the northern
bemisphere, and are especially numerous iu Africa and Australia. Tropical America produces a great
number of species, belonging to the group of huja.

Swai-tzieee inhabit iutertropical Ameiica and Africa*; none have yet been met with in Asia. Vapilio-
nacece are found in all climates, but they mostly grow between and near the tropics, and in the Old World
more than in the New. Some Astrayali ascend the highest mountains. Ccesalpinece are numerous
in tropical regions; they scarcely pass the tropic in the Old World, and are ratlier rare in North
America.

The order Leguminosce is extremely serviceable to mankind ; the farinaceous seeds of Papilionacece
are very nutritious, whilst their herbage forms an excellent fodder. LeymninoscB also yield more
substances used in medicine and the arts than any other order in the A'egetable Kingdom. >\"e will
enumerate the most important species, in their botanical order, and notice, in passing, certain noxious

ones.

Albizda anthelminthica, an Abyssinian tree, the bark of which is employed against taenia.

Acacia vera and arabica, North-east African, Arabian, and Indian trees, produce gum arable. A. I'erek,
Segal, and Adansonii, Senegambian trees, produce gum Senegal, .used similarly to gum arable. A
decoction of the wood of the Indian A. Catechu yields Catechu, a thick juice, soluble in water, which
is an astringent tonic.

Adenanthera pavonina, an Indian tree, of whose hard red seeds, named Kuara, necklaces and bracelets

are made.
' " \Deiai-ium Senegalensc, a Senegambian tree, yields an edible drupe.

I Swarlzia tomentosa is a tropical American tree with a resinous sudoriiic bark.
Ceratonia Siliqua (Ciwoh). A tree of the Mediterranean region, whose lonientaceous fruit contains
a russet insipid edible pulp, serving as forage in Spain [and extensively imported into England for cattle

food].

Co])aifera officinalis, coriacea, cordifolia, &c. Trees of tropical America, yielding by incision of the
trunk a turpentine called Balsam of Copaiba, used in catarrhal affections.

HymencBa cerracosa. A Madagascar tree, yielding a yellow resin named cojjal, which is insoluble
in alcohol, but soluble after fusion in linseed oil, and then in essence of turpentine, and is much used as a
varnish.

Aloexvlon Ayallochum. A tree of Cochin China, whose veined resinous aromatic wood, called Aloe-
wood, burns with a fragrant flame.

Cassia ohooata, acutifolia, lanceolata, &c., the Sennas, are plants of Upper Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India,
and Senegal, the leaves of which contain an active purgative principle, much used in medicine ; their
flattened pods are much weaker purgatives. C. Jlstida, an Indian tree, bears a woody indehiscent
septate pod, named Cassia, the cells of which contain a sugary laxative black ptilp. The seeds of C.
Ahsin are used in Egypt to cure chronic ophthalmia.

Tamarindus indha. A tree of India, West Asia, and Egypt, whose pulpy, acid, and sugary pods,
called Tamarinds, are used in medicine.

Hcematoxylon campecldanum, a Central American and West Indian tree, affords Logwood, which
contains a colouring principle (hematinc), much used iu dyeing black or dark red.

Ccesalinuia echinata, a Brazilian tree^ yields Brazil-wood, containing a red colouring principle (brasiline).

LXXV. LEGUMINOS^. 373

C. cnriacea, of tropical Asia, yields the very astringent pods [called Divi Divi], used in tanning leather.
[C. Sappan yields the red Sappan-wood of Eastern India and Oeylon.J

Castanospermum australe, an Australian tree, yields edible seeds called Australian chestnuts.

Sopliora tomeniosa. A tree "whose roots and seeds are used in India to arrest choleraic vomiting.

The flowers of Styphnolobimnjnpomcum are used in China as a yellow dye.

Myroxylan peruifeinim, a Peruvian [Central American] tree, yields a sweet-smelling liquid balsam,
composed of a resin, an oil, and a peculiar acid (cmnamic). M. toluifarum, a Columbian tree, [is supposed
to] produce the Balsam of Tola, a similar substance, used in chronic pulmonary catarrh.

Coumm-ouna [Dipteryx] odoratn, a Guiana tree with very hard and heavy wood, yields Tonquin
Beans, which contain a very odoriferous crystallizable principle (cnumarine), and are employed to perfume
snuff.

AtuUra surinamensis, inermin, racemosa, &c., tropical American tree?, contain narcotic-acrid principles,
which are emetic, purgative, narcotic and vermifuge.

Geoffroya vermifuga and spinuhsa, Brazilian trees, of which the seeds possess an acrid and volatile
principle, and are used as anthelminthics.

Dalberyia latifolia [and other species], of Brazil, India, and Africa, afford Rosewood, as do many
species of Machrerium.

Pterocarpas Draco, a West Indian tree, yields by incision of its bark Dragon's Blood, a red astringent
resin. [P. erinaceus yields the African Rosewood and Kino, and P. santnlinus, the red Sanders-wood, used
to dye red-brown.]

Buteafrondosa[3,n^i.B.superha],t\•e,ss(^i tropical Asia, yield by incision an astringent juice, named
Eastern Kino ; [and the flowers oi B . frondosa afford an orange-j'ellow dye].

JDrepanocarpus senegalensis, an African tree, produces the true or Gambia Kino.

Ahnis preeatoritts is a tropicnl African and Asiatic climber, introduced into America, whose root
yields a liquorice, and its red shining seeds, with a black hilum, are used for chaplets and necklaces
[and as weights, called Metti (the origin of the woi'd carat) ; each seed weighs one grain very exactly].

DoUchos Lablnb [and other species are] Indian herbs with farinaceous edible seeds. Some neighbour-
ing genera (as Pachyrrhizus) have tuberous rhizomes and edible seeds.

Phaseohis mdgaris is an Indian or American climber, or dwarf herb, the young sugary pods of which
are mucilaginous, and the seeds ^haricots) farinaceous and edible.

[^Cicer arietinum,\h& Chick Pea or Gram of India, is extensively cultivated in South Europe and the
East for its edible seeds ; its herbage yields so strong an acid (oxalic ?) that shoes are spoiled by walking
through a field of it. — Ed.]

Faba mdgaris (Bean), Pisum sativum (Pea), Ervum Lens (Lentil), are annual herbs with farirfaceous
edible seeds ; those of Ervum Ermlia are poisonous, [as are those of some Phaseoli and Lathyri],

Apios tuberosa, Psoralea esculenta and hypogcsn, are North American herbs with tuberous, starchy,
edible rhizomes.

Alhftgi Maworum is a West Asiatic and tropical and subtropical African shrub, from which exudes
Persian Manna, a substance analogous to the Manna of the Ash, and possessing the same properties.

Muctina pruriens is an Indian annual, the pod of which is covered with stiff stinging hairs [called
Cowitch, and used as an anthelminthic]. The seed is called Donkey's Eye, from the large, pupil-like areola
on the testa.

Onobryohis sativa (Sainfoin) is a perennial cultivated herb which furnishes an excellent fodder.

[^JEsckytiomene aspera, a marsh shrub of India, has a very soft light wood, extensively used f(n' making
hats, under the name of lAhola. — Ed.]

Arachis hypogcea is an annual Brazilian herb which buries its fruit to ripen the seeds. Its oily and
starchv seeds (Earth-nuts) are both used as food and much valued by manufacturers on accornt of their
bland oil ; three and a half millions of pounds of these are annually imported into Eranoe alone.

Voandeseia subterranea, a Madagascar herb with hypogsBOus pods like those of Arachis, also yields
edible seeds.

Lathyrus tuberosus is a perennial climbing herb with a feculent sugary rhizome, much cultivated
before the introduction of the potato.

Vioia sativa (Vetch) is an annual climbing herb, cultivated for, forage.

374 LXXVI. ROSACEA.

Ast/ragalus creticus, verus and arutatus are Oriental shrubs, from tlie trunk of which exudes Gum
Tragacanth, a gelatinous juice [colloid], swelling in water, much used in pharmacy and manufactures.

Colutea arborescens (Bladder-Senna),. A shrub indigenous to Southern Europe. Leaves purgative, and
seeds emetic.

JIe?-miniera elaphroxylon. A shrub of Senegambia with a very light wood, used instead of corks for
floating fishing nets.

Glyciirhiza glabra, echinata, and ylandulifera are perennial herbs of North-western Europe, with sugary
rhizomes, used in medicine as emollients. By decoction and evaporation their roots yield the dry extract
called Liquorice [or Spanish Juice],

Indigofera tinctoria, Atiil and argentea are tropical Asiatic undershrubs, containing in their leaves
Indigo, a colouring principle which is exti'acted by fermentation in water.

Melilotua officinalis (Melilot). An indigenous herb becoming odoriferous when dried, and sweetening
hay for cattle. An infusion of the flowers is used as an antiophthalmic.

Trigonella Faumm-grtscum (Fenugreek) is a herb with aromntic and bitter seeds, used as a resolvent
poultice,- and mixed as a stimulant with oats for horses.

Medicago sativa, lupulina, &c. (Lucern) ; Trifojium pratense, repens, &c. (Clover), are indigenous
excellent fodder-herbs.

Genista tinctoria (Dyer's Weed) is an indigenous dye-plant with diuretic flowers and purgative and
emetic seeds formerly prescribed for hydrophobia.

Sarothamnus scoparius (Broom) is an indigenous shrub with slender flexible branches [extensively
used for basket-work and as a diuretic]. The flowers are infused in milk, and used as a lotion for
skin diseases ; the flower-buds, preserved in vinegar, are used like capers.

TJIex europceus (Furze, Gorse, Whin), an indigenous shrub, much used for firewood [in France], affords
, winter cattle-food.

Lupinus atbtis, varius, lutms, &c. Annual herbs with feculent eatable seeds ; stem and leaves used
as green fodder.

Crotalaria juncea is a Bengal shrub [whose fibre is extensively used as Sunn-hemp].

Anagyris fcdida is a Mediterranean shrub, called Stinking-wood, with purgative stimulating leaves
and very poisonous seeds.

Physost.igma venenosmn yields seeds called Calabar Beans ; [they contain one of the most virulent of
poisons, which possesses the curious property of causing contraction of the pupil. — Ed.].

LXXVr. ROSACEA, Jussieu.

Stem herlaceous or woody. Leaves alternate [opposite in Eliodotypus], stipulate,,
or very rarely exstipulate (Spiraea, Aruncus, &c.). Inflorescence varioMs. Flowers
S, sometimes diclinous [regular, asymmetrical in Tribe Chrysobalanese], Caltx 5-4-
merous, imbricate or valvate in wstivation. Petals as many as sepals, free, inserted on
the calyx, imbricate in cestivation, sometimes 0. Stamens usually indefinite, many-
seriate, inserted like the petals; anthers 2-ceUed, introrse, dorsifixed. Pistil very
various. Ovules anatropous. Embryo straight, ex albuminous, or very rarely albu-
minous (JSTevinsia).

Tribe I. POMAGBM, Jussieu.

Stem woody. Leaves with free caducous stipules. Flowers 5 , terminal, in
a corymb, cyme, raceme or umbel. Eeceptacular cupule (calyx-tube of many
botanists) enveloping the ovaries, and adnate to them, terminated by a,5-lobedcalyx.

LXXYI. llOSACE^.

376

Quince. i^Cydotiia vulgaris.)

Pear. {Pyrus communis,)

Pear.

Pear.

Vertical section of

Transverse section

flower.

oJ OTary.

Q

Quince. Vertical section of fruit. Pear. Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.). Pear. Vertical section of fruit.

376

LXXVl.S ROSACEA.

Aronia rotmdifolia.

Aronia.

Carpel, entire and cut

vertically (mag.).

LXXVI. ROSACE:^.

377

Cotoneaster.
Carpelj ripe and cut vertically (mag.).

Cotoneaster.
Fruit.

Cotoneaster.
Fruit cut vertically (mag.).

Petals 5. Stamens numerous.. Ovaries 5, sometimes 3, 2, 1, adnate to the recep-
tacular cupule, 1 -celled, 2-pluri-ovuled ; ovules ascending; styles as many as
ovaries, free, or coherent by their base. Fruit formed by the carpels and the suc-
culent receptacular cupule, crowned by the calyx-limb or its scar, with 5 cells or
fewer, enclosing 1, 2, or several seeds ; pericarp bony, indehiscent, perforated at the ^
base ; or cartilaginous or membranous, partially opening on the side of the axis. ^
Seed ascending ; radicle inferior.

•Pyrus.

*Ootoneaster.

*Crat8eoras.

*Malus.

*Eriobotrya.

*Aronia.

PBINCrPAL GENERA.

*Sorbiis.
*Photinia.
Osteomeles.

"Mespilus.
'Raphiolepis.

'Cydonia.
*StranviBsia.

Tribe II. UOfiBM, B.C.

Sweetbriar. {Rom ruhigmosa.} .

Rose.
Yonug carpel (mag,).

378

LXXVI. EOSACE^.

Kosebud.

Rose. Fruit (mag.).

Rose. Ripe carpel, entire aud cut vertically (mag.).

Stem woody, usually thorny, erect or sarmentose. Leaves unequally pinnate,
with stipules adnate to the petiole, rarely simple, sometimes 0, and replaced by the
stipules. Flowers 5 , in a terminal corymb, white, pink or yellow. Receptacular
cupule (calyx-tube) usually ovoid, and contracted beneath the calyx, sometimes
cyathiform. Sepals foliaceous, imbricate. Petals 5, readily multiplying under
cultivation. Stamens numerous. Carpels numerous, inserted at the bottom or on
the inner wall of the receptacular cupule, which becomes fleshy when ripe. Seed
pendulous ; radicle superior.

GENERA.
*Eosa. 'Hulthemia.

Rosa berberifolia, Pallas, is a small aphyllous shrub of Central Asia, in ■which the leaf is replaced
by two connate stipules simulating a simple reticulate wedge-shaped toothed leaf with an entire
or bifid tip. A rudimentary normal leaf is sometimes developed in the notch or bifurcation of the
stipule.

Tribe III. SANGUISOBBE^, A. Gray.
(PoTERiB^, Benilu et Hooh fiL)

Sanguisorha.

Flower without calyx and

corolla (magO.

Sanguisorba,
Pistil (mag.).

Sanguisorba.
Diagram.

Sanguisorba.
Fruit (mag.).

Bipe carpel cut
vertically (mag.).

Agrimony.

Bipe carpel, entire and cut

yertlcally (mag.).

LXXVI. ROSACEA.

379

t

Agrimoay.
(Agrimonia
Eupaioria.)

Agrimony. Flower (mag.)*

Agrimony. Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Poterium.
Ripe cai-pel, entire

and cut
vertically (mag.).

Poterium Sanguisorba.

Poterium.
Young carpel (mag.1.

380

LXXVI. EOSAGEiE.

AlchemiUa.
Flower (mag.).

AlchemiUa. ■
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Afchemilla vvlgar'ts.

AlchemiUa. AlchemiUa.

Stamen (mag.)- Pistil (mag.).

A Ichemilla,
Fruit, entii'e and cut
vertically (mj^.).

Stem herbaceous, rarely woody. Leaves generally compound ; stipules adnatu
to the petiole. Flowers terminal, small, g or diclinous ; receptacular cupule of the
5 and ? flowers nrceolate, contracted at the top, and bearing a 4-5-3-fid calycinal
limb ; calyx of the S flowers 4-phyllous {Poteriwm) or 3-phyllous [Cliffortia) ; petals
usually 0, rarely 4. Stamens equal in number to the calyx-lobes {Sanguisorha) , or
fewer {Margyricar^iis, Teiragloehin, &c.), or doubk, treble, or multiple {Agrimonia,
Aremonia, Cliffortia, Foterinm, &c.). Carpels 1-4, free, enclosed in the receptacular
cupnle, ripening into achenes ; styles sub-basilar, lateral or terminal ; stigmas capi-
tate c>r penicillate. Seed pendulous ; radicle superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

AlchemiUa.
Poteriiim,

Braj'era.
* Sanguisovba.

' Agrimonia.
Cliffortia.

Margyri carpus.
Braya.

Aceena.
* Aremonia

Tribe IV. DRYADEjE, Ventenat.
(Rttbe^ et PoTBNTiLLE.*, Beiith. et Hooh.fil.)

Herbs or shrubs. Leaves usually compound ; stipules adnate to the petiole.
Flowers g . Calyx S-4-partite, persistent, naked or calyculate, EBstivation Talvate.
Petals 5-4. Carpels free, usually numerous, sometimes 5-10, arranged in a head
on a convex receptacle ; style ascending from the ventral margin ; ovule solitary
[or 2], pendulous, rarely ascending [Geum, Dryas) ; achenes naked {Potentilla,

LXXVI. ROSACEA.

381

Rubus, Vertical section of flower (mag.)-

Eubus. Carpel (mag.l.

Strawfcen-y, {Fragaria vesca.)

Poteniilla.

Potentilla. Po(enUlla. Itipe carpel, eutire and

Young carpel (mag.)* Calyx and calyculus, cut vertically.

Strawberry.
Vertical section of flower (mag.)«

382

LXXVI. ROSACEA.

fln^i-m "VnlTt^n. nn»nn1 f^^^r. \ /l„,ifm TH-nr, nn-Hnnl ni-ifivn n-nA r.n^. TrnvMnnlllT.

LXXVI. EOSACE^.

383

Gomarum, &c.), or terminated by a feathery style [Dryas, Oercocwrpus) , or drupeoles on
a usually dry receptacle {Bubus), sometimes fleshy (Strawberry). Seed pendulous,
rarely ascending {Geum, Dryas) ; radicle superior, or rarely inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

*Rubus. 'Fragaria. Comarum.

Sibbaldia. *Greum. Dryas.

'Potentilla.
Waldsteinia.

[Divided by Bentham and Hooker fil. into two tribes ; of which one, Eube^,
with an ebracteolate calyx and 2 pendulous ovules, contains but one genus,
Buhus ; the other, Potentille^, has usually a bracteolate calyx and always one
ovule. — Ed.J

Teibb-V. 8PIBMAGEJE, D.G.

Stem woody or herbaceous.
Leaves often exstipulate.
Mowers 5, axillary or ter-
minal, in a raceme, corymb,

cyme or panicle. Calyx 5- "^^spirma. Diagram. SP*™"- ristil (mag.).

partite, persistent. Petals 6. •„„^,-„„

Stamens numerous. Carpels usually 5, whorled, free, rarely connate, ripening

384

LXXVI. EOSACE^.

into follicles ; style short; stigma thick ; ovules 2-12, pendulous. Seed pendulous ;
radicle superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
•Kerria, 'Spirsea. *Gilleiiia. Neviusia. Neillia.

TjiiBE VI. NEURADTS^, B.C.

Herbs. Leaves sinuate-pinnatifid, stipulate. Eeceptacular tube accrescent.
Petals 5. Stamens 10. Ovaries 10, dorsally adnate to the receptacular tube, and
ventrally free ; [styles subulate ; stigma capitate ; ovule solitary] . Fruit a capsule
with 1-seeded cells [orbicular, formed of 10 1-seeded follicles sunk in the hardened
receptacle]. Seeds pendulous.

GENERA.

. Neurada.

Giielum.

Teibb VII. AMTGDALEJE, Jussieu.

Peach..
Vertical section oX flower (mag.)-

Peach.
Transverse section of ovary

Cerasus Mahaleb,

LXXVI. EOSACE^.

385

ClieriT. iCei'ams vulgaris.)

Almond.
(Amygdalus communis.)

Cherry.

Almond.

Fruit

Seed

cut vertically.

cut Tertically

Almond, Open flower (mag.).

Apricot.
{ArmeniaciX vulgaris.)

Almond.
Open fruit, showing the stone.

Stem woody, yielding gum, brandies sometimes spinescent. Leaves simple,
entire or toothed, glandular ; stipules free, caducous. Mowers 5 , axillary, solitary
or geminate, or in a raceme, corymb, or umbel. Calyx deciduous. Petals 5. Stamens
numerous. Carpel solitary, very rarely several, ripening into a drupe ; [style sub-
terminal ; stigma capitellate ;] ovules 2, pendulous. Seed usually solitary by arrest,-
pendulous ; radicle superior.

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.

"Amygdalus.
' Cerasus.

•Persica.
Pygeum.

•Pi'unus.
Nuttallia.

* Armeniaca,
Prinsepia.

[The two following tribes are omitted in the original; the first of which is
usually ranked as a distinct order.

386 LXXVI. ROSACEA.

CHRYSOBALANEJE, Benth. et Hooh.fil.

Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, quite entire. Flowers asymmetrical. Calyx ebrac-
teolate ; lobes usually deciduous. Stamens unilateral, or in a complete whorl. Carpel 1 ;
style basilar ; OTules 2, ascending. Fruit coriaceous or drupaceous, not included in the calyx-
tube (receptacular cup). Radicle inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Chrysobalnnus. Licania. Moquilea. Parinarium.

Parastemon. Couepia. Lecosteirion. Slylobasium.

QVILLAJEJE, Benth. et Eooh. fil.

Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, coriaceous, rarely pinnate. Calyx ebraeteolate ; lobes
usually persistent. Stamens 5-10-20. Carpels free or connate ; ovules one or more, ascending
or pendulous. Fruit of 6 cocci or follicles, or a capsule, not included in the calyx-tube
(receptacular cup), inferior and indehiscent in Fterostemon. Seeds usually broadly winged.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Quillaja. Kagenackia. Lindleya. Eucryphia. Ed.]

Each of the tribes composing the entire group of RosaeecB may be considered as a separate family.
Amygdale<s approach Chrysohalanece ' in their 5-merous calyx and corolla, the insertion and number of the
stamens, the drupaceous fruit, the exnlbuminous embryo, the woody stem, and the alternate simple
stipulate leaves ; Chrysohalanem differ in their eglandular petiole, the [usually] inequilateral calyx,
unequal stamens smaller and often sterile on the side on which the calyx is least developed, erect
seed, and the absence of hydrocyanic acid. Itosacets, as a whole, strongly resemble Legmninosa; in habit,
in the alternate stipulate often pinnate leaves, sometimes preciselj' like those of some Papilionaceee
{Osteomeles, Hm-helid). Amygdalecs especially are closely allied to Leguminoia: by their axillary inflores-
cence, 6-merous calyx, imbricate corolla, solitary carpel, and glandular petioles resembling those of Mimosem,
like which order they further secrete gum. The leguminous Painltonacees scarcely differ save in the irregular
corolla, definite stamens, and [often] connate filaments ; but in some genera of Leguminosa the flowers
are regular or sub-regular {Iliematoxylon, Labiehea, Bauhinia, &c.), the filaments are free (Ceesa^inia,
Cassia, Oymnocladus, Oleditschia, Hyiiwnaia, &c.), and, as an additional afiinity, the fruit is sometimes a
drupe (Detarium). Hence the only absolute distinctive character between these orders is in the calyx,
of which the odd sepal is anterior in Leguminosts, and next the axis in Hosacees (see the diagrams).

RosaeecB are connected with Saxifragea by Spirceacecs, and particularly by the genus Neviuda, the
seed of which is albuminous [as in various other genera, as Neillia, Eucryphia, &c.]. They approach
Cephalotete through Dryadece (see these families). Ad. Brongniart has noticed an incontrovertible
affinity between PomacecB and Cupuliferce — woody stem rich in tannin, alternate stipulate leaves, inferior
ovary with many two-ovuled cells, anatropous ovules, exalbuminous embryo ; the diagnosis almost
entirely rests on the absence of petals and on the ovules, which in Cupvliferce are pendulous. Finally, an
analogy has been indicated by E. Brown between Amygdalea and ThymeleeB, founded on the insertion of
the staniens, the monocarpellary pistil, oblique 1-celled one-ovuled ovary, pendulous ovule, subterminal
style, drupaceous fruit, and exalbuminous embryo with fleshy cotyledons; but Thymelea differ in the

' Omitted in the original. Regarded as a tribe of Eosaeeen by Bentham and Hooker fil., and as such inserted
above. — Ed.

LXXVI. EOSACE^. 387

nature of the elementary organs of their stem, in their aorid and hlistering principles, exstipulate leaves,
and the definite nuraher of their stamens. [The points of similarity between Roweem and Cupuliferee and
ThymeletB are more probably analogical resemblances. — Ed.] Pomacem all belong to the northern hemi-
sphere ; they inhabit Europe, Asia, and North America ; they are common on the mountains of India,
and rare in Mexico, Madeira, North Africa, and the Sandwich Islands. Pyrus [in its limited sense] is
confined to the Old World ; the Mountain Ash often accompanies the Birch to the highest northern lati-
tudes; Sosa is only found north of the tropics; Fragariu inhabits all northern temperate regions, as also
extra-tropical South America and the Moluccas ; [an Indian yellow-flowered species is sub -tropical].
Brambles abound especially in the northern temperate regions of both worlds, [but there are comparatively
few species in America] ; they are rare in the tropics, and some are .''ound in the southern hemisphere as
far as New Zealand. Potentilla, Geum, Dry as, Ayrimonia, Saiiguisorba, Poteiium, and Alehemilla mostly
inhabit the temperate and cool parts of the northern hemisphere ; \_AlohermUa is essentially Andean, and
Ayrimonia is found in South' Africa, South America, and Australia]. Some 'SanguisorbeeB belong to
tropical and sub-tropical America. The true Spirceaceis live north of the tropics ; the others in Peru and
Chili. Newaders are confined to the south and north cf Africa [and West Asia]. Amygdalece for the
most part inhabit the north temperate zone ; a few only occur in tropical America, and some in the
Canaries, and Azores, and Sandwich Islands ; none have yet been met with beyond the tropic of Capricorn.
[^Prunus itself is not uncommon in tropical America, and Pyge.um is essentially tropical Asiatic, and is
also found in Africa and Australia. Chrysohalaneee are chiefly tropical American, and many of them
Brazilian ; a few occur in tropical Asia and Africa ; Stylohasium is Western Australian. Quillqjees are
for the most part Western American ; but Bucryphia is also found in Australia. — Ed.]

The fruits of Pomaoeee contain mucilage, sugar, and malic acid, in proportions so well developed
and modified by cultivation, that this family has become one of the most useful in the Vegetable
Kingdom.

Cydonia mtlyaris (Quince). Fruit astringent, edible with sugar in jelly and syrup. Seeds -with an
emollient mucilage. — Pyrus communis (Pear). Fruit obconic or sub-globular ; flesh saccharine, savoury
and melting, containing near the heart stony concretions of cells ; it contains the same principles as that
of Apples, and its juice is fermented to make peiTy. Its wood, which is close-grained, and much sought
by joiners, was formerly used by engravers. — Pynis Mains (Apple). Fruit usually globose, always
umbilicate at the base, and not narrowed into the peduncle ; flesh firm, brittle and acidulous, never
stony, containing, besides sugar and malic acid, gum, pectine, and albumine. Apples are used for
preserves, syriip, and jelly; and their fermented juice yields cider and vinegar. — Pyrus (Sorhus) domestica
(Service). Fruit at first harsh, becoming pulpy and sweet after gathering, edible, fermentable. Wood
very finely grained, and takes a good polish. — Pyrus (Sorbns) Aucupmia (Mountain Ash, or Rowan-tree).
Fruit pulpy, containing malic acid, of a nauseous taste, but fermentable, and yielding a spirituous liquor
when distilled. — Pyrus (^Sorbzis) Aria (Beam-tree). Fruit with a sugary pulp, scarcely acid. Wood ol
a very fine texture, and more valuable than that of the Pear. — Pyrus (Sorbus) torminalis (Service). Fruit
harsh, then acid. Bark formerly employed as an astringent in dysentery.

Cratcegus Azarolus. Fruit pulpy, edible. — \_C. Oxyacantha is the Hawthorn, so useful for hedges.]
— Mespihts germanica (Medlar). Fruit harsh, becoming pulpy and sweet after it is gathered, edible,
astringent. — [^Eriobotryajaponica, the Loquat, a dessert fruit of China and Japan, is now cultivated in all
warm countries.]

Rosa canina (Dog-Eose). Fruit pulpy, making an astiingent antiseptic preserve. The achenes are
a vermifuge ; young leaves infused as tea. Root formerly praised as a specific against hydrophobia
(whence its name). Stem frequently presenting a mossy excrescence (Robin's Pincushion), caused by the
puncture of an insect, and formerly used, under the name of hedeguar, as a diuretic, anthelniinthic, and
antiscorbutic. — R. Gallica {Rose de Provence). Petals astringent, and afford conserve of Roses and honey
of Roses. — R. centifolia, Kcdendarum, moschata, [damascena'], &c. The petals yield Rose-water by distillation
(employed in making an astringent eyewater), and, by maceration in oil of sesamum, the attar of Roses used
in perfumery. — Agrimonia Eupatoria and A. odorata (Agrimony). Leaves astringent, employed against
angina, nephritis, pulmonary catarrhs, &c. — Alehemilla vulgaris (Lady's Mantle). Leaves astringent,
vulnerary. — Sanguisorha offlcinalis (Great Burnet). Plant astringent. — Poterium Sanguisorba (Salad
Burnet). Plant used for forage, and as a condiment, astringent.

cc 2

388 LXXVI. EOSACE^.

Rubiis fruticoms (Bramble or Blackberry). Fruits edible, astringent [sometimes not when ripe], as
are tbe buds. — B,. Idtsm (Raspberry). Fruit perfuined, acidulous and sugary, employed in the preparation
of jelly and Raspberry vinegar. — Fraguria vesca (Strawberry). Plant edible and medicinal. Fruit
succulent, perfumed. Root astringent, and diuretic. — Tormentilla erecta, Potentilla reptans, P. ansenna.
Roots and leaves astringent. — Oeum wbamim and rivale (Avens). Root aromatic, bitter, tonic and
stimulating. — Dry as octopetala. Plant astringent, tonic The flowers oi Brayet-aantlielminthica, an Abys-
sinian tree, are, with the barls: of the Pomegranate root, the most efficacious known remedy for taenia.
The roots of Spircsacece, like those of Dryadecs, are astringent, and contain resinous and aromatic principles,
which render them bitter, tonic, and stimulating; such are Spircsa FUipendula (Drop-wort), Afuncus,
and TJhnaiia (Meadowsweet) ; the flowers of the latter are used to give a bouquet to wine, and their
watery infusion is sudorific and cordial.

The tribe of Amygdalecs is not less useful than that of Pomacecs, and the excellence of its fruits is
due to cultivation, the'sugary matter in them overpowering the acid, without entirely'' disguising it, and
giving a delicious taste to the drupe. Many species, and especially the Bitter Almond, further contain in
their seed, and even in their leaves, the elements of hydrocyanic acid, joined to a peculiar volatile oil,
which is only developed in contact with water, and which gives them narcotic qualities. Their wood,
like that of Pomacem, is much used for joiners' work. The most useful species is Amyydalus communis
(Almond), a tree of the Mediterranean region. The drupe, contrary to that of [many of] the other
Amygdalecs, is fibrous, coriaceous and dry. The seed yields by expression a mild alimentary medicinal
fixed oil, rendered soluble in water by the gum, sugar, and albumine which accompany it, and forming a
milky emulsion, with which ' looohs ' and the ' sirop d'orgeat ' are prepared.

Persica vulgaris (Peach). A tree, originally from China, with edible fruit. The seed contains the
elements of hydrocyanic acid; the fruit and crushed kernel are used in the composition of noyau} The
flowers are used in a purgative syrup. — P. Imvis (Nectarine). Fruit with a soft epicarp, edible. Origin
unknown [probably a variety of the Peach].

Armeniaca vulgaris (A-pncot). Tree originally from northern Asia (China?). Fruit edible, flesh
succulent, perfumed, [much used by travellers, dried and preserved in the form of flat cakes, throughout
Central and Western Asia].

Primus sjjinosa (Sloe). An indigenous tree. Flowers purgative. Fruits very harsh, only becoming

edible when the frost has softened the pulp. Bark astringent, bitter, and febrifuge P. domestica

(Wild Plum) and its wild congener the BuUace (P. insititia), are spread over the temperate regions of
the world. Fruit edible and medicinal.

Cerams Avium (Wild Cherry). A European species, drupe yielding by fermentation and distillation
Idrsclmasser and Cherry wine. Wood reddish yellow, valued by cabinet-makers. C. duracina (Bigarou).
A species near the former. Drupe edible, and flesh adhering to the stone. Native country unknown,—
C. Juliana (Gean). Drupe edible, flesh easily separating from the stone. Native country imknown.
— C. caproniana (Griotte). A tree, originally from Asia, brought, it is said, from Cerasonte by Lucullus,
after his victories over Mithridates. Fruit edible, much changed by cultivation, flesh acidulous and
refreshing.— C. Malialeb. Wood sought after by cabinet-makers under the name of 'wood of St. Lucia.
Seed of a mild taste and sweet smell, renowned amongst the Arabs against calculus in the bladder,
yielding by expression a fixed oil, employed in perfumery.— C. Padus (Bird Cherry). Bark bitter and
astringent, proposed as a substitute for quinine. — C. Lauro-Cerasiis. A tree of Asia Minor, with aromatic
leaves yielding by distillation a volatile oil and a considerable amount of hydrocyanic acid. Distilled
water medicinal aud narcotic, even in small doses.

ChrysohalanecB produce edible drupes, among which is the Cocoa Plum of the West Indian Chryso-
halanus Icaco, and various other species, as also some of tbe genera Moquilia and Parinarium. The
latter genus inhabits both the New World and tropical West Africa. P. excelsum is the Rough Skin
or Grey Plum of Sierra Leone ; and P. macrophyllum the Gingerbread Plum of the same colony. The
leaves of the Polynesian P. laurinmn are used for thatching, its rough wood for spars, and its seeds for a
perfume.

• Perhaps a French liqueur is here alluded to; the true «oy«!< is a West Indian liqueur flavoured with the
seeds of Cerasus ocoidentalis. — Ed.

LXXVII. SAXIFEAGEiE. 389

[The bark of Moquilia iitilis, the Pottery Tree of the Amazons, abounds in silica to such an extent
that when pulverized and mixed with clay it is used in making pottery by the natives of Para. Quillaja
Saponaria and brasiliensis yield bark, used as soap, and containing a sternutatory allied to saponine. — Ed.]

LXXVII. SAXIFEAGEJE.

(SAXiPKAGiB, Jussieu. — Saxifrages, Ventenat. — Saxifeagaces, B.C.)

CoEOLLA polypetalous, perigynous or epigynous, isostemonous or diplostemonous,
wstivation imbricate. Stamens inserted with the petals. Caepels usually 2, distinct,
or cohering into an ovary with more or less complete cells. Ovules anatropous. Fettit
dry. Embeto albuminous, axile.

Stem herbaceous or sub-woody, sometimes woody, variable in appearance.
Leaves alternate or opposite, sometimes wborled; stipules in the herbaceous
species, interpetiolar in the woody, deciduous. Flowbes ^ , regular or rarely
irregular, variously arranged. Calyx usually pentamerous; sepals distinct or
connate. Petals 5, rarely fewer, inserted on a disk lining the calyx-tube, and
alternate with the sepals, generally imbricate in aestivation, very rarely (Chryso-
splenium). Stamens inserted alternately with the petals, or double them in number,
very rarely indefinite [Bauera) ; filaments filiform, subulate; anthers introrse,
2-celled, ovoid, dehiscing longitudinally. Caepels usuallj' 2, sometimes 1 (Neillia),
rarely 3 or 6, free, or united with the receptacular cup into an ovary of more or less
perfect cells ; styles and stigmas terminal, simple, sometimes cohering (Polyosma) ;
ovules usually numerous, fixed either throughout their length, or to the bottom or
top of the placentas, horizontal, ascending or pendulous, anatropous ; stigmas
terminal, simple, sometimes cohering {Polyosma) . Eeuit capsular, rarely ind^hiscent,
more rarely fleshy (Polyosma) ; carpels separating when ripe at their inner edge,
either from the top downwards, or the reverse. Seeds usually numerous, very
rarely solitary, or definite, small ; testa smooth or punctate, sometimes winged.
Embkto straight, in the axis of a fleshy abundant albumen, and nearly equalling it
in length ; cotyledons short, semi-cylindric ; radicle near the hilum, direction
various.

SuB-oEDBR I. SAXIFRAGES, D.G.'

Stem herbaceous. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, exstipulate, or with
petioles of which the dilated bases resemble stipules. Flowers all fertile, racemed
or panicled, rarely solitary. Petals 6, regular or dimorphous, sometimes 0. Stamens
5 or 10. Ovary free or inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.
*Saxifraga. Chrysosplenium. *Hoteia. *Astilbe.

' For the most recent elassifieaticn of Saxifrages, see p. 392. — Eu.

390

LXXVII. SAXIFRAGES.

Saxifraga,
Flower (mag.).

Saxifraga.

c J- J -J J..-, Transverse sectkn
S<u,,/raga tridactyhle,. „j ^^^^ ^^^ j

Saxifraga.
Seed, entire and cut vertically mag.).

Saxifraga.

Vertical section of flower

(mag.).

Saxifraga.

Flower depriTed of corolla

and two sepals (mag.)<

Saxifraga .
Diagram,

Saxifraga. Saxifraga.

Pistil and androscium (mag.)- Flower deprived of

corolla.

SuB-OEDEK II. CUNONIE^, B.C.

Cunonia capensis.

LXXVII. SAXIFEAGEiE.

391

Cunonia.
Seed, entire and cut
vertically (mag.)>

Cunonia.
Fniit (mag.).

Cunonia.

Transverse section of

ovary (mag.).

Cunonia.

Transverse section of

fruit (mag.J.

Weinmannia,

Seed, entire and cut

vertically (mag.).

Shrubs or trees, chiefly from the southern parts of both continents. Leaves
opposite, simple or compound ; stipules interpetiolar. Calyx imbricate or valvate in
aestivation. Petals 4, 5 or 0. Stamens 4-5, or 8-10, or 12-14, or oo . Ovary free
or rarely adherent, usually of 2-3 carpels, sometimes of 5 free carpels with coherent

styles {Spircecmthemum).

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

•Callicoma. 'Cunonia. *Bauera. Weinmannia. Curtisia. Crypteronia.'

SuB-OBDEE III. P0LY08MI1M.

Stem woody. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Petals 4, valvate in aestivation.

Stamens 4. Ovary inferior, l-celled ; placentas 2, parietal ; style elongated ; stigma

simple. Berry 1-seeded. — Shrubs of tropical Asia and Australia, near Marlea

(Alangieoe).

GENUS.

Polyosma.

' JlefeiTed to Lythrariea in the ' Genera Plantarum.' — Ed.

392

LXXVII. SAXIFEAGE-S.

SuB-OEBEE IV. HYDRANGEA, B.C.

Hydrangea,
Flower-bud (mag.)-

<?^^-

(0^

Hydrangea,
Diagram.

Hydrangea.
Seed cut
vertically (mag.).

Hydrangea.

Petaloid oalyx of the sterile

flower (mag.).

Hydrangea,
Transverse section of ovary
(mag.).

Hydrangea arhorescms.

Shrubs of the northern hemisphere. Leaves oppo-
site, simple, exstipulate. Frnit a capsule, very rarely-
fleshy . Flowers in a corymb, the outer usually enlarged
and sterile. Petals 5. Stamens 10. Ovary inferior or
semi-inferior ; styles 2-5. Fruit opening at the top.

PRINCIPAL GENUS.
*PIydrai]g'ea.

SuB-ORDBE V. ESGALLONIE^, D.O.

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Petals 5-6. Stamens 5-6.
Ovary free or inferior ; styles 2. Fruit opening at the base,

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.
*Escallonia. *Itea.

[The following is the most recent elaboration of the great family of Saxifragem,
as undertaken for the ' Genera Plantarum ' :—

Tribe I. Saxifeage^.— Herbs, tisiaally scapigerous. Leaves nsnally alternate, exstipnlate.
Flowers usually 5-merous. Ovary 1-3-celled. Donatia, Astilhe, Saxifraga, Vahlia, Tiarella,
Heuchera, Ghrysosplenium, Parnassia,^ &c.

Tkibb II. Fkanooe^. (See order Feanooace^, p. 401). — Scapigerous herbs. Flowera 4-

1 PJfio n>>fli:.ii T^nvn.nes-i/'^ ii d.(\0.

LXXVII. SAXIFRAGES.

393

merous. Stamens 4 or 8, alternating with scales. Ovary 4- (rarely 2-) celled. (Intermediate
between SAXiFEAGEiE and Ceassulacej).) Franaoa, Tetilla.

Teibe III. HYDBAHTGEiE.— Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, simple, exstipulate. Petals
often valvate. Stamens usually epigynous. Ovary usually 3-5-celled. Eydrangea, Bichroa,
Beutzia,^ Deciwnaria,^ Philadelphus,^ Jamesia, Fendlera, &c.

Escallonia. Diagram.

Escallonia.
Flower cut verfcically (mag.).

Escallonia rubra.

E. rubra.

Transverse section of

ovary (mag.).

E. macrantha.

Transverse section of

ovary (mag.).

Escallonia,

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

Teibe IV. Escallonie^. — Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, often
coriaceous, and gland-serrate. Stamens usually as many as the petals, Escallonia, Quintinia,
Brexia,^ Oarpodetus, Itea, Polyosma, Anopterus, ArgopJiylht/m, &c.

Teibe V. CunoniEjE. — Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, rarely whorled, simple or com-
pound, stipulate. Petals never valvate. Codia, Cajlicoma, Spirceantliemum, Geratiypetalum,
Acrophyllum, Achama, Weinmam/nia, Cunonia, &c.

Teibe VI. Kibbsib.s). (See order Ribesiace.S!, p. 398). — Shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple ;
stipules 0, or adnate to the petiole. Flowers usually racemose. Ovary 1-celled, 2-carpelIary.
Seeds immersed in pulp ; raphe free. Biles.

Anomalous Geneea. Pauera, Cephalotus.^ — Ep.]
' See order PhUaddphew, p. 394. - See order Brexiacece, p. 396. ' Sec order Qephalotece, p. 399,

LXXVIII. PHILADBLPHE^.

Saxifragem, divided here into five sub-orders, are connected more or less closely .with a good
many families. The true Saxifrages approach Crassulacece in aestivation, diplostemony and insertion
of the corolla, capsular fruit, herbaceous stem and cymose flowers. They resemble Lythrarkm in
their perigynous petals which are imbricate in ajstivation and isostemonous or diplostemonous, and in
the capsular fi-uit ; but in Lythrarieee the embryo is exalbuminous. There is also an evident analogy
between some genera (Hoteia, Lutkea, Astilbe) and Spirma Aruncus belonging to BosaceiB. Besides the
resemblance in habit, the corolla is polypetaJous, imbricate, perigynous, polyandrous or diplostemonous ;
the carpels are distinct (at least in Lutkea), and open by the inner edge, the leaves are alternate, and in
Hoteia clearly stipulate. We have indicated the affinities of Hydrangea with Philadelphea (see this
family). They also recall, by habit and inflorescence, the genus Viburnum, hAongaig to Caprifoliacea ;
but in Hydrangea the sepals become petaloid, and in Vibummn the corolla is enlarged. For a comparison
between Escallaniece and Cunoniacem on the one hand, and Hamaindidea on the other, see the latter
family. The Saxifrages have also some points of resemblance with Parnasmce (see this family). Finally,
we must notice a real relation between Escalloniece and Grossulariecs ; in both the petals are isostemonous
and imbricate in estivation, the ovary is inferior and one-celled ; there are two styles, and the embryo ia
albuminous, the stem woody, and the leaves alternate. But in Groamlaries the placentation is more
clearly parietal, the fruit a berry, the testa of the seed gelatinous, the embryo minute, and the leaves
palmi nerved.

Near Saxifragem should be placed the little group of Diamoi-phecB (consisting of Biamorpha and Pen-
thorum), placed by most authors in Crassulacece, from which it differs in its many-celled ovary, and
especially in its habit ; it may be allied on the one hand to Saxifrages, and on the other perhaps to
Pohgatium (Sphenoclea, of Gaertner), which Jussieu placed near Portulacece [a monopetalous genus or
order placed near Campanulaceee^.

The different tribes of this large family occupy different countries. The true Saxifrages mostly
inhabit the high mountains of the northern hemisphere, and are most fully represented in America ; they
are very rare in the tropics and antarctic regions. Cimonies are frequent in the south temperate zone.;
they are less common in tropical America, and have never been foimd north of the tropic. Hydranges
are not rare in upper India, Japan and South America, but become so in Peru and Java. MscaUonies all
belong to America, and are for the most part trans-tropical. [Various genera are natives of Australia,
New Zealand, tropical and temperate Asia, South Africa, and the islands of Mauritius and Madagascar.]

The useful properties of Saxifrages are unimportant. The mucilaginous acidulous leaves and the
root-bulbs of Saxifraga granulata were formerly praised as powerful lithontriptics. S. tridactylitia was
employed in diseases of the liver, and Chrysosplenium was a reputed tonic. The resinous buds and
aromatic leaves of the Escallanies are similarly employed in Peru and Chili. [The leaves of various
Hydrangeas make a highly esteemed tea in Japan. Weimnannia yields an astringent bark, used both as
a medicine and for tanning pui'poses.]

LXXVm. PntLADELPHE^.

(Mykti, partim, Jussieu. — pHiLADELPHE.a)5jDo»i.)

Corolla polypetahus, epigynous, valvate or contorted in aestivation. Stamens
double or a multiple of the number of the petals. Ovary inferior^ many-celled, with
many'ovuled central placentas. Ovules pendulous or ascending, imbricate. Fkuit a
capsule. Seeds with a membranous loose testa. Embryo albuminous, axile. — Stem
woody. Leaves opposite.

Erect SHRUBS. Leaves opposite, sitnple, petioled, quite entire or toothed, deci-
duous, exstipulate. Flowers ^ , regular, white, [often] sweet-scented, in a terminal

LXXVIII. PHILADELPHE^.

395

Syringa.
Diagram.

Syringa.

One ol the cells of thtf

ovary (mag.).

Syringa. (PMladeJphus mronariiis.)

Syringa. Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Syriiiga.
Pistil and calyx.

Syringa. Syringa.

Seed, entire and ont (mag.). Transverse section of ovary (mag.).

Syringa.
Fruit (mag.).

Vecumaria.

Expanded flower

(mag.).

Decumaria. Decumaria.

Vertical section of pistil I Transverse section of ovary

(mag.). (mag.).

396 LXXIX. BEEXIACE^.

cyme. Calyx superior, 4-10-partite, valvate in aestivation, persistent. Petals 4-
5-7-10, inserted under an annular disk crowning the ovary and lining the calyx,
alternate with its segments, aestivation induplicate or contorted. Stamens double
or a multiple of the number of the petals, inserted with them, 1-2-seriate ; filaments
filiform or compressed ; anth&rs introrse, 2-celled, ovoid or sub-globose, didymous,
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet inferior or semi-inferior, of 3-4-10 cells ; styles as
many as the cells, distinct or more or less coherent ; stigmas free or connate ; ovules
numerous, ascending or pendulous, imbricate on projecting central placentas.
Capsule 3-10-ceUed, dehiscing at the top loculicidally or septicidally, or rupturing
longitudinally along the sides of the receptacular tube. Seeds with a membranous
reticulate loose and ample testa. Embeto straight, axile, as long as the copious
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons short, semi-cylindric or oval ; radicle long, next the
hilum, superior or inferior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

* Philadelphus. * Deciimaria. * Deutzia.

PhilacMphecs approach Saxifragecs, tribe Hydrangea;, in the epigyny, sestivation, and diplostemony of
the corolla, the many-ovuled cells of the ovary, distinct styles, capsular fruit, straight albuminous axile
embryo, woody stem and opposite leaves. They have some affinities with Onagrariece, founded on the
insertion and aestivation of the petals, the numerous pendulous or ascending ovules, and the loculicidal or
septicidal capsule ; but Onagrariecs differ in the structure of the testa, and in being exalbuminous.

PJiiladelphecB inhabit South Europe, Upper India and Japan, but are nowhere numerous.

The very strongly scented flowers of the Syringa (Philadelphus coronarius), formerly employed as a
tonic, have fallen into disuse. The rough leaves of Deutzia scahra are used in Japan to polish wood.

LXXIX. BREXIACE^, Endlicher.

Teees or SHEUBS. Leaves alternate, sub-coriaceous, entire or spinous-toothed,
exstipulate. Flowees in axillary and terminal umbels. Caltx 6-fid, persistent,
BBstivation imbricate. Petals 6, shortly clawed, inserted on the edge of an annular
disk, perigynous, testivation contorted (Brexia) or imbricate (Ixerha). Stamens
alternate, accompanied by palmate scales which are opposite to the petals, and con-
nect the bases of the subulate filaments ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, dehiscence longi-
tudinal. OvAET free, of 5 many-ovuled cells ; style short ; stigma 6-lobed ; ovules
2-seriate, horizontal, anatropous. Fetjit a 5-sided drupe with papillose epicarp and
bony endocarp, or a loculicidal capsule (Ixerha). Seeds horizontal, shortly funicled,
ovoid-angular, shining ; testa membranous. Embeto [almost] exalbuminous, straight;
cotyledons obtuse ; radicle cylindric.

This little group is composed of the genera Srexia, Ixerha and Argophylhim ; ' Brexia inhabits
Madagascar, Ixerha Australia, and Argophyllum New Caledonia. Endlicher places Brexiacece after
8a.iifragece, as being near the tribe Mcalloniece ; in both, in fact, the stem is woody, the leaves alternate,

' Argophyllum differs notably in the valvate calyx, copious albumen and minute embryo.— Ed.

LXXIX. BEEXIACEiE.

397

Brex^ia.
Flower cut Terfcically (ma^.)-

Brexla,
Flower-bud (mag.)-

Brexia.

Petaloid scale emanating

from the disk (mag.).

Jxerha.
Detiscent fruit (mag.).

and the corolla polypetalous and isostemonous j the ovary is free (at least in Ited), with many-ovuled
cells J the ovules are anatropous with central placentation, and style simple j but in Brexia the embryo
has no albumen. A. Brongniart places them doubtfully in the class Ericoidece,

398

LXXX. EIBESIACB^.

LXXX. RIBESIACEJE.

(Cactoeum genus, jMssiew.— Gkossulakie^, D.C.— Geossulace^, Lindl.)

Currant. Diagram.

Currant. (Jixbes i^tibrum.)
Inflorescence (mag.).

Ciin'ant.
Seed cut vertically (mag.).

Currant.
Bacemes of fruits.

Currant.
Flower (mag.).

Currant.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Ribes Uva-crispa.
Transverse section of fruit (mag.).

CoEOLLA polypetalous, epigynous, isostemonous, (Estivation imbricate. Stamens
5, inserted alternately with the petals. Ovaet inferior, 1-celled ; placentas parietal.
Ovules horizontal, anatropous. Feuit a berry, Embkto albuminous. — Stem woody.
Leaves scattered or fascicled.

Shetjbs, unarmed, or armed with, infra-axillary or scattered spines ; branches
eylindric or angular. Leaves scattered or fascicled, simple, petioled, palminerved,
often glandular, folded or convolute in bud ; petiole channelled, dilated at its base.
Flowers 5 , or often imperfect through arrest, regular, usually racemed, and termi-
nating in very short leafy or sometimes leafless branchlets or buds ; pedicels 2-brac-
teolate, jointed near the top. Calyx coloured, marcescent, superior, eylindric, cam-
panulate or cupular, 6-4-fid. Petals inserted on the throat of the calyx, alternate

LXXXI. CEPHALOTE^. 399

■with its segments, aestivation imbricate, marcescent. Stamens inserted alternately
■with the petals ; filai^ents filiform ; anthers introrse, 2-cellecl, ovoid or oblong, tip
emarginate or pointed or glandular, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet inferior,
1-celled, crowned by a thin disk ; ^placentas 2, rarely 3 or 4, nerviform, parietal
or edging semi-septa ; styles as many as placentas, distinct or more or less coherent ;
stigmas short, distinct, obtuse ; ovules usually numerous, pluriseriate, horizontal,
shortly funicled, anatropous. Beeet crowned by the calyx and the withered petals,
1-celled, pulpy. Seeds angular; testa gelatinous; endopleura crustaceous, adhering
to the albumen. Embrto very' small, straight, at the base of a horny albumen.

PRINCIPAL GENUS.
* Ribes.

Ribesiacece have many analogies -with Cacteee (which see). They are near Saxifragecs, tribe EsealloniecS,
in their woody stem, alternate leaves, racemed flowers, polypetalous isostemonoua epigynoua corolla,
inferior generally 2-carpellary ovary, and albuminous embryo ; they are separated by their habit, fleshy
fruit, pulpy seeds, and minute embryo. [R. Grossularia is indigenous on the Morocco Atlas. — Ed.]

liibestacecB inhabit the temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisphere, especially North
America ; they are rare in South America, and absent from Africa.

UsBruL Svscms.—liibes rubivm (Currant). Berries red or white, containing a sugary mucilage
combined with citric and malic acids ; much used for dessert, and in the preparation of a syrup and a jelly.
— iJ. Uva-crispa (Gooseberry). Fruit with a sugary taste, sourish and slightly aromatic, juice ferment-
able, and used in England in the preparation of a spirituous liquor [probably Gooseberry wine is here
alluded to. — Ed.]. — R. nigrum (Black Currant). Berries containing a resinous aromatic principle, formerly
employed medicinally, now forming the base of the popular drink called ' cassis.'

LXXXI. CEPHALOTEyE, Endlicher.

Perennial heebs with short subterranean rhizomes. Leaves in a rosette at the
top of the rhizome, of two forms : some flat, elliptic, entire, nerveless, with a subcylin-
dric petiole dilated at its base ; others (ascidia), scattered amongst the first, are
composed of a petiole which is dilated at the top into two lips, of which the lower is
large, hollowed into a cup, and opens by a circular orifice ; the upper is smaller, flat,
and serves as a lid to the cup. Scape simple, with scattered alternate bracts, ter-
minating in a spike composed of 4-5-flowered partial spikes furnished below with
linear bracts. Plo'WEES in a corymb, small, white, ebracteate. Calyx coloured,
6-fid; segments ovate-lanceolate, valvate in sestivation, with a small tooth at the
top within, clothed at the thickened base with capitate hairs. Corolla 0. Stamens
12, inserted at the top of the calycine tube, shorter than its limb, the six which
alternate with the sepals longer and forwarder than the others ; filaments subulate ;
anthers rounded, didymous, with opposite cells opening longitudinally ; connective
sub-globose, spongy. Ovaeies 6, crowded, sessile, whorled on a flat receptacle
around a central bundle of hairs, alternate with the sepals, sub-compressed, 1-celled ;
styles terminal, cylindric ; stigmas simple ; ovule solitary, erect, sub-basilar, anatro-

.00

LXXXI. CEPHALOTE^.

Cephaloius foUicularis.

Cephnlotus.
Flower (mag.). I^ipe carpel (mag.).

Cephalotus. Flower cut Tertically (mag.).

Cephdlotus.
Flower deprived of the calycinal
limb and stamens (mag.).

Cephalotus.
Diagram.

Cephalotus.
Carpel cut -vertically (mag.).

Cephalotus,
Seed, entire and cut
vertically (mag.).

Cephalotus.
Pitclier cut vertically.

LXXXII. FEANCOACEJE.

401

pous, raphe dorsal. Aoheites [follicles] membranous, surrounded by the accrescent
calyx and stamens, detaching circularly near their persistent base, which is com-
posed of a simple membrane ; the upper portion composed of a double membrane,
thickly hairy externally, terminated by the style, and opening longitudinally. Seed
with a membranous loose testa, a lateral slender raphe, and an apical chalaza.
Embeto straight, very short, occupying the base of a fleshy oily albumen ; cotyledons
plano-convex ; radicle cylindric, inferior.

ONLY GENUS.
* Cephalotus.

The only species (C. foUicularis) inhabits South-west Australia. It approaches both Saxifragea and
Crassulacees ; as in the latter, the stamens are perigynous and double
the number of the petals (if an isomerous corolla be supposed to exist
within the calyx) ; the carpels are distinct, and the embryo is albu-
minous. It differs in the aestivation of its calyx, the nature and
abundance of its albumen, its solitary and erect ovule, the dehiscence
of its fruit, and its dimorphous and radical leaves. Its connection
with Saxifrar/ece is somewhat similar, besides which some genera of
Suxifrage<B, like it, are apetalous {Chrymsplenium). La Billardiere,
who discovered the plant in the swamps of Australia, annexed it to
Rosacea}, with which it has an undeniable affinity ; thus, in Cephalotus, as
in Dryas, Geum, &c., the stamens are perigynous, the carpels are free,
■ have one erect ovule, and become achenes [rather follicles, for the dehi-
scence in Cephalotus is complete. — En.]; but Hosacees are exalbu-
minous, stipulate, polyandrous, polycarpellary, and, except in Spii-ceaj
the carpels are indehiscent. Finally, Cephalotus has been compared
with Hammculaceee, in which the carpels ai-e free, the ovule solitary
and erect, the albumen abundant, and the embryo small and basilar ;
but the polysepalism, hypogynism, polyandry, many indehiscent carpels,
and horny albumen, greatly limit the analogy between Rammmdacrfo
and Cephalotusr

FRANCO ACE jE, Endlicher.

Perennial hbkbs. Leaves subradical, lyrate-pinnatifid
or palminerved, sinuous-toothed. Plowees bracteate, in

Francoa appei,ckculata.

Francoa. Half ol the flower (mag.).

Francoa. Diagram,

402

LXXXIII. PAENASSIE^.

Francoa,
Transverse section of ovary (mag.)-

Francoa.
Seed, entire and cut vertically (mag.)-

Francoa,
Ovule (mag.).

terminal racemes. Caltx 4-partite. Petals 4, rarely 5, inserted at the base of
the calyx, clawed. Stamens inserted with the petals, 8 or 10 fertile alternating
-with as many sterile ; filaments distinct, subulate ; anthers introrse, 2-ceUed,
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet free, tetragonous, oblong, 4-lobed at the top,
4-celled; stigma sessile, with four lobes alternating with the cells; ovules numerous,
2-seriate at the central angle of the cells, horizontal, anatropous. Capsule loculi-

cidal. Seeds numerous, tuberculate and striate,
the axis of a fleshy albumen.

Embryo straight, cylindric, in

GENERA.

Francoa.

Tetilla,

Francoacem are Chilian herbs, placed near Crasmlacece and Saxifrageai. They approach the latter
ill the polypetaloua perigynoiis diplostemunous corolla, many-ovuled ovarian cells, anatropous ovules,
capsular fruit, straight albuminous embryo, herbaceous stem, alternate leaves, and racemed flower ; they
are scarcely separated but by the contorted aestivation of the corolla, sterile stamens, sessile 4-lobed
stigma, and dehiscence of the capsule. They approach Crassulucece in the perigynous and diplostemonous
petals, the horizontal anatropous ovules, capsular fruit, herbaceous stem, and alternate leaves. They
have also some connection with Lythrarieoi in the corolla, stamens and ovary ; but the embryo in Lyth-
rariece is exalbuminous, and the leaves are opposite.

LXXXIII. PARN ASSIES, Endlicher.

Perennial glabrous heebs. Stems scape-like, simple, 1 -flowered. Radical
LEAVES long-petioled, cordate [oblong] or reniform, cauline sessile. Flowbes J,
regular, white or yellowish. Caltx 5-partite, imbricate, persistent. Petals 5,
perigynous, alternate with the sepals, imbricate in Eestivation, deciduous. Stamens
6, fertile, [hypogynous or perigynous,] inserted alternately with the petals ; filaments
subulate ; anthers extrorse, 2-celled, ovoid or sub-globose, dehiscence longitudinal ;
■petaloid scales 5, opposite to the petals, perhaps representing bundles of sterile
stamens, and dividing into 3, 6, 7, 9, or 15 branches, each terminated by a globose
nectariferous gland. Ovary superior (P. palustris), or semi-inferior (P. himalayensis,
&c.), 1-celled, with 3-4 parietal placentas; stigma sessile, 3-4-partite; ovules
numerous, anatropous. Capsule 1-celled, with 3-4 semi-placentiferous valves.
Seeds very small ; testa membranous, reticulate, loose, extending beyond the endo-
pleura. Embryo exalbuminous [or albumen scanty], straight,, oblong-cylindric.

LXXXIV. CEASSULACE^.

403

Pamassia palmiris.

Pamasda.
Seed without ttie testa, entire and cut <mag.).

ONLY GENUS.
Parnassia.

The genus Pamassia, long annexed to Droseraoeee, only approaches them in its parietal placenta (see
this family). Its bundles of staminodes and its exalbuminous seeds bring it near Hyperidnea, hut other
characters separate it from them, and especially the extrorse anthers. It has been more correctly com-
pared with SaxifragecB. The few species of this genus inhabit the temperate and cool regions of the
northern hemisphere, especially in America ; they are rare [common] on the high mountains of tropical
Asia. The Grass of Parnassus (P. palustris), an indigenous plant, is a bitter and astringent herb, foiinerly
used as a diuretic and anti-ophthalmic ; a decoction of it is in Sweden added to beer, and stomachic
■virtues are attributed to it.

LXXXIV. CRASSULACE^.

(Semperviv.^, JMssieM.— Succulents, Ventenat, — Crassul.^, Juesieu.-^

Ceassulace^, D.G.)

CoEOLLA generally polypetalous, perigynoue, diplo- {rarely ibo-) stemonouSyCestivation
imbricate. Stamens inserted with the petals at the hottom of the calyx. Ovaries
equalling the petals in number, generally distinct, furnished with a scale at their outer

D n 2

404 LXXXIV. CEASSULACE^.

base, and pluri-ovuled ; OVULES anatropous. ^nviT follicular. Embryo exalbuminous.
— Succulent plants.

Herbs or undershrubs with cylindric more or less fleshy stem and branches.
Leaves usually scattered, fleshy, sometimes cylindric or subulate, simple, entire, or
very rarely pinnately lobed {Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe), exstipulate. Flowers ^ , or
imperfect by arrest, regular, in unilateral cymes, or in terminal often dichotomous

Sedum.
Flower (mag.).

Sed-um.
Flower cut vertically (mag.),

Sedum acre.

Sedum. Diagram,

Sedum. Fruit (mag.).

Sedum.
One petal and two stamens (mag.).

Crassula Magnolii.
Seed, entire and cut longitudinally (mag.)'

corymbs, rarely spiked, sometimes axillary and solitary. Calyx usually 5-fid or
-partite, rarely 3-20-partite, sestivation imbricate, persistent. Corolla inserted at
tlie base of tlie calyx ; petals free or connate into a tube, alternate with the sepals,
Eestivation imbricate or valvate. Stamens adnafce to the nionopetalous corolla, or
inserted alternately with the petals, sometimes double them in number ; filaments
distinct, subulate ; anthers iutrorse, basifixed, with 2 opposite cells, dehiscence
longitudinal. Scales hypogynous, as many as carpels, at their outer base. Caupbls
opposite the petals, and of equal number [except Trmcima], whorled, 1 -celled, many-

LXXXV. DROSERACB^.

405

ovuled, distinct [connate in Diamorpha, Peyithorum, Triactina] ; styles continuous
with the back of the ovaries ; stigma snbterminal, on the ventral face ; ovules 2-seriate
along the ventral suture, horizontal or pendulous, anatropous. Follicles free,
dehiscence ventral. Seeds very small, testa membranous. Bmbeto straight, exal-
buminous, according to Brongniart, [albuminous according to others] ; cotyledons very

short ; radicle next the hilum.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

Tillsea. * Orassula. * Roohea. * Bryophyllum. * Kalanchoe.

* Cotyledon. * Sedum. * Sempervivum.

* Bryophyllum.

* Echeveria.

To Oraxsulacece belongs the Bryophyllum calycinum, an undershrub of the tropical regions of the Old
World, quoted in the Introduction (p. 7). Crassulacece are connected with Saxifragece, JFrancoacecu and
Cephaloteee (see those families). They inhabit warm temperate regions of the Old World, and, owing to
the fewness of their stomata, and consequent slight transpiration, they remain green in the most arid
countries. They especially abound beyond the tropic of Capricorn ; half of the known species live in
South Africa, the sixth part in Europe and the Mediterranean region, and an equal number in Central
Asia and the Canaries, and in sub-tropical America, Southern Asia and Australia.

The watery juice of Crassulacece contains, besides an abundance of albumine, astringent principles
and malic acid, free or combined with lime. The useful species are the following -.^Sempei-rnvtwi
Teetorum (House Leek). .Tuice taken as a refreshing drink, and united to some fatty body applied
externally for burns and bleeding. The leaves are also used to remove corns; a property also
possessed by Crassida Cotyledon and arborescens. — Sedmn album (White Stonecrop). Juice astringent,

refreshing. — S. Telephium (Orpine). Formerly cultivated as a pot-
herb. Juice employed to remove corns and to heal wounds. — iS.
acre (Biting Stonecrop). Purgative and emetic if taken internally,
rubefacient outwardly, and recommended for bad ulcers. — S. re-
Jlexum, Refreshing, diuretic, vulnerary. — Crassula rubens. Leaves
employed as a vulnerary. — Umbilicus pendidimus (Navelwort). An
emollient, employed outwardly for hard nipples.

LXXXV. DROSERACE^.

(Drosere^5 Salisbury, — Duoseuace^, D.O.)

Sundew. (JOroiera rotimdifolia.)

Drosera.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Drosera. Seed (mag.).

406

LXXXV. DEOSEEACE^.

Drosera,
Andrcecium aud pistil.

Drosera.
Stamen, outer face.

Drosera. G-erminating seeds (mag,).

DiOTKEa. Pistil cut verticaDy (mag.).

Brosera.

Seed without its

testa, entire and cut

vertically (mag.)-

Dros&"a anglica.

Seed, entire and cut

(magO.

ZHoncea. Diagram.

Dioncea.
Seed, entire and cut
vertically (mag.).

Dioncea muscipula.

Dioncea. Pistil (mag.). Diornxa. Fruit (mag.).

LXXXV. DROSERACE^. 407

Petals 5, hypogynous, imbricate. Stamens 5, or rarely more ; anthers extrorse.
Oyauy usually 1 -celled, a.nd with parietal plaeentdtion. Capsule ivith semi-placenti-
ferous valves. Embeyo albuminous.

Heebs, sometimes undeesheubs, stemless or caulescent, sprinkled and ciliated
with glandular tracheiferons hairs. Leaves "alternate, usually in a rosette, simple,
entire, or rarely cut, coiled from top to bottom before expansion [outwards or back-
wards in Brosophyllum, inwards or forwards in the other genera] ; blade contracted
into a petiole, sometimes jointed, with median nerve irritable, and the two halves of
the blade closing quickly at the least touch {Dioncea, p. 150) ; stipules 0, repre-
sented by hairs edging the dilated base of the petiole [or scarious] . Plowees ^ ,
regular, solitary, or in unilateral circinnate cymes [or subcorymbose] . Calyx of 5
sepals, free or almost free, imbricate. Petals 5, hypogynous, or united at the base
with the sepals, shortly clawed, imbricate in bud, marcescent. Stamens hypogynous
[or perigynous, rarely epipetalous] , sometimes equal and alternate with the petals ;
sometimes double {Dioncea, Brosophyllum); sometimes triple or quadruple {Dionaia),
and then some opposite to the sepals singly, and the others opposite to the petals in
twos or threes ; filaments filiform, linear, free ; anthers extrorse, 2-celled, erect
[Dioncea, Drosera, Boridula), or incumbent and versatile {Drosophyllum, Byblis),
dehiscence longitudinal, or rarely apical (Byblis, Boridula). Ovaet free, sessile,
1 -celled, with 3-5 parietal placentas, sometimes united in one, basilar [Dioncea,
Drosophyllum), rarely 2-ceUed {Byblis) or 3-celled {Boridula) ; styles as many as the
placentas, undivided or bifid or laeiniate (Drosera), or coherent in a simple style
{Dionma, Boridmla, &c.) ; stigmas capitate, lobed or fringed ; ovules anatropous, usually
upright or ascending, rarely pendulous from the top of the cells in the 3-celled
ovaries {Boridula). Capsule sometimes 1-celled, opening throughout its length
into 3-5 semi-placentiferous valves, or at the top only, with a free basilar placenta
{Drosera, Aldrovanda, Drosophyllum, Dioncea) ; or 2-celled with 2 loculicidal valves,
bearing on the middle a seminiferous semi-septum {Byblis) ; or 3-celled with 3 loculi-
cidal semi-septiferous valves separated from the persistent seminiferous columella
{Boridula). Seeds with a crustaceous granular or striate rarely loose and cellular
testa; albumen fleshy. Embeto straight, axile or basilar; cotyledons truncate;
radicle very short, inferior or superior.

GENERA.
Drosera. Drosophyllum. Aldrovanda. *DionEEa. Roridula. Bytlis.

Droseracece, whioh are near Violariece in the usually parietal placentation, sestivation, insertion,
structure of the fruit and presence of albumen, are separated from them by habit, vernation, the absence
of stipules and extrorse anthers. With Frankemaoecs^By have somewhat analogous relations, together
with that of the extrorse anthers ; but in Frankeniacecs the calyx is tubular, and the leaves are opposite
or quaternary. Nepenthem and Sarraceniecs have also some connection with Droseracece, founded on the
loculicidal capsule, the nature of the seeds, the albuminous embryo, and the exceptional structure of the
leaves; but Nepenthece are dioecious (see these families). Parnassiece, which contain but a single genus,
have been annexed to Droseracece by many botanists, but they differ in habit, the petaloid glanduliferous
scales opposite to the petals, the sessile stigma and exalbuminous seed.

Droseracece inhabit nearly all climates. Drose)-a are widely scattered, being especially frequent in
Australia, equatorial America and South Africa. They are met with in the turfy prairies of Europe and

408

LXXXVI. HAMAMELIDEiE.

North America. The other genera are monotypie. Aldrovanda floats on stagnant watei-s in the South of
France and North Italy [and Bengal], BrosophyUum in the Spanish peninsula [and Morocco], Dionaa
in the savannahs of South Carolina, Roridula in South Africa, Byblis in Australia.

The properties of Droseracees are imperfectly known. The indigenous Drosei-a are acidulous-acrid,
bitter, vesicant, and very hurtful to sheep. They have been found useful in dropsy and intermittent
fevers. Their name of Sundew is derived from the tiny drops secreted by the glandular hairs of the
leaves. [The glandular hairs on the leaves of various species are irritable, curving round insects that
get entangled by their viscid tips. — Ed.]

LXXXVI. HAMAMELIDE^.

(Hamamblide^, Br. — Hamamelacb^, Lindl.)

CoEOLLA or polypetalous. Petals 4-5, perigynous, cesiivation valvate. Apbta-
LOTJS FLOWBES polyandrous ; petaloid flowbes diplostemonous. Stamens some fer-
tile, opposite to the petals ; others sterile, squamiform, alternate. Ovaet semi-inferior,
2-celled ; ovules pendulous, anatropous. Peuit a capsule. Embryo albuminous,
axilej RADICLE superior. — Stem woody. Leaves alternate, stipulate.

Sheubs, or small or large trees, with cylindrie branches glabrous or stellately
hairy. Leaves alternate, petioled, simple, penninerved ; stipules geminate at the
base of the petioles, deciduous. Flowbes 2 , or ^ ? by arrest, sub-sessile, in a
fascicle, head or spike, usually bracteate. Caltx superior, sometimes of 4-5 lobes,
imbricate in bud, deciduous ; sometimes truncate, with 5-7 sinuous teeth, callous.
CoEOLLA {Fothergilla) or polypetalous. Petals perigynous, alternate with the
calyx-lobes, valvate in bud, deciduous. Stamens of the petaloid flowers inserted with
the petals, and double them in number, those opposite to the petals fertile, the others
sterile, squamiform ; those of the apetalous flowers indefinite ; filaments free, short

Bamamelis vtrgitiica.

LXXXVI. HAMAMELIDE^.

409

Hatnamelis.

Flower seen from

above (mag.).

fHamamelis. Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Hamanelis. Portion of flower (mag.).

Hamamelis. Expanded flower (mag.)-

Hamawelis.
Capsular woody fruit, opening in two bifid
valves, with, horned endocarp, separating intol
two shells (mag.)'

Ilamameli's.

Hamamelis

Seed cut vertically

Embryo

(mag.).

(mag.).

Rhodoleia Championi,
Flower fmafi.).

Hamamelis.
Anther (mag.).

Hamamelis.

Transverse section of

fruit (mag.).

410 LXXXVI. HAMAMELIDE^.

and dilated at the base in the petaloid flowers, elongated and sub-clavate in the
apetalous; anthers introrse, 2-celled, sometimes ovoid-quadrangular, cells opposite,
adnate to a connective which is ijsually prolonged into a point, divided by a longi-
tudinal median septum, and opening by valves ; sometimes {Fothergilla) horse-shoe
shaped, opening by a semicircular slit. Otaet semi-inferior, 2-celled; styles 2,
distinct ; stigmas simple ; ovules solitary, or very rarely many, of which only the
lower is fertile [Bucklandia), suspended to the top of the septum, anatropous or semi-
anatropous. Capsule semi- or quite superior, 2-valved, valves 2-fid at the top.
Seeds pendulous. Embryo straight, occupying the axis of a fleshy or cartilaginous
albumen, and nearly equalling it in length ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat or curled at
the edges ; radicle cylindric, superior.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.
•Hamamelis. 'Fothergilla. *Ehodoleia.

[This and the following order have been recently studied carefully for the
' Genera Plantarum,' and combined ; with the following arrangement of the
genera, to which a few new discoveries are added.

A. Ovarian cells 1-ovuled.

Petals 0. — Parrotia, Davidia, Fothergilla, Disanthus, Distylimn, Sijcopsis.
Petaloid (petals sometimes reduced to scales). — Gorylopsis, Biaori/phe, Maingaya,
Hamamelis, Tnchocladus, Lorojpetaluin, Tetrathyriiim, Eustigma.

B. Ovarian cells 2-3o -ovuled.
Bhodoleia, Ostrearia, BucMandia, Altingia, Liquidamibar, Disanthtis. — Ed.J

Hamamelidece approach Coniem in insertion, number and aestivation of the petals, the pendu-
lous anatropous ovules, albuminous axile embryo, woody stem and capitulate inflorescence. Cornets are
separated by their complete epigynism, the alternation of the stamens, simple style, fleshy fruit, [usually]
opposite and exstipulate leaves. The same relations exist between Araliacece and Hamamelidece. There is
also a resemblance between them and Saxifrageai, tribe Cunoniacece, both being perigynoiis, diplostemonous,
digynous, and having anatropous ovules, capsular fruit, albuminous axile embryo, and woody stem;
Ounoniace(S differ principally in their interpetiolar stipules, opposite leaves, and imbricate sestivation ol
the petals. The same applies to Escallonice, excepting that these have alternate and exstipulate leaves.
Finally, an afiinity exists between the diclinous apetalous Hamamelidece and Platanecs, consisting in
polyandry, inferior ovary, pendulous ovules, dry fruit, albuminous and axile embryo, woody stem,
alternate stipulate leaves. For the diagnosis, Platanecs differ in the flowers having no perianth, and
being arranged in catkins, and their fruit being a nucule. The affinity is still more close with Liquid-
ambar, which Mr. Bentham unites to Hamamelidece. They also approach Grubhiacece in the general
structure of their flowers and the valvular anthers. (See also Garryacece.) This family, which contains
but few species, is dispersed over both hemispheres ; it inhabits South America, Japan, China, India,
Persia, Madagascar, and the Cape of Good Hope. With regard to the useful species, the seed of the
Virginian Hamamelis is oily, the leaves and bark are medicinal. The wood of Parrotia is extremely
hard, and in Persia is called Iron-wood.

LXXXVII. BALSAMIFLU^.

411

LXXXVII. BALSAMIFLU^, Blume.

Liquidambar styracifiua.
(J and 9 flowering branch..

JAquidamhar^ Fruit,

Liguidamhar.
Vertical section of seed (mag.).

Uquidambar. Q fiowering lirancli

Liguidamhar.
Flowering shoot.

Liguidamhar.
Fertile seed (mag.)'

lAquidamhar.
Ovulefl, perfect and abortive (mag.).

Liguidamhar.
Stamen (mag.).

lAquidmnhar.
Embryo (mag.).

Liguidamhar.
TransYerse section of seed (mag.).

412

LXXXVII. BALSAMIFLU^.

Liquidainbar.

Transverse section of

g catkin.

Liquidarribar.

Vertical section of a portion of

Q catkin (mag.)>

Llquidanibar.

Stigmas and abortive

anthers (mag.)-

lAquidambar.

Yertical section of

ovary (mag.).

Flowers monoecious, in catkins or capiiula. Pekianth single or 0. Stamejts
numerous. ? YiiOWERS with a single accrescent perianth. Ovaries connate, 2- celled;
STYLES 2 ; OVULES numerous, suh-anatropous. Fruit compound, of several 2-valved
capsules. Seeds (fertile), elliptic, peltate, albuminous. Embryo axile; radicle
superior. — Stem woody. Leaves alternate. Stipules caducous. Juice resinous.

Trees with alternate branches, balsamic juices exuding from their bark.
Leaves alternate, petioled, entire or lobed, with glandular teeth, edges of the lobes
folded inwards before expansion ; stipules fugacious ; floral huds terminal, scaly,
preceding the leaves. Flowers monoecious, in catkins or unisexual capitula ; hracts
4, caducous. ^ Flowers achlamydeous, composed of stamens agglomerated between
the bracts of the capitula. Anthers pyramidal-linear, 4-angular, with 2 opposite
cells ; ^Zamewis short orO. ? Flowers: Calyx infundibuliform, entire or glandular-
lobed. Petals 0. Stamens sterile, often 4-9, inserted around the top of the calyx.
Ovary semi-inferior, with 2 antero-posterior cells, many-ovuled; styles 2, linear,
pointed, recurved, papillose on their inner face ; ovules sub-anatropous, inserted in 2
rows at the inner angle of each cell. Capsules connate by their edges, septieidal
above the middle. Seeds few, or solitary by arrest, the arrested ones numerous,
deformed ; the fertile sub-peltate, elliptic, membranous, or shortly winged towards the
top ; albumen thin. Embryo axile ; cotyledons flat ; radicle short, superior.

ONLY GENUS.
* Liquidambar.

BahmnifliuB are connected -with Platanecs (see this family) and Hamamelideee, to which they are
joined by Bentham ; they differ in their inflorescence and aggregate fruit. Liqwidamhar also ap-
proaches Sali&netB, and especially the Poplars, in inflorescence, diclinous achlamydeous and polyandrous
flowers, many-ovuled ovary, capsular fruit, woody stem, and stipulate leaves ; but Salicinece are dioecious,
the ovary is one-celled, with parietal placentatiou, the ovules anatropous, and the funicle hairy. But
four species are at present known of Liquidambar: — L. Altingia, a gigantic tree, forms vast forests in Java,
Asia, New Guinea, &c., under the names of JRosa-mallos, JRassa-mala, &c. L. orientale, a small tree
resembling a Maple, inhabits the isle of Cyprus and Asia Minor. Z. niacrophylla and slyradflua grow
in North America [another is Chinese]. L. styraeifhia yields [the North American] Liquidambar
Balsam, obtained by incisions in the trunk. This balsam contains a tolerable quantity of benzoic acid ;
it is of the consistence of a thick oil or of soft pitch. Liquid styrax, a sweet balsam, much used by the
Orientals as a perfume, and entering into the composition of several medicaments, is the produce of
L. Altingia and perhaps also L. orientale. [The bark of all is a hot, bitter stomachic]

LXXXVIII. BEUNIACE.E.

413

LXXXVIII. BRUNT ACE ^.

B. pinifoUa.
Fruit cut vertically (iiiag.)|

Brunia nodiflora.

Bi-unia. Diagram.

B. nodifforci.

Brunia.

TransTerse eectiou of

Seed cut vertically

fruit (mag.).

(mag.).

Shrubs or undbkshrtjbs from the Cape of Good Hope, Heath-like in habit.
Leaves small, acerose, sub-trigonous, entire, usually imbricated in 5 rows, exstipu-
late. Flowees 5 , small, regular, generally in a spike or head, sessile, 5-bracteate.
Calyx 5-4-partite, persistent or deciduous, imbricate in bud. Eeceptaculab cup
enveloping the ovary, very rarely spread into anepigynous disk (Thamnea). Petals
5-4, inserted on the edge of the cup, alternate with the calyx-lobes, usually free,
sometimes connate with the stamens into a tube at the base, imbricate in bud.
Stamens inserted with the petals, equal in number and alternate with them ; fila-
ments free, or sometimes adnate to the claws of the petals ; anthers introrse, 2-celled,
cells opposite, parallel or diverging at their base, and opening longitudinally. Ovary
semi-inferior or inferior, very rarely free {B(ispailia), 1-2-3-celled ; styles 2-3,
terminal, more or less cohering ; stigmas minute, papillose ; ovules anatropous,
solitary or 2, collateral in the cells of the 2-3-celled ovary, and pendulous from the
central angle or near the top of the septum, solitary in the 1 -celled ovaries (in
Tha/mnea the ovary is 1-celled, with 10 pendulous 1-seriate ovules). Fruit crowned
by the calyx, and sometimes by the persistent corolla and androecium, dry, indehis-
cent or capsular, often with two 1-2- seeded cocci, dehiscence internal, longitudinal.;

414 LXXXIX. HALOEAGE^.

Seeds inverted, testa crustaceons, Hilam naked, or covered with a flesliy cnpule.

Embryo minute, straight, at the top of a copious fleshy albumen ; cotyledons short ;

radicle conical, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.

Berzelia. *Brunia. Raspailia. Berardia. Staavia. Linconia.

Bruniaceis approacli Hamamelidecs, Cornece, Araliacecs, and Umbelliferts, in the polypetalous and
isostemonous corolla, epigny, solitary or geminate pendulous anatropous ovules, and albuminous embryo ;
but in all these families, independently of other differences, the sestivation of the petals is [usually]
valvate. BruniacecB have besides, in the genus Maspailia, a quite exceptional character in their ovary,
superior to the calyx, and inferior to the petals. [The properties of Bi-uniacete are quite unknown.]

LXXXIX. BALORAGEjE.

(Onagearum genera, Jussieu. — HALORAGEiE, Br. — CercodiaOe^, Jussieu. —

Htgrobi^, Richard.)

Calyx superior. Petals inserted on the calyx [or epigynous] alternately with its
Iches, sometimes 0. Stamens inserted with the petals, equal or double in number to the
calyx-lobes, sometimes reduced to one. Ovary inferior, of one or several 1-ovuled cells;
OVULES pendulous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen.

Aquatic herbs, or terrestrial [herbs or] undershettbs. Leaves usually opposite
or whorled {Myriophyllum, Hippuris), simple, entire or toothed, the submerged
usually pectinate, rarely entire (Myriophyllum) ; stipules 0. Flowers 2 {Haloragis,
Hippuris), or moncecious through arrest {Myriophyllum, Hippuris), regular, incon-
spicuous, sessile in the axil of the leaves, solitary or fascicled, often 2-bracteolate at
the base, sometimes whorled in a spike, rarely pedicelled, sometimes panicled [or
racemed]. Calyx superior, usually 4-fid or -partite, sometimes truncate or almost
wanting. Corolla 0, or petals inserted on the calyx, alternate with its segments,
usually longer, sub-concave, valvate or imbricate in aestivation, spreading after
flowering, and deciduous. Stamens inserted with the petals, usually equal and
opposite to the calyx-lobes, or double in number, sometimes reduced to one {Hippuris) ;
j^Zamewfe filiform ; anthers introrse [or dehiscence lateral], 2 -celled, oblong or ovoid,
basifixed {Myriophyllum, Haloragis) or dorsifixed {Hippuris), dehiscence longitudinal.
Ovary inferior, of 2-3-4 1-ovuled cells, rarely 1-celled {Hippuris) ; styles as many as
ovules, often short or nearly ; stigmas tomentose or penicillate ; ovules pendulous
from the top of the cell, anatropous. Fruit nutlike, often crowned by the calyx-
limb, 2-3-4-celled, or 1-celled normally or by arrest. Seeds inverted, testa mem-
branous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a more or less fleshy albumen ; cotyledons
short, obtuse ; radicle longer, next the hilum, superior.

PRINCIPAL GENERA."
Hippuris. Myriophyllum. Haloragis. Serpicula. Proserpinaca. Meionectea.

' The two anomalous genera, Gunnera and Ccdlitriche, Hooker fll, are treated as distinct natural orders in
•which have born included in this order byBenthamand this work. — Ed.

LXXXIX. HALOEAGBiE.

41 &

Haloragis erecta.

ffippuris. Diagram .

Hippuris vulgaris.

Haloragis,
^ flower (mag.)'

Haloragis.
Ovule (mag.)'

( ° '^]

\ n (SB) .J

Hippuris.
Stimen, inner face (ma^.).

If

Hippuris,
Fruit (mag.).

Hippuris.

Haloragis,

Hippuris.

Vertical section of

Diagram..

2 flower (mag.).

iJ flower (mag.).

Hippuris.
Vi'i'tical section of
fruit (mag.).

¥f6

XG. GUISTNERACE^.

The affinities of Halorngece -witli Onagrariece will be indicated in the description of the latter.' They
are near Trapeee, which were formerly placed in the same family, and which only differ in their hemi-
spherical stigma and exalbuminous embryo. They also approach Combreiacees, which are separated by
their ovary (which is always 1-oelled and 2-4-5-ovuled), their simple style, drupaceous fruit, and exalbu-*
minous embryo.

Halorageee are rare in the tropics ; they are found most abundantly in temperate and cold countries
{Sippuris), especially beyond the tropic of Capricorn ; Hahragis is only found in Australia and the
neighbouring islands. They are of no use to man.

XC. GUN N BRACED' Endlicher.

' '' ' Ounnera.

Seedcub vfciiiv;<uij' (.iiiag.). Embryo (mag.)*

Gvnnera. ^ flowers (mag.). Gumiera. Vertical section of Q flower,:

Gunnera. Fruit opened (mag.).

..^W ^

n

/

Ouiiaeia scabra. Ouvnera. Fruit out vertically (mng,).

' The affinity betwepn Halorageai and Onagraricm is view of the relations of Trapa.—R-D.

XCI. CALLITRICHINE^. 417

Stem herbaceous. Leaves all radical, petiole long, blade usually reniform,
crenulate, hairjw Flowers § , or imperfect, monoecious or dioecious, ebracteate ;
scape bearing a very close spike, composed of several spikelets, each furnished with a
bract. Perianth 4-partite, 2 segments small, tooth-shaped, alternating with 2
larger, petaloid, caducous, sometimes obsolete, reduced to scales in the $ flowers.
[Perianth otherwise described as, Caltx-lobes 2-3, equal or unequal, or 0. Petals
or 2, hooded, j Stamens 2, opposite to the petaloid segments ; filaments short [or
long] ; anthers 2- celled, [basifixed], dehiscence longitudinal [lateral]. Ovary in-
ferior, 1-celled ; styles 2, covered with stigmatic papillae ; ovule solitary, pendulous
from the top of the cell. Fruit a drupe. Embryo minute, at the top of a fleshy
albumen ; radicle superior,

GENUS.
* Gunnera.

A. de Jiissieu considered tliat, in many cases, apetaldus and diclinous structures ■were to be regarded
as arrested conditions of perfect types, which masked affinities without annulling them; and this
explains the position he gives to Gunneracea, between AraliacecB and Coniem, which they approach in
their flower, which is hermaphrodite in some species, in their epigyny, the single pendulous anatropous
ovule in each carpel, the drupaceous fruit, and the minute embryo at the top of a fleshy albumen. The
same considerations establish the affinity of Qunneracem with HaloragetE ; in both these families may he
observed, on the one hand, a perfect organization ; on the other, the absence of petals, and the abortion
of the reproductive organs ; and the analogy is increased by the stigmatic papillje along the styles.

The few spefties of this little group inhabit tropical Southern Africa and America, the high mountains
of tropical America, the Sandwich and Society Islands, Java, [Australia] and New Zealand.

The fruit of Ounnera maerophylla is used in Java as a stimulant. The roots of G. scabra, called
Panque in Chili, and cultivated in Europe for the beauty of its leaves, which are sometimes more than
six feet in diameter, contain astringent principles, and are used in Chili for tanning skins, and as
an anti-dj'senteric.

XCI. CALLITRICHINEJE, UveilU}

Floating flaccid annual herbs, simple or branched, stem cylindric. Leaves
opposite, sessile, the lower [submerged] , often linear, the upper oval, 1-3-nerved,
entire, emerged, often rosulate ; stipules 0. Flowers g or monoecious-dioecious
by arrest, solitary and sessile in the axil of the leaves ; involucre diphyllous [or 0] ,
of 2 lateral opposite curved somewhat fleshy and coloured [white] persistent or
deciduous leaflets. Perianth 0. Stamen posterior, rarely 2 antero-posterior,
inserted below the ovary in the ? flowers ; filament filiform, elongated ; anther
reniform, basifixed, 1-celled, opening at the top by an arched slit. Ovary free, at
first sessile, then stipitate, formed of 2 bilobed carpels with two 2-ovuled cells ; ^
styles 2, distant ; stigmas acute, papillose over the whole surface ; ovules curved, fixed
to the central angle near the top of the cell ; micropyle lateral and internal, placed

' See under Haloragew, p. 414.^Ed. cells, bvit considered as originally 2-celled, each cell being

' The ovary is i-lobed and 4-cened with 1-ovuled divided into two by the inflection of its walls. — Ed.

E E

418

XCn. EHIZOPHORE^.

below the top. Fexjit fleshj-membranous, indehiscent, 4.-celled and -lobed, sides
rounded or sharp. Seeds with a finely membranous testa Embeto a little arched,

Calliiriche.
S flower (mag.).

Calliiriche.
Q flower (mag.).

.&}

Callitriche verna.

Callitriclie.
S flower, (Siagram,

Callitrirlte.
9 flower, diagram.

Callitriche.

Ripe semi-carpel,

cut vertically (mag.).

occupying the axis of a fleshy albumen, and nearly equalling it in length ; cotyledons
very short ; radicle superior.

ONLY (5ENUS.

Callitriche.

Callitnehe(P. were formerly included in Haloragets, which they approach in the aquatic herhaceous
stem, the opposite leaves, axillary flowers, 1-ovuled cells, distinct [papillose] styles, [pendulous
ovules,] and albuminous embryo ; being separated by the achlamydeous flowers, and fruit of four
cocci. They present some remarkable analogies with Euphorhiacea, in their diclinous achlamydeous
involucred flowers, stamens inserted on the receptacle, ovary with 1-ovuled cells, pendulous anatropous
ovules, distinct stigmas, fruit of cocci, and albuminous axile embryo ; analogies which have led some
modem botanists to consider Callitriche as aquatic FMphorhiacece : they, however, dififer in their 4-lohed
ovary, and the structure of their seeds.

CallitricMnece inhabit stagnant water in Europe and North America [and most other temperate parts
of the globe]. They are useless.

XCII. RHIZOPHORE^}

[Trees or shrubs, usually quite glabrous ; branches terete, swollen at the nodes.
Leaves opposite and stipulate, rarely alternate and exstipulate {Gorphretocarpum,
Anisophyllea), petioled, thickly coriaceous, usually quite entire ; stvpides inter-

' This order ik omit.tpfl in tlio rrip-iniil. — V.n.

XCII. EHIZOPHOEE^. 419

petiolar, very caducous. Tlowebs ^ , in axillary cymes, racemes, panicles or spikes.
Caltx-tube more or less adnate to the ovary, rarely free; limb 3-14-lobed or entire,
persistent, lobes valvate. Petals as many as the calyx-lobes, usually small, concave
or involute, and embracing the stamens, notched, 2 -fid or lacerate, rarely entire,
convolute or inflexed in bud. Stamens 2-3-4 times as many as the petals, rarely
equal in number, often inserted in pairs opposite the petals, on the edge or at the
base of a perigynous disk ; filaments long or short ; anthers basi- or dorsi-fixed,
2-eelled or multi-locellate. Ovary usually inferior, 2-5- (rarely 3-6-) celled, or 1- celled
by the suppression of the septa; style simple (several in Anisophyllea) ; stigma simple
or lobed ; ovules usually 2, collaterally suspended to the inner angle of each cell
above it^ middle, rarely 4 or more, pendulous, anatropous, raphe ventral. Feuit
usually coriaceous, crowned with the calyx-limb, indehiscent or rarely septicidal,
1-celled and 1-seeded, or 2-6-celled with 1-seeded cells. Seeds pendulous, arillate
or not, testa coriaceous or membranous, albumen fleshy or 0. EmBETO inverted in
the albuminous seeds, usually small and axile, with terete radicle and semi-terete
cotyledons ; in the exalbuminous seed the embryo is usually elongate, with small or
inconspicuous often connate cotyledons.

Tkibe I. Rhizophoeej!. — Ovary inferior ; style 1. Embryo exalbumiiious, radicle very
large, protruded frora the fruit wlien still on tlie tree. Leaves opposite, glabrous, quite entire,
stipulate. EMzophora, Geriops, Kandelia, Bruguiera.

Teibe II. Cassipouebj!. — Ovary inferior, semi- inferior, or superior; style 1. Embryo in
the axis of a fleshy albumen. Leaves opposite, usually glabrous and quite entire, stipulate.
Garallia, Gynotroches, Weihea, Gassipourea, &o.

Tribe m. ANiSOPHTLLEiE. — O vary inferior ; styles 3-5. Embryo exalbuminous. Leaves
alternate. Anisophyllea, Gomhretocarpus.

MMzopJioyiee are nearly allied to Myrtacees in habit, opposite sometimes pellucid dotted leaves, and
, in the exalbuminous seeds of the tribe Mhkophorecs ; but they differ in their valvate calyx-lobes, stipules, and
usually definite stamens. The same characters distinguish them from Melastomacece. Lythrariece, which
agree with them in the valvate calyx and usually definite stamens, have many ovules and large usually
crumpled petals. CombretacecB, which are still more closely allied, differ in their monocarpellary ovary,
folded or convolute cotyledons, and exstipulate leaves.

This order is almost wholly tropical, and to a great extent littoral; the species of the tnhe RMzopJio-
reee forming, with Amcennia (see Ferbenacece), the Mangrove forests of tidal rivers in both the Old and
New Worlds. Most of these root from the branches into the mud below, and thus form dense thickets,
the roots becoming stems after a time. The tribe Cassipourecs is, with the exception of Cassipowea itself,
confined to the Old "World. Atiisophyllea is remarkable for its distichous alternate leaves, of which every
second one is reduced to a minute stipuliform body.

Of the properties of HhizophorecB little is known. The wood of several is hard and durable ; the
bark of Bruguia'a yields a black dye ; and the fruit of JRhizophora Mangle is described as edible, and when
fermented produces a light wine, drunk by the natives of the Indian Peninsula. — Eb.]

EE 2

420

XCIII. COMBEETACEiB.

XCIII. COMBRETACEyE,^ Br.

(TERMiNALiACBiE, St. Hilaire. — MTEOBALANEiE, Jussieu.)

Combretum cocciitetiut.

Quisqualis.
Vertical section of flower (mag.).

Quisqualis indica.

Quisqualis. Ovary cut Terticolly (Diag.)^

I The tribe 6ryrcKra»yc«, which is referred to 7/a«n'Mc« the structure of the stamens, and the short fnuieles of
1 this work, is included in the ' Genera Plantarum ' the seed. — Ed.

XCin. COMBEETACE^.

421

Quisqualis.

Transverbe section of

ovary (mag.).

Transverse section of the floral tube, with the
style joined to one of the sides.

Quisqualis.
Seed, entire and cut
veitically (mag,).

Corolla polypetalous, epigynous, isostemonoiis, or 2-8-stemonous, contorted or
valvate in bud, sometimes 0. Stamens inserted with the petals. Ovary inferior,
1-celled ; OYVUES, pendulous from the top of the cell. 'Embryo exalhuminous.

Trees or shrubs, erect or climbing. Leaves alternate or opposite, simple,
penninerved, entire or toothed, coriaceous ; petiole often bigiandular at the top,
exstipulate. Flowers regular, ? , or imperfect by arrest, in spikes, racemes or
heads, naked or involucrate, axillary or terminal, each flower furnished with a bract
and two lateral opposite bracteoles. Calyx superior, 4-5-fid, lobes valvate in bud,
deciduous, or persisting with the fruit. Corolla 0, or petals inserted on the calyx,
alternate with its lobes, valvate in bud. Stamens inserted with the petals, some-
times alternate with them, sometimes double in number, of which the alternate five
are inserted higher and opposite to the petals, rarely triple the number ; filaments
free, filiform or subulate ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary
inferior, 1-celled, usually crowned with a sometimes rayed or indented disk ; style
terminal, simple ; stigma undivided ; ovules 2 or 4, rarely 5, pendulous from the top
of the cell, with long funicles, anatropous. Fruit a drupe, often longitudinally
winged. Seed usually solitary by arrest ; testa membranous, thin ; endopleura swollen,
intruded between the folds of the cotyledons. Embryo exalhuminous, straight ;
cotyledons foliaceous, rolled into a spiral, or thick, folded lengthwise, or crumpled ;
radicle near the hilum, -superior.

PRINCIPAL GENEEA.

Conocarpus,
* Quisqualis.

Anogeisaus.
*Combretum.

Laguncularia.
Terminalia.

Lumnitzera.

Comh-etacea: are near Onagrariece, Haloragece, Napoleoneee, &c. (see these families). The diagnosis
principally rests on the 1-celled ovary, the ovules pendulous from the top of the cell, the 1-seeded fruit
and the structure of the seed. All are inter-tropical [or nearly so].

The trees of this family are useful from the hardness and closeness of their wood ; their bark contains
astringent principles, which render it fit for tanning and dyeing. The seed [of Terminalia •Cliebula'], known
medicinally as Myrobalans, which is oily, and much eaten in India, was formerly used as a laxative.
[The astringent nuts of T. Chebula make a capital ink with sulphate of iron ; its leaves yield
an excellent yellow dye with alum. The seeds of T. angiistifolia, Belhriea, and Catappa, are likewise
much eaten, and yield an excellent bland oil. T. angustifolia produces by incisions in the bark a white
benzoin of agreeable scent, much used as a cosmetic, and burnt as an incense in Mauritius. The wood
of Conocarpus latifoKus is reckoned one of the best in India. — Ed,]

422

XCIV. MYRTACE^.

XCIV. MYRTACEJS.

(Myrti, Mtete^, Jussieu, — Mtetoide^, Ventenat. — Myrtine^, D.C-

Myrtaoe^j Br.)

Courovpita surinamensis.
Aiidraacium with unequal stamens.

C. surinamensis.
Embryo (fmag.).

C. surinamensis.
Vertical section of ovary.

Beaufortia.
Bundle of stamens.

XCIV. MYETACB^.

423

FaliHcia lmci(jatc»

Lecythis urnigera* Fruit, J nat. size.

BeHholHia e^rcelsa^ Seed, nat. siae

Bei'tholleHa exceha.
Transverse section of seed.

Eucalyptus Ghbutus.
£"ection of lower part of ovary (tnag.).

Eucalyptus.

Eucalyptus Globulus.

Eucalyptus,

Calycolhrix.

Ctti'yopfi^Uus,

Flower-bud cnt

Section of upper part of ovary

Upper

Ovules fixed to a basilar filiform

Flower-bud

vertically.

(mag.).

ovule.

placenta (mag.).

(mag.).

Caltz valvate [or vmhricate] in hud. Corolla polypetalous, inserted on the calyx,
imbricate in bud. Stamens numerous, inserted with the petals. Ovaet inferior or
semi-i/nferior, sometimes free, l-several-celled. Fruit a capsule or berry. Embryo
exalbuminous.

Stem arborescent or suffruteacent, very rarely herbaceous (Careya). Leaves
opposite, rarely alternate or whorled, simple, entire or very rarely denticulate, flat
or oylindric or senai-cylindric, 3- nerved or penninerved, nerves often marginal,
usually coriaceous, very often dotted from pellucid glands sunk in the parenchyma,
narrowed into a petiole at the base [or sessile] ; stipules generally 0, rarely geminate
at the base of the petioles, minute, caducous. Flowers 5 , regular, very rarely

424 XCIV. MYETACEtE.

sub-irregular from the unequal length of the stamens, axillary and solitary, or in a
spike, cyme, corymb or panicle, sometimes even capitate, naked or involucrate ; often
2-bracteolate, white, pink, purplish or yellow, never blue. Calyx superior or semi-
superior ; limb 4-5-multi-fid or -partite, persistent or deciduous, valvate in bud ;
sometimes entire, closed in bud and falling away like an operculum at the expansion
of the flower. Petals inserted on a disk edging the calyx -throat, and usually
expanding into a plate or cushion which crowns the top of the ovary, equal in
number and alternate with the calyx-lobes, very rarely 0, aestivation imbricate or
convolute. Stamens numerous, inserted with the petals, very rarely equnl in number
and alternate, often double or treble, and then some without anthers, most often
indefinite, pluri-seriate, and then usually all fertile ; filaments filiform or linear,
free, or more or less monadelphous at the base, or united in bundles opposite to the
petals, rarely united into a cup which is abbreviated on one side, and on the other
prolonged into a concave petaloid blade which is bent down upon the style and
antheriferous within ; anthers small, rounded, introrse, of 2 contiguous or separated
cells, opening longitudinally or transversely. Ovaet inferior or semi-inferior, covered
by a fleshy disk, sometimes free {Fremya), either 1-eelled with numerous erect
anatropous ovules on a basilar placenta, or 2-pluri-celled with numerous anatropous
ovules inserted at the inner angle of the cells, or ovules rarely solitary and fixed to
the inner angle by their ventral surface ; style terminal or rarely lateral (in the 1-
celled ovary), simple, naked or barbed at the top ; stigma undivided. Fruit
generally crowned by the calyx-limb, sometimes 1-celled and 1-seeded by arrest,
dry, indehiscent, or quite 2-valved at the top, sometimes 2-many-celled, and then
either a capsule opening at the top loculicidally or septicidally or by the removal
of the epigynous disk, or an indehiscent berry with many- (or by arrest 1-) seeded
cells. Seeds straight, angular, cylindric or compressed, sometimes dimorphous in
each cell, some being turgid and fertile, the others linear and sterile {Eucalyptus,
Fabricia) ; testa crustaceous or membranous, winged or furnished with membranous
scales at the base [arrested ovules ?] {Spermolepis). . Embryo exalbuminous, straight
or curved or rolled spirally ; cotyledons usually short, obtuse, sometimes confluent
with one another and with the radicle, very rarely foliaceous ; radicle very often
thick, next the hilum.

Tribe I. CHAM^LAUGIE^.

Stamens often definite, some usually sterile. Ovary 1-eelled, with One or
several basilar ovules. Truit 1-seeded, indehiscent, or imperfectly 2-valved at the
top. — Shrubs of Australia, often resembling Heaths, and especially Blaeria. Leaves
opposite, or rarely alternate, punctate j stipules or rarely 2 {Galycothrix).

PEINCIPAL GENEJKA.
'Galycothrix. *Verticordia. ♦Chanifelaucium. Davwinia, Lhotskya. Tlil-yptomeue,

Scholtzia.

*B86ckia.

'Callistemon.

*Melaleuca.

•Tristania.

*Metrosideros,

'Billiottia.

*Fabxicia.

XCIV. MYETACE^. 425

Teibe II, LEPTOSPEBMBJE.

Stamens very often indefinite, free, or polyadelphous, rarely monadelphons.
Ovary 2-many-celled ; ovules numerous, rarely solitary in each cell. Capsule
loeulicidal or septicidal, rarely indehiscent. Seeds sometimes dimorphous {Eucalyptus,
Fabricia, &c.). — rShrubs or trees, abundant in Australia, less numerous in tropical
Asia. Leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate, entire or rarely denticulate,
punctate, sometimes presenting the appearance of phyllodes.

PEINOIPAL GENEEA.

Hypocalymna. Agonis. *Leptospermum.

*Beaufortia. *Oa.lothanmug 'Eucalyptus.

Backhousia. Xanthostemon. *Angopliora.

Tkibe III.- mtbteje:

stamens indefinite, free. Ovary 2- or more- celled, ovules numerous. Berry 2-
or more- celled, cells often 1-seeded.— Tropical and sub- tropical trees or shrubs.
(The common Myrtle is found as far as 43° N. lat.) Leaves opposite, entire,

punctate, exstipulate.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Oampomanesia. Psidium. Ehodomyrtus. *Myrtus. Rhodamnia. Nelilris.

Myreia. Marliera. *Oalyptranthep. Pimenta. *Eugenia. Cai-yophyllus.

*Acmenas, *Jambosa.

Teibe IV. BABRlNGTOmE^.

Stamens numerous, often monadelphons. Ovary inferior, 2- or more- celled;
ovules definite or numerous. Berry corticate, 1- or more- celled, 1-few-seeded. —
Trees of tropical Asia and America. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite or whorled,
exstipulate, eglandular, entire or, dentate.

GENERA.
Barringtonia. Careya. Grias. Planchonia. Gustavia,

Tribe V. LEGYTBIDEM

Stamens numerous, filaments united into a cup, shortened on one side, pro-
longed on the other into a concave petaloid tongue, sterile or antheriferous within.
Ovary several-celled ; ovules numerous. Fruit dry or fleshy, indehiscent or opening
by the raising of the disk. — Trees of tropical America. Leaves alternate, not
punctate, entire or rarely toothed ; stipules or caducous.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.
Courateri. ^ Couroiipita. BerthoUetia. Lecytliis,

[Tribe Napoleoweje : see p. 426.]

'426 XCV. NAPOLEONE^.

MyrtacecB are related to Melastomaceca, and througli these to Onagrariea and Lythrariea (which
Bee). They approach OranatecB in the valvate calyx, imbricate corolla, polyandry, inferior ovary with
many-ovuled cells, simple style and stigmas, fleshy fruit, exalbuminous embryo, woody stem, and
generally opposite leaves ; they differ principally in the ovary, which in Oranat,e<B presents two super-
imposed rows of cells. Myrtacea are also near Oliniece, as shown by the inferior several-celled ovary,
subulate style, fleshy fruit, exalbuminous embryo, woody stem, and opposite coriaceous leaves; but
Oliniece are isostemonoiis, and the ovarian cells are only 3-ovular (which is also the case in some MyrtacecB).
Points of resemblance have also been traced between certain Myrtacea and the little family of Calycan-
the<B ; in the numerous stamens, of which some are antherless, inserted on a fleshy ring crowning the
calyx-throat, the exalbuminous embryo, woody stem, and generally opposite leaves ; but Calycanthete are
apetalous, their anthers are extrorse, their ovaries are free, and the fruit is composed of achenes. Finally,
in the gland-punctate leaves, polypefalpus corolla, monadelphous or polyadelphous stamens, and exal-
buminous seed of Aurantieee and Hypericinecs we find an analogy between these families and Myrtacece.

Myrtacece contain tannin, fixed and volatile oils, free acids, mucilage and sugar ; these principles,
associated in different proportions, give to some species properties which are useful to man. The
Myrtle {My7ius communis), a shrub of the Mediterranean region, has astringent berries, and its leaves were
formerly renowned for their tonic and stimulating virtues. Eugenia {Caryophyllus) aromatica, a native
of the Moluccas, yields cloves, which are the flower-buds, and which contain a very aromatic volatile
oil, and are hence universally used as a condiment, in medicine, and as a perfume. The fruit of H.
pimenta, a tree of the Antilles, possesses an aroma and taste which combine the qualities of the nutmeg,
the cinnamon and clove, whence its name of Allspice. The berries of the Guava {Psidium), the Jambosa,
and many other species, are much esteemed for their aromatic taste, and are made into preserves. The
capsular Myrtacece also contain a volatile oil in their leaves and fruit; the principal species is the
Melaleuca Cajaputi, a shrub of the Moluccas, which yields by distillation a green oil of a mild and pene-
.trating scent, recalling at once camphor, rose, mint and turpentine, and much esteemed as an anti-
spasmodic. The Eucalypti a»e gigantic trees of Australia, of which the wood is very useful for building
purposes (E, robusta, Glohulus, &c.). The Couroupita is a large tree, called in Guiana Cannon-ball, on
account of the shape and size of its fruit, which contains an acid-sweet pulp, very agreeable and refreshing.

The seeds of Serlholletia excelsa are edible, and are sold in Europe as Brazil-nuts. We may also mention
the Sapucaya {Lecythis ollaria), a Brazilian tree the capsule of which is woody, very large and thick, and
opens circularly by the raising of its epigynous cap-shaped disk. Vases and pots are made of this cap-
sule, whence the name of Monkey-pot given to the fruit.

[Humboldt describes the fruits of Gustavia speciosa as eaten by children, and causing them to turn
temporarily yellow. G. brasiliana is an emetic. Rose-apples are the fruits of Eugenia Malaccends.
The fruits of the Chilian E. XJgni are very agreeable. Myrtle buds and berries are still eaten as spice in
Italy, and made into wine ; the flowers yield eau d'ange. Various species of Eucalyptus yield a red
astringent gum like Kino, and a manna ; one Tasmanian species (E. Gunnii) is tapped for its juice, which
is fermented and drunk. Various Leptosperma have been used as substitutes for tea by the early settlers
in Australia. Lastly, some species of Eucalyptus are the most gigantic of timber trees, attaining nearly
500 feet in height and 110 feet in girth. — Ed.]

XCV. NAPOLEONEJE,' EndUcher.

Shbubs of tropical Africa. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entire or unequally
2-3-dentate at tlie top. Flowers $?, regular, solitary on axillary peduncles
[Aster anthos), or scattered on the branches and sessile [ISfapoleona) . CalTX superior,
5-partite (Napoleona) or many-toothed [Asteranthos). Corolla epigynous, simple,

' Eegarded as a tribe of Mgrtaoecs iu the ' Genera Hantarum,'— Ed,

XCV. NAPOLEONEiE.

■427

Napaletma. Fruit.

Napol&ma.
Stamen (mag.).

N<ipoleona. Diagram,

SapoUma, Fruit cut Tertically,

Napaleom. Fruit out tca,usvei-3ely.

428 XCVI. MELASTOMACEiE;

rotate ; limb shortly multifid {Asteranthos) or double, the outer sub-rotate, plaited,
entire, the inner radiating, multifid {ISfapoleona) . Stamens inserted at the base of
the corolla, 5 petaloid, -with 2 anthers [filaments connate in a petaloid cup, bearing
many anthers] {Napoleona), or [filaments] indefinite, filiform {Asteranthos) ; anthers
2-celled, dehiscence longitudinal (^siemwi/ios) [or 1-celled in JVapoZeowa]. Ovary
inferior [or semi-inferior, 5-6-celled] ; style short ; stigma a depressed head, lobed
{Asteranthos) or peltate, angular {Napoleona) ; ovules several in each cell, pendulous
from the inner angle. Beket crowned by the calyx-limb. Seeds numerous, sunk
in the pulp [in Napoleona ; few, large, angled or reniform, with a membranous testa
and large thick cotyledons, between which the radicle is retracted ;— unknown in

Asteranthos. — Ed.] .

GENEEA.
Napoleona. Asteranthos.

[A very singular family or tribe of Myrtaeece, evidently closely allied to Lemjthis and BerthoUetia,
-svitli the valvate calyx and alternate leaves of Lythrariea, to which they approach in the crumpled
corolla.

Napoleona is a native of west tropical Africa, and Asteranthos of North Brazil. Of their properties
nothing is known. — Ed.]

XCVI. MELASTOMACEJS.
(Melastoma,- Jussieu. — Melastomace^, Br.)

COUOLLA polypetalous, usually diplostemonous, inserted on the calyx, contorted in
lud. Stamens 3-12, inserted with the petals. OvAitY free or adherent, of 1-20
many-ovuled cells. Petjit a capsule or herry. Embbto straight or curved, exal-
huminous.

Stem arborescent or frutescent or sufirutescent, rarely herbaceous, erect,
climbing or epiphytal, with cylindric or tetragonal branches swollen at the nodes.
Leaves opposite orwhorled, simple, equal or unequal, entire, rarely toothed, usually
narrowed into a sometimes swollen petiole ; lateral nerves 2, 4, 6, or 8, nearly as
prominent as the median, and directed like it from the base to the top of the leaf,
preserving a uniform thickness, and united by finer transverse nerves. ElO"Weks ? ,
regular, usually in panicled or contracted cymes, rarely solitary, naked, or diversely
bracteolate, sometimes furnished with a sort of coloured involucre {Blahea). Eecep-
taculae cup campanulate, urceolate or oblong- tubular, quite free, or adhering to the
ovary by longitudinal septa. Caltx-limb 5-6-3-partite, sometimes entire, imbricate
or contorted in bud. Petals free, or sometimes slightly united at the base, inserted
on the calyx-throat, on a fleshy annular layer, alternate with the calyx-segments,
shortly clawed, contorted in bud. Stamens inserted with the petals, usually
double (or sometimes multiple) their number, sometimes equal {Sonerila, Poter-
anthera), sometimes all equal and fertile, sometimes those opposite to the petals
smallest or sterile, rarely rudimentary or ; filaments free, inflexed in bud ; anthers

XCVI. MELASTOMACE^.

429

Melastoma.
Fruit.

I^audinia.
Vertical section of ovary (mag.)-

Melastoma.
Ovule (mag.)'

Tujasnea.
Seed (mag.)*

Melastoma.
Transverse section of ovary (mag.).

Fyramia. Spmnera.

Stamen (mag.). Stamen (mag.).

Iluberia.
Stamen (mag,).

430.

XCVI. MELASTOMACE^.

Kibessia.

Kibessia.

Kibessia.

Flower-bnd raising its

Kibessia.

Yertical section of androaciiim

Transverse section of

calyx.

Flower.

aud pistil,

ovary (mag.).

terminal, 2-cellecl, pendulous before flowering, and sunk in the spaces separating
the ovary from the receptaciilar cupule, globose, ovoid or elongate ; cells parallel,
generally opening at the top (often prolonged into a beak) by a common pore, or by
2 distinct pores, rarely by longitudinal slits {Kibessia) ; connective polymorphous,
not prolonged below the anther and without appendages {Pyramia), prolonged
below the anther and without appendages (8pennera), prolonged below the
anther with anterior appendages {Melastoma), not prolonged below the anther,
but furnished with posterior appendages (Ruheria). Ovaet quite free, adhering to
the nerves of the receptacular cup, or completely adherent ; cells 4-3, rarely 6-20,
or one only (Memecylon) ; style simple ; stigma undivided ; ovules numerous [rarely
few], anatropous or semi-anatropous. Eeuit with usually axile placentation, or
parietal {Kibessia), or basilar {Naudinia), of 1-20 cells ; sometimes a berry from the
development of the receptacular cupule, indehiscent or ruptile {Astronia) ; sometimes
a drupe {Mouriria), sometimes dry and indehiscent, sometimes a' loculicidal capsule
with semi-septiferous valves, the placentas frequently remaining united into a
central column {Melastoma). Seeds numerous, testa crustaceous, dotted or areolate,
sometimes reniform or cochleate ; sometimes ovoid, oblong, angular, pyramidal or
scobiform {Huberia), rarely margined {Gastanella) ; Jiilum basilar. Embeto exal-
burainous, straight or curved ; cotyledons equal, or the outer much the larger in the
irregularly formed seeds ; radicle next the hilum.

PRINCIPAL GENERA.

Blakea. * Medinilla. * Osbeolria. * Melastoma. * Pleroma. Monochaetuni.

* Rhexia. * Sonerila. * Bertolonia. * Ehynchanthera. * Centradenia.

[The following classification of this most extensive order is that of the ' Genera
Plantarum.'

Sdb-oedee I. MELA8T0ME2E.

Ovary 2-oo -celled ; ovules numerous, inserted on placentas which project from the inner
angle of the cells. Fruit polyspermous. Seeds minute ; embryo very minute.
Series I. — Fruit usually capsular. Stamens unequal.

Teibe I. MiCEOLiciE^. — Connective produced at the base, appendaged in front. Seeds
oblong or ovoid (American). Pijramia, Gcmibessedesia, Ghcetostoma, Microlicia, Lavoisiera,
Bhynchaiithera, Centradenia, &o.

XCVI. MELASTOMACEiE: 431

Tbibe II. OSBECKIE^. — Connective produced at the base. Seeds cochleate (Old and JSTew
Worlds). Acisanther-a, Gomolicu, Pterolepis, Macaoria, Pleroma, Brachyota, Ghcetol&pis, Aciiitis,
OshecMa, Tristemna, Melastoma, Bissotis, &c.

Teibe III. Rhexiej). — Connective hardJy produced at the base, spurred posteriorly, not
appendaged in front. Seeds cochleate (American). Monoohcetum, Bhexia.

Teibe IV. Meeianib^. — Connective hardly produced at the base, appendaged or spurred
in front, appendage usually erect and inflated. Seeds cuneate, angled or fusiform (American).
Axincea, Meriama, Oentronia, Graffenriedia, &o.

Teibe V. Oxtspoeej:. — Connective hkrdly produced at the base, acute or spurred behind,
not appendaged in front. Seeds angled or oblong, raphe usually thickened and produced (Old
World). Oxijspora, Allomorpha, Ocliihooliaris, Bredia, &c.

Teibe VI. Sosteeile^. — Ovary and capsule depressed at the top. Connective simple or
appendaged before and behind. Seeds straight or nearly so (Old and New Worlds). Sonerila,
Aiiiphiblemma, Bertolonia, Monolena, &c.

Series II. — Fruit a berry. Stamens usually equal.

Teibe VII. Medinillbji. — Anthers usually recurved ; connective appendaged behind, or
before and behind. Seeds not cochleate (Old World). Marumia, Dissoohmta, Anplectrum, '
Medinilla, Paahycentria, &c.

Teibe VIII. Miconiej;.— Anthers incurved or recurved, opening by 1-2 pores or slits ;
connective rarely produced or appendaged. Seeds various (American). Oxymeris, Galy oo-
gonium, Tetrazygia, Gonostegia, Miconia, Tocooa, HeterocJiiivmi, Glidemia, Sagrxa, Belluaia,
Loreya, Senriettea, Ossaia, ^&c.

Teibe IX. Blakej;. — Anthers large, l--2-pored ; connective simple or spurred behind.
Flowers involucrate. Leaves with strong veins between the ribs (American). Blahea,
Topohea,

SuB-OEDBB II. A8TB0NIEM.

Ovary 2-oo -celled ; ovules numerous, placentas at the base or on the outer walls of the
cells near their base. Seeds minute (Old World). Astronia, Pternandra, Kibessia.

Shb-oedee III. MEMEGYLE^.

Ovary either 1-oelled with the ovules whorled round a central placenta, or several-celled
with 2-3 collateral ovules in the inner angles of the cells. Fruit 1-few-seeded. Seeds large
(Old and New Worlds). Mourisia, Memecylon.

Melaitomacem approach Lythrariece in the valvate calyx, inaertion of the petals, diplostemony,
several many-ovuled ovarian cells, exalbuminous embryo, opposite or whorled leaves, and especially in
the singular structure of the stamens. There is also a real aflSnity between them and MyrtanecB ; in
both the petals are inserted on the calyx, the ovary has several many-ovuled cells, the style is simple, the
embryo is exalbuminous, the leaves opposite, sometimes even 3-nerved {Rhodomyrtus), and the stem
woody; h^t Myrtacete are generally swfeet-scented, and have punctate leaves; their anthers are short,
rounded, deprived of appendages, and the petals imbricate in bud.

Melaslomaeem mos\ly gi-ow in tropical America; a few advance into North America to 40° (Mhexid),
None have yet been found in Obili, a few inhabit Asia and Africa.

The leaves of Melmtoi/iacece are astringent, and of many species slightly acid. The berrieiB also

432

XCVII. LYTHEARIE^.

contain free acids united to a certain quantity of sugar, whence result various medicinal properties ;
some possess a small quantity of volatile oil or balsamic resin, which renders them stimulating. The
hark, the fruit, and especially the leaves of some others contain colouring principles.

[The berries of Melastoma are edible, but dye the mouth black, whence the name {Melastoma) ;
others yield yellow, black and red dyes. — Ed.]

XCVII. LYTHRARTEyE.

(Salicari^, Lythkakie^, Jussieu. — CALTCANTHEMiE, Ventenat. — Ltthraoe.^,

Lindl.)

Lyihrum. Flower (mag.).

Lythrum. Diagram.

Lythrum.
Vertical section of
seed ^mag.).

Lythrum. Flower cut vertically (mag.).

Ltjlhrttm.
Embryo (mag.).

Lythrum.
Pistil (mag.).

Lythrum Salicaria.

Calyx free. Corolla polypetalous, perigynous, iso- diplo-
or triplo-stemonous, imbricate in bud, rarely 0. Stamens inserted
on the calyx-tube. Ovary with 2 or several many-ovuled cells.
Embryo exalbuminous.

Herbs, shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite or wliorled,
rarely opposite and alternate on tlie same plant, simple,
penninerved, entire, petioled or sessile, sometimes punctate-

XCVII. LYTHRAEIE^. 433

glandular, always exstipnlate. Plowbes ^, regular, or rarely irregular (Ouphea),
solitary in the axil of the leaves, or fascicled or cymose, sometimes spiked or
racemed, and accompanied by floral bracteiform leaves, rarely panioled, peduncle
and pedicels 2-bracteolate at the base, middle or top. Caltx free, persistent,
tubular or campanulate, rarely urceolate, 3-many-toothed ; tube usually ribbed
with nerves, straight or rarely oblique, or gibbous or sub-spurred at the base
{Cuphea) ; limb more or less deeply toothed, teeth sometimes 1-seriate, equal,
valvate in bud, sometimes 2-seriate ; the outer alternate, narrower, incumbent on
the commissure of the valvate inner ones. Petals (rarely 0, Peplis, Abatia, &c.)
inserted on the top of the calyx-throat, equal in number and alternate with its inner
teeth, sessile or clawed, obovate or ovate or oblong, equal, or the dorsal very rarely
larger, imbricate in bud, often folded, waved on the edges {Lager-stroemia), spreading
after flowering, deciduous or fugacious [Suffrenia, Peplis). Stamens inserted on
the calyx-tube above its base, continuous with its nerves, equal in number and
alternate with the petals, very rarely less numerous {Suffrenia), very often double or
triple {Dodecas, Antherylium,, Lagerstrcemia), 1-several-seriate, included or exserted,
equal or unequal, all fertile, or rarely some sterile ; filaments filiform, free ; anthers
introrse, 2-celled, orbicular or ovoid or oblong, erect or incumbent, dorsifixed, dehis-
cence longitudinal. Otaet free, sessile or shortly stipitate, rarely girt at the base
with a fleshy ring, or accompanied by a unilateral gland {Guphea), 2-6-eelled, some-
times sub-1-celled by failure of the septa {Biplusodon), or completely 1-celled
with parietal placentation {Gryptotheca) ; placentas attached to the middle of the
septum, or the inner angle of the cells, or uniting the base of the semi-septa ; style
terminal, simple, more or less long ; stigma simple, obtuse or capitate, rarely
emarginate or bilobed ; ovules usually numerous, ascending or horizontal, anatropous.
Capsule membranous, or rarely coriaceous, woody, crowned by the persistent or
accrescent calyx, 2-several- (rarely 1-) celled, bursting irregularly or by circumsciss,
or by regular semi-septiferous valves, the placentas remaining united in a free
column. Seeds usually numerous, ovoid-angular, cuneiform, plano-com^ressed,
or edged with a membrane (Lagerstrcemia) ; testa coriaceous ; hilum marginal or
basilar. Embryo exalbuminous, straight; cotyledons sub- orbicular, plano-convex,
2-auricled at the base, rarely semi-cylindric or convolute ; radicle short, near
the hilum.

[Classification of Lythrariece, from the 'Genera Plantarum' : —

Tkibe I. Ammanniej!. — Herbs, often aquatic. Calyx membranous, not ribbed or striate.
Flowers small or minute. Petals flat or 0. Ammannia, (Suffrenia), Peplis, &o.

Tribe II. Lythbej;. — Shrubs or trees, more rarely herbs. Calyx coriaceous or herbaceous,
usually costate or striate. Flowers rarely small. Petals usually crumpled. Adenaria, Grislea,
Woodfordia, Ouphea, Lijthrum, Nescea, Pemphis, Biplusodon, Lafoensia, Laiusonia, Gnjpieronia,
Lagerstrcemia, Sonneratia.

Anomalous Genera, — Ptmica (see Order G^-anatem, p. 485), Olinia (see Order Olirviem,
p. 434), Axinandra, Seteropyxis.—En.]

P P

434

XCVIII. OLINIE^.

Lythrariem are near Onagrariece, Melastomacea and Saxifragets (see these families). They also
approach JRMzophorecB in their persistent valvate calyx, stamens more numerous than the petals,
many -celled ovary, and straight exalbuminous embryo; but JRJmophorets have an inferior or
semi-inferior ovary, the cells of which only contain two pendulous ovules [often more, see this
order, p. 419].

Lythrariem are chiefly tropical American ; they are much more rare in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres.

The species of this family possess different properties ; some {Lythrum Salicaria) contain tannin,
which renders them astringent; others {Heimia, Cuphea) secrete resinous and acrid principles, which caused
them' to be used as purgatives, emetics or diuretics. Lawsonia alba (Henna), an Egyptian shrub, is re-
nowned throughout the Ea.st for the perfume of its flowers, and for the orange-red colouring matter
contained in its leaves, with which the women dye their nails and hair ; its root (Alkanna) is astringent
and yields a red dye. [The Ammannia vesicatoria, an Indian weed, is a strong vesicant. Pemphis aciduta
is used as a pot-herb in tropical Asia. The flowers of Woodfordia tommtosa, the Dhak of India, are much
used as a red dye. The Lagerstroemias produce excellent timber, called Jarul in India. The wood of
Snnneratia acida is considered the best substitute for coal on the Indus steamers. — Ed.]

XCVIII. OLINIEJE, Arnott.

Otinia. Flu.ver (amg.).

Olinia. Diasram.

OUnia. Fruit (mag,).

Olinta.
Ovary cut
vertically (mag.).

OUnia.

Pendent aiiatropons

ovule (mag.).

Sheubs of South Africa, Brazil,^ and Australia.' Leaves opposite, coriaceous,
penninerved, entire, not dotted, exstipulate. Floweks axillary or terminal, in
small cymes, or solitary, bibracteolate at the base. Calyx 5-4-toothed, or 4-fid or
5-partite. Petals -5-4, inserted on the calyx, alternate with its segments, oblong or
obovate, obtuse, sometimes {Olinia) with 5-4 scales alternate with the petals,
scales pubescent on the back and c.onnivent. Stamens 6-4-oo , inserted with the
petals ; filaments flexuous in bud ; anthers 2-celled, globose-didymous or oblong,
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary inferior, 2-4-5-celled, cells 2-3-oo -ovuled ; style

subulate or flexuous ; stigma simple ; ovules pendulous, anatropous. Fruit a berry

[Myrrhinium, Fenzlia) or drupe {Olinia) crowned by the calyx-limb or by its scar ;

kernel woody, 3-4-celled. Seeds oval. Embryo exalbuminoiis, rolled in a spiral,

or arched ; cotyledons indistinct.

' The Brazilian plant here alluded to, Myrrhiniam,
is unquestionably Myrtaceous, and closely allied to
Pimeiita. — Eu.

' The Australian Femlia is also Myrtaceous, and
near MyHus iteclf. — En.

XCIX. GEANATE^.

435

Thie little group of Olmtecg, composed of the genera Olinia, Myrrhinium, and Fenzlia, is placed
between Myrtacete and Melastomacecs. The berries of Myrrhinium atropurpureum, [a Brazilian shrub,]
are edible.

XCIX. GRANAIE^,^ Endlicher.

Pomegranate. Verfcical section of flower.

Pomegranate. Diagram.

Pomegranate (Punica Granatum).

Pomegranate. Seed entire and cut vertically (mag.).

Pomegranate.

Transverse section of upper

chamber of fruit.

] 1 e n u*

TranL7^^«w ,,^>,^^^ „^ lower

chamber of fruit.

Pomegranate.

Pomegi-anate.

Seed cut transversely

(mag.).

Stem woody, brancKes sometimes spinescent. Leaves generally opposite, often
fascicled, entire, not punctate, glabrous, exstipnlate. Flowers 5 ? terminal, soli-
tary or aggregate. Caltx coloured ; limb many-partite, many-seriate, valvate in
bud. Petals 5-7, inserted on the calyx-throat, alternate with the sepals, imbricate
in bud. STAMBisrs numerous, many-seriate, inserted below the petals, and included ;
filaments filiform, free ; anthers introrse, 2 -celled, ovoid, dorsifixed, dehiscence

^ See end of LythrarieO', p. 433. — Ed.

F F 2

436 C. ONAGRAEIE^.

longitudinal. Otakt adhering to the receptacular cup (calyx-tube), forming 2

superimposed rows, the lower 3-celled with central placentation, the upper 5-7-celled

with parietal placentation ; style filiform, simple ; stigma capitate ; ovules numerous,

anatropous. Bekkt spherical, crowned by the calyx-limb, cells separated by

membranous septa. Seeds numerous, integument full of an acid pellucid pulp.

Embryo exalbuminous, straight ; cotyledons foliaceous, convolute ; radicle oblong,

short, pointed.

ONLY GENUS.

Punica.

The fruit of the Pomegranate is prohably monstrous, and analogous to certain fruits singularly
modified by cultivation, as the Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum), and that variety of Orange called
' Bizarrerie ' or ' MoUarose.' [The Pomegranate is indigenous in Upper India, where its fruit altogether
resembles that of the cultivated state. — Ed.]

The genus Punica is very near M^rtacece (see that family). The single species of which it is com-
posed (P. Ch-anatwn) is a native of Mauritania,'' whence its name of Punica. It grows all along the
shores of the Mediterranean, and extends thence throughout the temperate regions of the world ; its
fruit (Pomegranate) is covered with a coriaceous bark, called ' malicor,' very rich in tannin, and used by
curriers ; its pulpy seeds are refreshing. Its flowers, called Balaustnim, were formerly administered as
a vermifuge ; but its anthelminthic properties principally exist in the bark of its root. This bark
contains an astringent substance, with a mild and an acrid principle, which latter destroys tapeworm.

C. ONAGRARIEyE.

(Epilobiaoe^, Ventenat. — Onageaob^, Lindl. — Onageb^, Spach. — (ENOTHEBE.a;,

Endl.)

Co'elO'LJjA polypetalous, epigynous, contorted in bud. Stamens inserted with the
petals, equal or double them in number, rarely fewer. Ovart inferior, many-celled,
many- [rarely few-) ovuled. Embeto exalbuminous.

Terrestrial or aquatic heebs, or sheubs. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple,
penninerved, entire or toothed, exstipulate. Plowees 2, usually regular, often
fugacious, axillary and solitary, or racemed or spiked. Calyx herbaceous or
coloured; limb 4- (rarely 3-2-) partite, persistent or deciduous, valvate in bud.
Petals (very rarely 0) inserted on the top of the calyx-throat, on an epigynous,
flat or annular glandular disk, alternate with the calyx-segments, more or less
distinctly clawed, sometimes emarginate or bifid, contorted in bud. Stamens
inserted with the petals, either equal in number and alternate, or double and 1-2-
seriate, rarely fewer ; filaments filiform or subulate, free ; anthers 2-celled, introrse,
dehiscence longitudinal ; pollen of trigonous granules, often cohering by threads.
Ovaey inferior, often crowned by the glandular edge of the disk, usually 4t- (rarely
2-) celled ; style filiform ; stigmas as many as cells, linear, papillose on their inner

' A. do Candolle (' Gfcgraphie Botauique,' ii. 891) Africa only in a cultivated state. It ranges in a ■wild
rightly points out that the Pomegranate exists in North state from Asia Minor to the Punjab Himalaya. — En.

C. ONAGRAEIE^.

437

Mpilohium hwmtum.

Epilohium. EpiloUum,

Pistil (mag.)' Tertical section of flower (.mag.).

JEpilobium.
Diagram.

JSpiloMum,
Seed cut Tertically (mag.).

EpiloMum.
Eipe seed, furnished with a chalazlau tuft.

Imardia palustris.

BpiloUum. Young seed (mag.)- ^i'oHum. Fruit.

438

C. ONAGEAEIE^.

Circcea.

Vortical section of

flower (mag.).

Fuchsia globesa.

Circcea luktiana.

Oirasa.

Flower without its

corolla (mag.)"

Circcea.

Circaa.

Circaea.

Stamen

Transverse section

Vertical section

(mag.).

oi fruit (mag.).

of fruit (mag.).

Jussieua ovalifoHa,

surface, rarely coherent; ovules numerous in the cells, inserted at the inner angle,
rarely few, ascending or pendulous, anatropous. Feuit generally a capsule, some-
times a berry {Fuchsia), rarely nut-like [Gaura) ; capsule 4-2- celled, sometimes 1-
celled by obliteration of the septa, loculicidal {(Enothera), or septicidal {Jussieua,
Isnardia), with semi-septiferous valves, or having the seeds on a free columella.
Seeds numerous, rarely few or solitary, ascending or pendulous ; testa crustaceous
or membranous, sometimes winged {Montinia), sometimes fringed {Godetia, Olarkia),

CI. TRAPES. 439

or hairy at tlie chalaza {Epilohium). Embryo exalbuminous, straight; cotyledons
foliaceous or a little fleshy, often auricled at the base; radicle conical, cylindric,
near the hilum, superior or inferior, rarely centripetal.

PEINCIPAL GENERA.

* Epilobium. * Jussieua. Ludwigia, * Clarkia. * CEnothera.

* Fuchsia. * Lopezia. * Godetia. * Eucliaridium. Isnardia.

* Zauschneria. Circsea. * Gaura. [Trapa.']

ANOMALOUS GENUS.
Montinia.

Onagrarieee are connected with Haloragea, Trapeca and Coinhretaceee by the valvate calyx, the
iso- or diplo-stemonoua corolla and the inferior ovary ; but Hdloragece differ in their albuminous
embryo, Trapets in the imbricate Kstivation of their corolla, and Comhretaccm in their 1-celled ovary.
Lythrariets have some affinity with Onagrariea ; in both families the calyx is valvate, the corolla iso-
or diplo-stemonous, the ovarian cells many- ovuled, the style simple, the fruit a capsule, and the embryo
straight and exalbuminous ; but Lythrariecs have a free ovary and imbricate petals. Onagrarieee are
widely diffused ; but chiefly in the extra-tropical temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, and
especially of the New World. Fuclma extends from Mexico to the Straits of Magellan and New
Zealand. Many Epilobia are found in the southern hemisphere [they are characteristic of the herba-
ceous vegetation- of New Zealand].

Onagrariea contain mucous and sometimes slightly astringent principles, and for this reason Circcea
;«<e<jaM« and the narrow-leaved Epilobia are used in some countries, especially externally; in Sweden
they eat the young shoots of the latter, Several CEnotheras, and especially (E. biennis, have a sweet
and edible root. Fuchsia excorticata has poisonous berries [P]. [Those of other species are sweet and
edible. Montinia, a Cape genus, is said to be acrid.-< Ed. J

CI. TEAPEA:;' Endlkher.

^BA

Lacustrine floating hbebs. Leaves, some submerged, others emerged : the
submerged opposite, pinnatisect (like rootlets), the upper alternate; the emerged in
a rosette, petioled, rhomboid ; 'petiole, vesicular during flowering, exstipulate.
Flowee8 axillary, solitary, shortly peduncled. Calyx 4-partite, valvate in bud,
with spiny lobes. Petals 4, inserted on an annular fleshy sinuous disk, crowning
the top of the ovary, alternate with the calyx-segments, imbricate in bud, edges
folded. Stamens 4, inserted with the petals, the alternate shorter; filaments
filiform-subulate ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, dorsiflxed, dehiscence longitudinal.
OvAKY semi- inferior, of two 1-ovuled cells ; style cylindric, simple ; stigma flattened,
obtuse; ovwUs pendulous from the top of the septum, anatropous, raphe dorsal.
Feuit coriaceous [or woody], indehiscent, crowned by the spinescent calyx-limb,
which resembles 2-4 horns, capped by the hardened disk, 1-celled and 1-seeded from
arrest. Seed inverted; testa membranous, adherent, the upper part spongy.
Embryo exalbuminous, straight ; cotyledons very unequal, one very large, thick, and
farinaceous, the other minute, squamiform, inserted a little lower ; radicle slightly

' See order Trapem, p. 439, — Ed. ^ See also under Onagrarieee, p. 439. — Ed.

440

CI. TEAPEiE.

Ti apa nalans, with its fruit.

CII. SAMYDACB^. 441

Trapa. Toung fruit (mag.). Trapa. Eipe fruit (mag.). Trapa. Petal (mag.).

bent, superior, piercing the top of the fruit in germination ; plumule very small,
concealed within the small cotyledon.

ONLY GENUS.
Trapa.

Trapea are closely related to HaloragecB (see this family). T. nutans, tlie Water Chestnut or
Calthrop, inhabits stagnant water in Central and Southern Europe. Its seeds afford a farinaceous food,
as do those of the Kashmirian T. hisinnosa, and the Cbinese 2'. bicomis, called by the natives Ling
or Ki-chi.

CII. SAMYDACE^.'

(HOMALlNEiE, Undl.)

[Trees or shuubs, glabrous, or pubescent or tomentose. Leaves petioled, simple,
alternate, distichous, quite entire or serrate, teeth sometimes gland-tipped ; stipules
email, usually deciduous or 0. Flowers g , regular, inconspicuous, raeemed,
fascicled or panicled, pedicels articulated and 2-bracteolate. Caltx coriaceous, per-
sistent, tube usually free ; lobes 3-7, imbricate or valvate. Petals as many as the
calyx-lobes, and like them, rarely more or 0, perigynous, imbricate in bud. Disk
cupular, annular or glandular. Stamens definite or indefinite, l-oo -seriate, usually
alternating with staminodes, equidistant or collected in fascicles ; filaments filiform
or capillary, free or connate ; anthers didymous or oblong, introrse or extrorse,
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet free, rarely adnate to the calyx-tube, sessile, 1-
celled ; style long or short, rarely 3 ; stigma entire or 3-fid ; ovules few or many,
inserted on 3-5 parietal placentas, sometimes confined to the upper part of the cell,
pendulous or ascending, anatropous, raphe lateral or ventral. Fruit indehiscent or
capsular, 1 -celled, l-oo -seeded, 3-5-valved at the top or throughout its length,
valves alternating with the placentas. Seeds usually few by arrest, oblong or
angled, ascending or pendulous, outer coat thin and fleshy or a torn aril ; testa
crustaceous or coriaceous, striate or rugose ; albumen copious, fleshy. Embryo axile ;
aotyledons oblong or orbicular or cordate, often foliaceous ; radicle short or long.

'This order is merely alluded to in the original regarded as a tribe, connecting Binnete with Pa^si-
work at the end of Sixineis (p. 247), to which it is florea. — En.
most closely allied, and of which it is perhaps best

442 cm. LOASE^.

Tribe I. Caseaeieji. — Leaves alternate. Calyx free, 4-5-merous. Petals 0. Stamens
6-30, inserted in one series within the calyx-tube, usually alternating with as many staminodes.
Gasearia, Lunaria, Saviyda, &c.

Tribe II. Banarej). — Leaves alternate. Calyx free, 4-5-meroiis. Petals 4-5, or more.
Stamens many, inserted in many series on a perigynous disk. Banara, Kuhlia, &c.

Tribe III. Abatiej;. — Leaves opposite, sub-opposite, or whorled. Calyx 4-partite, valvate.
Petals 0. Stamens 8 or indefinite, 1- or many-seriate, staminodes 0. Ahatia, Baleighia,
Aplicerema.

Tribe IV. Homalie^e. — Leaves alternate, rarely sub-opposite or whorled. Calyx free or
adnate to the ovary, 4-15-merous. Petals 4-15. Stamens as many as and opposite to the
petals, or if more, in bundles opposite to the petals, and alternating with glands. Homalium,
Byrsanthus, &c.

A small order intermediate between Passiflorea and Bixinece, differing from the former in habit and
the want of a corona, and from the latter in perigynism : it ia also near Violariecs and Candlacece. Ths
species are few, wholly tropical, and found in both the Eastern and Western hemispheres.

The general properties of the order are astringent, but none are of any known value ; some are
bitter, others mucilaginous, and others again are said to be acrid. — Ed.]

[For illustrations, see p. 247.]

cm. LOASEJS.
(LoASE^, Jussieu. — LoASEvE VEE^, KuntJi. — LoASACE^, Lin 11.)

Corolla polypetalous, epigynous, anisostemonous, valvate or imbricate in bud.
Stamens more numerous than the petals, rarely all fertile, the outer usually fertile
and united in bundles, the inner sterile. Ovaet inferior, 1-celled, placentation parietal.
Ovules pendulous, anatropous. Teuit a capsule. Embeto albuminous. Radicle
superior.

Erect or climbiiig heebs, often dichotomous, usually covered witli stiff often
hooked stinging bristles. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple, usually palmilobed,
exstipulate. Flowees 5 , regular, solitary or aggregated, on 2-bracteolate pedun-
cles, axillary or terminal, or leaf-opposed from tbe elongation of the axillary branch.
Calyx superior, 4-5-partite, lobes usually 3-nerved, imbricate or valvate in bud.
Petals deciduous, inserted oa the calyx, rarely equal to its lobes in number, and
alternate v^ith them, often double in number, of which the 4-5 outer are alternate
with these same lobes, and induplicate-valvate or imbricate in bud, and as many
inner opposite to the calyx-lobes, smaller than the outer, sometimes antheriferous,
generally squamiform, dorsally naked, or awned below the top. Stamens inserted
with the petals, double in number or indefinite, rarely all fertile ; the outer usually
fertile, various in number, grouped in bundles before the largest petals, the inner
sterile, differently shaped, in groups of fours, opposite to the smallest petals ; fila-
ments filiform or subulate, free or united in bundles ; anthers introrse, 2-celled,
dorsifixed, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet inferior, 1-celled, with 3-5-4 parietal

cm. LOASE^.

443

Mentzelia.

Fr^tt'S'.). Part ol ovary c^'vSally (mag.). Transverse section ol ovary (mag.).

444

GUI. LOASE^.

placentas ; style simple,
filiform or trigonous ;
stigma undivided or 3-4-
fid ; ovules usually numer-
ous, pendulous, anatropous.
Capsule contorted or
cylindric, tunicate by the
receptacular cupule (often
foliiferous), which some-
times only adheres by its
nerves, and crowned by
the calyx, rarely fleshy-
and indehiscent, usually
opening at the top, or
throughout its length by
3-5 valves alternating with
the placentas, which adhere
to it, or finally separate,
and represent alternate
valves narrower than the
true ones, and semi-semi-
niferous. Seeds usually numerous, pendulous, funicles short ; iesio. loose, reticulate ;
endopleura membranous. Embryo straight, in the axis of a fleshy albumen, and
nearly equalling it in length; cotyledons flat, small; radicle cylindric, longer than

the cotyledons, superior.

PEINCIPAL GENEEA.

*Mentzelia. * Bartonia. * Loaaa. Oajophora. [Gronovia].

Loasece approach Passi/lorets (see this family). Like CucurUtacece, they are generally climhers, with
palmilobed leaves ; their ovary is inferior and one-celled, with parietal placentation ; the ovules are
numerous and anatropous ; but Cucurhitacece have definite stamens, extrorse and usually syngenesious
anthers, diclinous 'flowers, tendrils, an exalbuminous embryo and corolla, imbricate in bud. The same
affinity exists between Loasece and Oronoviea,'^ which again are separated by their pentandrous andrcecium
[ Cevallia and other Loasecs are pentandrous], the fleshy ring crowning the ovary, their dry fruit, which
is a nucule, and their exalbuminous seed. Loasece have also an affinity with Tumeracea, in the con-
torted ffistivation, one-celled ovary, parietal placentation, numerous anatropous ovules, capsular fruit, and
straight albuminous axile embryo ; but in Tumeraceee the ovary is free, the stamens definite, the valves
of the capsule are semi-plaoentiferous, and the stem is erect.

Loaseos are all American, except the genus Fissmia, which is African. Most of them grow on the
slopes of the Cordilleras facing the Pacific Ocean, beyond the equator, but not in cold regions. The
species are little used, excepting Mentzelia hispida, which is a strong purgative, and employed by the
Mexicans in syphilitic affections.

Bartonia aui'ea.

' Gronoviece, alluded to in this work under Cmurbiiacew, conBiBts of one genus, which undoubtedly belongs to
Loasece, with the habit of CwcurbitaceiB, — ^Ed.

CIV. TUENERACE^.

445

CIV. TURN BRACED.

(LoASEAKTJM sedio, Kwnth. — Tuenebaoeje, B.C.)

Tu-nnera.
Stamen (mag.).

Turnei'a.
Pistil (mag.).

CoEOLLA polypetalous, perigynous, isostemonous, contorted
in bud. Stamens 5, sub-hypogynous. Ovaet free, l-celled,
with 3 parietal placentas. Capsule with 3 semi-seminiferous
valves. Seeds strophiolate. Embeto albuminous.

Heebs, or UJsrDBRSHBUBS, or SHEUBS, chiefly of tropical
America, with simple rarely stellate hairs. Leaves alternate,
simple, petioled, entire or toothed, rarely pinnatifid, exstipu-
late, but often furnished at the base with 2 lateral glands.
Flowees g , regular, axillary, sessile or peduncled ; peduncle
free or adnate to the petiole, simple, 2-bracteolate, or
jointed below the middle and ebracteate, very rarely branch-
ing and many-flowered. Caltx coloured, deciduous, S-fid, imbricate in bud.
Petals 6, inserted near the base or in the threat of the calyx, alternate with its

Turnera.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

446

CV. PASSIFLOEE^.

lobes, shortly clawed, equal, contorted in bud, deciduous. Stamens 6, inserted
at tbe bottom of the calyx-tube and opposite to its lobes; filaments free, piano-
subulate; anthers introrse, 2-celled, erect, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaet free,
1-celled, -with 3 nerviform placentas alternating with the sutures of the carpels ;
styles 3, terminal, opposite to the placentas ; stigmas 3 or 6, fan-shaped ; ovules
numerous, ascending, anatropous. Capsule with 3 semi-placentiferous valves.
Seeds numerous, 2-seriate, ascending, cylindric, curved ; testa crustaceous ; hilum
basilar; raphe filiform; chalaza projecting; strophiolus membranous, appressed to
the base of the seed on the side of the raphe. Embryo straight, in the axis of a
fleshy albumen ; cotyledons sub-elliptic, plano-convex ; radicle reaching to the hilum,

inferior.

GBNEEA.

* Turnera.

Ertlichia.

Wormskioldia.

This small family is near ionseie (which see). It has many aifinities with Malesherhiacem ; but
these differ in their stamens, which are hypogynous as in PassiflorecB, their dorsal styles alternating with
the placentas, their undivided stigmas, and their non-strophiolate and pendulous seeds. [Turnera is alaro-e
American genus with one Cape species ; Erhlichia is also American, and Wormskioldia Asiatic]

Tiirneracem possess little-used tonic properties, due to astringent and mucous principles, with a
small quantity of volatile oil.

CV, PASSIFLORE^, Jussieu.

Perianth free, petaloid. Stamens sometimes inserted at the hase, or on the
throat of the perianth, sometimes hypogynous, united with the gynophore. Ovaet usually

CV. PASSIFLOEE^.

447

Passifiora.
Transverse section of seed
(mag.).

PassiJitM'a.
Vertical section ol ovary (mag.)-

Passifiora. Diagram.

Passifiora.

Transverse section of

ovai-y (mag.).

stipitate,.with 3-5 parietal placentas. Feuit a herry or capsule. Embeto albu-
minous. — Leaves alternate.

Stem herbaceous or woodj, generally climbing, very rarely arborescent {Ryania,
Smeathmannia). Leaves alternate, sometimes simple, entire, lobed or palmate, some-
times compound, imparipinnate ; stipules geminate at the base of the petioles, rarely
; tendrils axillary, arising from sterile pedicels. Elowees 5 , or imperfect through
arrest, regular ; peduncles usually 1-flowered, jointed at the flower, and [usually]
furnished at the joint with a 3-phyllous or -partite involucel. Pbeianth petaloid,
monophyllous ; tube urceolate or tubular, sometimes very short ; limb 4-6-partite or
8-10-partite and 2-seriate, the outer segments sometimes herbaceous, equivalent to
a calyx, the inner more coloured, equivalent to a corolla ; throat usually crowned by
one or many series of subulate filaments ; gynophore cylindric, more or less elon-
gating, supporting the pistil and stamens. Stamens usually equal in number to
the [inner] perianth-segments, and opposite to them, or very rarely alternate, some-
times double the number, inserted either at the bottom of the perianth, or at the base
or top of the gynophore ; filaments subulate or filiform, free or monadelphous and

448

CV. PASSIFLOEEiE.

slieatlLing the gynoptore ; anthers introrse, 2-celled, usually versatile, dehiscence
longitudinal. Ovary more or less stipitate, very rarely sessile, 1-celled; styles equal
in number to the placentas, cohering at the base, distinct at the top.

Malesheriia.
One sepal and two petals (ma?.).

MaUsherhia.
Andi-oecmm and pistil.

MaUsh&'hia.

Seed, entire and cut vertically

(mag.).

Malesherbia,

Transverse section of

ovary (mag.).

spreading ; stigmas clavate or peltate, some-
times sub-2-lobed ; ovules numerous, ana-
tropous, 1-2-seriate, attached to 3-5 parietal
linear placentas by longer or shorter funicles,
enlarged into a cupule at the umbilicus.
Fettit 1-celled, an indehiscent berry, or a
capsule with 3-5 semi-placentiferous valves.
Seeds numerous ; funicle dilated into a
pulpy cupuliform or saccate aril ; testa crustaceous, foveolate, easily separable from
the membranous endopleura, which bears a longitudinal raphe. Embeto straight,
occupying the axis of a fleshy dotted albumen ; cotyledons foliaceous, flat ; radicle
cylindric, near the hilum, centrifugal.

[The following is the classification of Passijlorece made for the ' Genera Plan-
tarum ' : —

Teibb I. MALESBEEBiKJi. — Flowers § ■ Calyx-tube elongate, lobes triangular-subulate.
Corona and corolla membranous. Stamens 6, adnate to the gynophore. Styles 3, remote at
the base. Seeds oblong. (South America.) Malesheriia, Gynopleura.

Tribe II. Passifloeb^. — Flowers § . Corona simple or double. Petals herbaceous.
Styles 1 or 3—5, connate at the base. Seeds flattish, *Passiflora, *Tacsonia, Paropsia,
SmeatJimamiia, &o.

Teibe III. M0DECCE.1;. — Flowers § i or if unisexual perianths of the sexes alike. Corona
small or 0. Petals usually included in the calyx-tube. Connective of the anthers usually
prod-uced. (Old World.) *Modecea, Opliiocaulon, Machadoa.

Teibe IV. AscHAKiEai. — Flowers unisexual, perianth of the sexes alike. Calyx very short.
Corolla campanulate, 3-5-fid. Stamens inserted on the throat or base of the corolla. (South
Africa.) Ceratosicrjos, Ascharia.

Teibe V. Papatacej?.' — Flowers unisexual, or 5 and unisexual in the same inflorescence,
perianths of the sexes dissimilar. Corona 0. Stamens 2-seriate, inserted on the corolla-tube.
Carlca, Jacaratia.']

CVI. CUCUEBITACE^. 449

A. L. de Jussieu placed Paasifloreee in the family of Cucurhitaceai, whicli tliey approach in their
climbing stem furnished with tendrils, their alternate palminerved leaves, dou